Introduction

Insect pests, diseases and weeds are interlinked and complement

each other. Individually, each one of these is responsible for a
considerable loss by itself but if one remains neglected, it gives
rise to the infestation of the other. Some insects secrete a sugary
substance on which fungi develop. Weeds serve as the alternate
host for rust and other fungi, and also harbour insect pests.
Therefore, for efficient insect pests and disease management, it is
necessary to also manage weeds. Regular removal of weeds is a
type of preventive control as it minimises competition of nutrients,
prevents hibernating pests, as well as, facilitates proper aeration
and application of pesticides. The key behind the success of insect
pests, diseases and weed management lies in early and perfect de-
tection of maladies and their management. Eradicating and treat-
ing sources of inocula in the field are important preventive
measures. Strengthen the crop by maintaining soil fertility, drain-
age and aeration check infection from soil, and develop resistance
in the crop against pest attack. Infections in the crop may be soil-
borne, aerial or seed-borne. Similarly, some insect pests suck the
cell-sap of the crop, some chew the foliage and floral parts, some
bore into the stems, buds and fruits, while there are insects where
their larvae mine the leaves and sometimes even the stems. Each
of these problems and infestations need specific approach to-
wards prevention and control. For an effective strategy on pest
management, it is essential to gather technical know-how on iden-
tification of the pests. This will be useful for appropriate selection
of pesticide with its specific dose, method and time of application.
 INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

Insect pests
A thorough knowledge of morphology, nature of damage, vulnerable stage of pest, dam-
aging stage, pre-disposing factors, susceptible stages of host, natural enemies and pred-
ators help in preventing and controlling them effectively. All insects belong to the class
Insecta. Their body is segmented and mostly comprises three main segments, i.e., head,
thorax and abdomen. Insects have two pair of wings and three pairs of legs. According to
structure of wing (pteron), they are classified into different orders, such as Coleoptera,
Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera, etc. All these
insects belonging to different orders may have different life cycles with different damag-
ing stages and nature of damage. With a view to accomplish a better pest management,
all these factors are important, but the most important is how (nature of damage) and
when (damaging stage) they attack the host.

Table 6.1: Types of insects

Order Characteristics Damaging stage

Diptera black• A single pair of wings to fly, the hind wings Adult and maggots
flies, mosquitoes being reduced to club-like balancing organs,
and flies (Fig. 6.1) hence, is known as halter and balancer.
•The mouth parts of these insects are piercing
and sucking type.
• Life cycle comprises four distinct life stages —
egg, larva (maggot), pupa and adult.

Coleoptera Beetles• These insects have ‘sheathed wings’. Their fore- The larva known as ‘grub’ is the
and weevils wings are hardened into a protective covering damaging stage.
(Fig.6.2) over the hind wings, which are membranous,
and the soft dorsal abdominal wall.
• Egg, larva (grub), pupa and adult are distinct
stages of life cycle.

Hemiptera true • Insects belonging to this order have Nymphs and adults
bugs, hoppers half portion of the forewings hard and aphids, near the base while the remain-
ing half scale insects, membranous.
etc. • These insects may have uniform
(Fig. 6.3) wings (homoptera) or different wings
(heteroptera). Their young ones are called ‘nymphs’, who resemble, more or less, their adults.
• These have piercing and sucking type of mouth parts.
• Life cycle comprises eggs, nymphs and adults.
Hymenoptera • The adults have four transparent Larvae and adults bees, wasps, membranous
wings.
ants, saw • Their mouth parts are adapted for flies, etc. chewing. Mouth parts of some species
are
developed into a lengthy proboscis to suck liquids, such as nectar.
• The females can be identified by the presence of typical sting.
• Their life cycle comprises eggs, larvae, pupa and adults.
Isoptera • These insects have a well-distributed Workers feed on cellulose termites class sys-
tem that consists of queen, king
soldiers and workers. Hence, these are also called ‘social insects’. Nymph stage is the longest stage.
Nymphs moult into workers, and later into soldiers.
• Life cycle is completed in distinct phases of egg, nymph and adult stage.

Lepidoptera • These insects have two pairs of large Caterpillar butterflies and scale-covered
beautiful wings.
moths • Caterpillar is the damaging stage with
chewing type of mouth parts, though its adults have sucking type of mouth parts which are known as
‘haustellum’.
• Haustellum consists of two tubes held together used for sucking nectar.
• Life cycle has four stages, i.e., eggs, larvae (caterpillars), pupae and adults.
Orthoptera • Insects of this group have parallel-sided Nymphs and adults grasshoppers, structure
of the front wings. crickets and • Nymph stage is also called ‘hoppers’. locusts Grasshoppers,
crickets and locusts
belong to this group. Crickets have long antennae, while grasshoppers have short antennae. They have
biting and chewing type of mouth parts.
• Life cycle includes egg, nymph and adult stages.
Thysanoptera • These are minute and slender insects hairy Adult, nymphs
thrips feather flat paper-like body with ‘fringed
(Fig. 6.8) wings’.
• These have asymmetrical mouth parts.
Flight capable thrips have two pairs of
strap-like wings.
• Their legs, usually, terminate in bladder-
like structure.
• Life cycle includes eggs, nymphs, pupae
and adults.

