26.

Communication
Theme
OTo understand the process and mechanism of communication in or
garisational context.
OTo understand the barriers to effective communication.
measures
OTo understand the features of effective communication and
to develop effective communication system.
Contents
UConcept of comnmunication
O Communication process
OCommunication symbols
O Oral communication
O Written comnmunication

communication
ONon-verbal and pictorial
O Communication network
O Formal channel
OInformal channel
ODirection of communication flow
Barriers in communication

OSemantic barriers
O Emotional or psychological barriers
O Organisational barriers
O Personal barriers
OMaking communication effective
D Essentials of effective communication system
O Steps for making commnunication effective

Communication is as necessary to an organisation as the blood stream to a

person.
Anonymous
666 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
MANAGMENT
It is an obvious fact that communication is such a vital part of each of
contributes heavily to the success or failure of every human activity. It is us harthat it
name ahuman activity in which communication does not play an important 0
But such astatement has to be even more true in formal organisations in wh
people assemble to achieve their common objectives through their coordinat
efforts. Individuals in the organisation may perform different activities but thev
functionally interrelated. The working and maintenance of these
possible only through communication which provides for exchange of informat is relationships
and sharing of ideas. Communication becomes a necessary element in huma
relationships by providing the foundation for human interaction. Communication
thus, may be regarded as basicto the functioning of the organisation. In its absence
the organisation would cease to exist. This chapter discusses the various aspects of
communication so that suitable action can be taken to mnake it effective in the
organisation.

Concept of Communication
The word communicatiorn has been derived from the Latin
means common. However, besides commonality, word communis which
concept of transfer,, meaning, and information. There is widecommunication involves the
communication theorists in respect of definition of communication disagreement among
context in which the word communication is used. It because of the
is used as a process which
involves various elements through which two or more
among themselves. Sometimes,it is used in the persons share meanings
context of a particular element of the
process, say message, or the means through which the message is
these contextual differences, there is lack of passed. Because of
For example, Dance analysed ninety-five definitionscommon definition of communication.
at the conclusion that "the concept of of communication and arrived
is too loose and even includes communication as reflected in these definitions
definition of communication very contradictory componernts so as to make the precise
difficult" Based on the review of the various
definitions, he offered his own definition as follows:
"Communication is defined as the
via the transmission of symbolic process by which people seek to share meaning
messages'"
This type of definition is more useful in
and Davis have defined management. For example, Newstrom
communication as follows:
"Communication is the transfer of information from one
Son. It is a person to another per
3 Or reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts,
and valueets thoughts, feelings,
Thus, from organisations' point of
which two or more persons come to view, communication is the process througn
themselves. This definition involves threeexchange ideas and understanding amOn3
aspects in communication:
1. There is something which is
which is the subject-matter oftransmitted
communication.
such as information, ideas, feelings, er.
However, the subject
is not communication as is
understood sometimes but is only an matter itse
communication
2 In order that
process. element
the process of communication is
volved: the sender of the subject-matter completed, two
of communication and itsparties receiver.
he
[Link], "The Concept of Communication", Journal
21bid. of Communication, Vol. 20, 1970, pp. 201-210.
"John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, "Organisational Behapiour:
McGraw-Hill, 1997, p. 48. Humon Behaviour at Work", New Yoh
COMMUNICATION
667

sender of the message mnust consider the receiver both while structuring his
message from a technical standpoint as well as in delivering it. When the
receiver is not considered, either there is no response or there is wrong response.
3. There is an element of understanding in communication. Sharing of understand
ing is possible only when the person to whom the message is transmitted, un
derstands it in the same sense in which the sender of message wants him to
understand. Thus, communication involves something more than mere trans
mission of message or transmission and physical receipt thereof. The correct
interpretation and understanding of the message is important from the point of
view of organisational effectiveness. The greater the degree of understanding,
the more is the likelihood that the human action will proceed in the direction of
accomplishing goals.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication has been defined as a process. The term process refers to
identifi
directed towards the
able flow of information through interrelated stages of analysis
achievement of an objective. In the case of social actions, the concept of process is
relationships are seen as dynamic,
dynamic rather than static in which events and
both affecting and being affected by
continuous and flexible; a dynamic interactionprocess--action, a continuous change
many variables. There are four elements in the or result. The comunication
time, anda goal
in time, advancement or progress over studied in sort of stop
and, thus, cannot be
being a social process is a dynamic one sequential arrangemernt in communication can
action. Notwithstanding this, some 26.1.
stop action, as shown in Figure
be thought of treating it as a sort of
Receiver Decoding Message
Encoding Channel
Sender Message