Diptera Coleptera Hemiptera

Hymenoptera Isoptera Lepidoptera

Orthroptera : Thysanoptera
Nature of insect damage
Chewing and cutting tissues of the
host
These insects have biting and chewing
type of mouth parts and may cut, chew
and bite the tissues of the host. Infesta-
tion of such insect pests is confirmed
through this type of damages found on
various parts of the host. Mostly larvae
and in some cases, adults
are responsible for such damages. Chewing and cutting

Larvae of the Lepidoptera (caterpillars) and the Coleoptera (grubs) are well-
known damaging stages that cause such type of damage. Maggots and im-
mature stage of flies feed on flowers of chrysanthemum
and many other plants. Sunflower maggots infest the stem and cause col-
lapse of the plant. Larvae of painted lady butterfly, yellow woolly bear,
checker spot butterfly, diamondback moth, etc., cause such damages to or-
namental crops severely (Fig. 6.9).

Mining in the leaf

Larvae (maggots) of certain leaf minors by min-
ing get inserted between upper and lower sur-
face of the leaf. Irregular tunnel-like structure
over the leaf surface is observed due to the feed-
ing of inside tissues. Such infestation may be
observed in ornamentals, such as chrysanthe-
mum, dahlia, dianthus, salvia, verbena, etc. Leaf minor
This can be identified by the creamy-yellow lines formed Leaf minor on the
leaves due to tunnelling.

Boring in the host

Infestation of these pests can be identified by the presence of holes and
bores that they make in several plant parts. Beetles, weevils, grubs, caterpil-
lars and maggots are well known that bore into the host and feed on internal
tissues. Caterpillars of armyworm bore into flower buds and feed inside.
Flowering crops, such as China aster, chrysanthemum, dahlia, delphinium,
iris, phlox and salvia, etc., are attacked by most of the borers. Burdock bor-
er (moth), iris borer, stalk borer and European corn borer are common bor-
ers found in ornamentals.

Yellowing and drying of foliage

A wide range of sucking insect pests is responsible for this type of damage.
The pest sucks cell sap of the host plant parts (leaves, shoots, floral buds,
sepals, petals) to the extent that these are unable to cope up with plant
growth and express yellowing, and premature drying or falling off. In most
cases, the growth of plant stunts and the plants become unproductive.
Nymphs and adults of aphids, jassids, whiteflies, thrips and bugs are
found associated with such damages to almost all ornamentals. Sucking
pests are supposed to be dangerous as most of them act as vectors and
transmit viral and mycoplasma-like diseases, and aphids and whiteflies se-
crete honey dew-like substance on which sooty moulds are developed.
Thrips feed on sap and cause white patches on petals and leaves of most
of the indoor and outdoor ornamentals. Tarnished plant bugs feed on many
flowers. The insect sucks the cell sap and introduces toxic saliva into the
plant. It is a serious pest of calendula, China aster, chrysanthemum, cos-
mos, dahlia, daisy, gladiolus, poppy, salvia, sunflower, verbena, zinnia, and
many other ornamentals. Infestation can result in injury to flower buds and
dropping of unopened flowers. Two-spotted spider mites infest many com-
mercial ornamentals.

Galls
Sometimes, mites suck cell sap and produce abnormal growth of pimple-like
structure on the leaves. Tiny wasps also sometimes produce galls on leaves,
stems and twigs of roses and other plants.

Integrated Pest Management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is essential to deal with certain diseases,
like wilts, and insect pests, such as green worms and spotted worms, by a
number of approaches. The disease and insect pests, if not handled in time
can cause huge losses to the
crop. Chemicals used against such pests not only have limitations but might
have side effects on the plant. Frequent application of insufficient doses of
such pesticide build resistance within the organism. Excessive use has re-
sidual effect in the crop, which also become a major cause of pollution. Pes-
ticides also inhibit pollinators and predators in the field, which results in
reduction of yield.
IPM includes involvement of measures, such as cultural, physical, me-
chanical, chemical and biological methods against pests.

Insect pest control

Anything that interferes with the life of insect pests and makes them difficult
to survive in the field or on plants either by killing them or through repelling
so that their population is reduced is known as insect pest control. Various
methods for their control are employed.
Cultural methods
Tillage: Ploughing or flooding during summer season exposes hibernating
stages of insect pests inside the soil. Stages, like eggs, larvae, pupae of some
insects are found hidden deep inside the soil. These are exposed to their
natural enemies and the hot Sun due to tillage operation.
Clean cultivation: Weeds and bunds of the field are important foci for hiber-
nating insect pests. Through cleaning of bunds and regular removing of
weeds, pest population is minimised. Crop residues of previous crop must
be destroyed.
Crop isolation: Crop of the same group or same families, if grown close by,
increases the availability of host and this may increase the pest population.
If the crop is isolated at a sufficient distance, the movement of pests from
one field to another can be avoided, so their control becomes easier.
Altering sowing or planting time: This is a dodging strategy by which the
host or its suitable stage is made unavailable for the pest, required for infes-
tation.
Crop rotation: Long crop rotation minimises the invasion of host-specific in-
sect pests.
Eradication of alternate hosts: Weeds or other plants harbouring insect
pests in the absence of the major host, if these are removed, break the chain
of host availability and control the pest population.
Planting trap crops: Trap crop of less economic value is planted before plant-
ing the main crop to attract insect pests towards it and the crop along with
pest is destroyed completely before the insect reaches the reproductive
phase.
Exclusion of infested plant or part: Removal and destruction of infested
plants and their parts reduce population and foci of pest in the field.

Physical methods
These methods are mostly useful in controlling pests in a closed environ-
ment, like storage or greenhouse or pot plant. This includes moderation in
temperature, radiation and altering humidity of the structure. Drier condi-
tions are unfavourable for pests. Similarly, low temperature of storage inhib-
its infestation. UV and γ-rays also prove lethal for pests.
Mechanical methods
Removal of infested parts and insect galleries also minimises their popula-
tion.
Hand picking and destroying: The insects or their eggs can be handpicked
and destroyed.
Trenching the field: This causes certain insects to be confined to a patch
with no movement elsewhere as locusts.
Screening: Wire mesh protects crops from birds, moths and rodent attack.
Sticky bands: Ants, white ants and other tiny insects stick on the bands and
die there without moving anywhere afterwards. Different colours attract in-
sects differently, so coloured papers are pasted on a card board and sticky
material is spread over it. Yellow colour attracts white flies.
Light traps: Phototropic insects such as borers
(buds, pods and fruits) are attracted to light during night. Light source with
a trap of kerosene or some pesticide solution will trap such insects and pro-
vide effective control.

Biological control of insect pest

Friendly insects, bacteria and fungi are used in biological control as bio-
agents. Trichograma, Crysopa, Nabid bug, pentatomid bug, big-eyed bug, la-
dybird beetle (Epilachna), tiger beetle, robber fly, cirafid fly, orius bug,
tachnid fly, fruit fly, spider and mantids predate over insect pests, and
hence, they are known as friendly insects. Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) bacte-
rium controls spotted bollworm, pink bollworm, green bollworm, etc.
Spore formulation of Verticilliumlacani at the rate of 2.5–5g/litre of water
is used to control larvae and nymphs of sucking pests. Whitish growth of
Beauveria at the rate of 5-10g/litre of water is found to be effective against
beetles and their caterpillars. Similarly, Metarrhizum greenish growth of the
fungus covers the caterpillars and controls beetles, flies and hoppers. Fun-
gus Hirsutela is effective against mites. HaNPv Virus (Heliothisnucleo poly
hydrosis virus) is found effective against bollworm. Various commercial
products of above mentioned formulation are available in the market.
Chemical method
Use of chemicals to kill or repel insect pests comes under this method (Table
6.2).
Dust: Dry formulation with inert carrier. Available concentrations are from
1–10%, e.g., Quinolphos 4D, etc.
Wettable (WP), dispersible powder (DP): Dry formulation but can be applied
with water, e.g., Carbaryl 75 wp.
Granules: Dry formulation, but particle size is more than found in powder.
Applied in soil, e.g., Phorate 10G, Carbofuran 3G, etc.
Emulsifible concentrates (EC): Liquid formulation with emulsifiable agents,
which form emulsion in water. Use for aerosol or foliar spray. Most of the in-
secticides are available in this formulation, e.g., Cypermethrin 5EC, Mala-
thion 50EC, etc.
Water soluble concentrates (WSC): Easily soluble in water, e.g., Monocroto-
phos 36WSC, etc.
Fumigants: They are found in liquid or solid form, e.g., methyl bromide,
Aluminum phosphide, but these fumigants act in a gaseous state and are
used in stored grain.
Table 6.2: Popular pesticides and their dilutions

Technical Active in- Formulation Dose Use

name gredient
Carbaryl 50 Powder 0.1% Foliar
spray,
soil
Dicofol 18.5 Liquid 0.25% Foliar
spray
Diclorvos 76 Liquid 0.1% Foliar
Dimethoate 30 Liquid 0.05% Foliar

Dinocap 25 Liquid 0.05% Foliar

Malathion 50 Liquid 0.1% Foliar
Phorate 10 Granule 0.1% Soil