Feedback

Communication process with feedback

FIGURE 26.1:
encoding, channel.
elements of communication are sender, message, elements:
Various
feedback. Let us have a brief
look at these
receiver, decoding,and
is the person who intends to make contact with the
Sender. Sender of the message organisational context, sender
passing the message to other persons. In organisationa!
obiective of peer, Or any Other person. The
subordnate, a
may be a superior, a determines the
direction of flow of communication in an
of the sender
position
organisation.
subject-matter of the communication
which is intended to be
This is the the sender. The message may be in the form of ideas,
Message. rreceiver from
passed to the orders, etc.
views, suggestions,
Opinions, feelings,
subject-matter of fcommunication is abstract andintangible, its
Since the
Encoding the use of certain symbols such as words, pictures, gestures,
transmission requiresconverting the. message into communication symbols is known as
etc. The process of
encoding the sender throoh
Channel. Message encoded into Symbols is transmited by
channel ike written form, personal contact, phone call, etc. depending on the sihua
parties-sender and receiver.
tion of two
Rereiyer is the person to whom the symbols are transmitted. Like sender.
he mav bea superior, subordinate, peer, or any other person in the organisation
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
668
MANAGEMENT
Decoding. Decoding is the reverse of encoding. The receiver
receives the
subject-
matter of communication in the form of communication symbols in which
sender has encoded his message. The receiver decodes these symbols into message.
Feedback. Feedback is necessary to ensure that the receiver has received the mo
sage and understood it in the same sense as the sender intended. Further, it acte
an energising factor, thereby changing the course of action in the communication
TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION
Often it is commented that "management is a two-way traffic; it is based on an
effective machinery of communication." Two-way communication, made possibla
by feedback, has a back-and-forth pattern. In two-way communiation, the sender
sends the message and the receiver's response comes back to the sender. The result is
adeveloping play-by-play situation in which the sender can adjust the next message
to fit the previous response of the receiver. The role of feedback is often underesi.
mated because of the perception of the sender that once he has sent the message, his
act of communication is over. However, this perception may be misleading because
feedback plays important role in communication. For example, Sigband has viewed
that:
"It (feedback) permits expressive action on the part of one and/or more persons and
the conscious and unconscious perception of such action. Perhaps one of the most
important factors in this network is feedback which is vital if the originator and
receiver want to secure some level of effectiveness in the communication process".
Two-way comunication is better than one-way communication in the following
respects:
1. Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way
feedback allows the sender to refine his communication so communication. The
that it becomes pre
cise and accurate.
2. Receiver's self-confidence is higher in two-way communication
ted to seek clarification from the sender. as he is permit
However, it does not mean that two-way
is more relevant in the context of interpersonalcommunication is always preferable. It
communication. For example, giving
an instruction to a subordinate by the superior and receiving feedback
and understanding is a case where two-way communication is almostfor its clarity
against this, when the communication is for providing information ofa amust. As
nature to the employees, such as information about holiday on a specific day,general
way communicatioin is hardly required. two
Problems in Two-way Communication
Two-way communication is not exclusively beneficial; it may create problems. There
are two potential problems that may emerge out of two-way
sation and cognitive dissonance. communication: pola
Polarisation. Two persons may strongly disagree about some
realise it until they establish two-way communication. When items but may no
they express thet
viewpoints, they may become even more polarised, taking even more extreme PO
tion. Argyris has found that when threatened with the potential embarrassment o
losing an argument, people tend to abandon logic and rationality, and engage
defensive reasoning. They blame others, selectively gather and use data, seek t
remain in control, and suppress negative feelings.
Norman B. Sigband, Communication for Management, Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1969, p. 8.
PChris Argyris, "Good Communication that Blocks Learning," Harvard Business Review, July-August, 199,
pp. 77-85.
COMMUNICATION 669

Cognitive Dissonance. Another problem in two-way communication may occur in

the form of cognitive dissonance. It is the internal conflict and anxiety that occurs
when people receive information incompatible with their value systems, prior deci
sions, or other information they may have. In two-way communication, this gets
hightened.

Significance of Communication
Communication is required in every human interaction whether in the
organisational context or otherwise. The significance of communication in the
context of modern complex organisation is even greater. These organisations being
designed on the basis of specialisation and division of labour constitute a large
number of persons. The larger the size of the organisation, the greater generally is
the degree of specialisation and division of labour and hence, the more urgent is the
need for coordination. This coordination requires mutual understanding about the
organisational goals, the mode of their achievement and the interrelationship
between the work being performed by various individuals; and all this can be
achieved through communication only. Effective communication, as such, is
essential in any type of huma i grouping. As Haney has put it, "communication is
imminently essential in business, in government, military organisations, hospitals, It is
schools, communities, homes-anywhere people deal with one another.
difficult, in fact, to imagine any kind of interpersonal activity which does not depend
upon communication."o The significance of communication may be seen in terms of
various functions which it performs which are as under:
[Link]--people
InformationorFunction. Information is vital for the functioning of any living sys
organisation. Living systems can achieve some viability in their
environments only to the extent that they have some appropriate means of acquiring
and processing information about themselves and their environments. This infor
mation is used as the basis for orientation to those environments and for determin
ing behaviour. The technology of communication has greatly enhanced man's
information-generating capacities. It is our ability to affect each other communica
tively which has so greatly increased the importance of the information giving and
receiving aspect of our existence. As a consequence, we can create purposive or
ganisations of people variously committed to some common endeavour. It is partic
ularly the exístence of such purposive organisations which gives rise to the
importance of information-giving and receiving, No organisation can fulfil its pur
pOse except to the extent that its communication process furthers its movement
towards its specified goals in some way.
2. Command and Instructive Function. Communication performs command and
instructive function. Those who are hierarchically superior--whether in family,
business,civil, or military--often initiate communication not only for the purpose of
informing their subordinates but often for the purpose of telling them what to do,
directing them, or commanding their behaviour in some way. The command and
instructive function of commnunication is more observable in formal organisations
than it is in informal organisations. Individuals who are hierarchicaliy superior
within ancertain
organisation structure are both privileged and obligated to command and
task-related behaviours of their subordinates.
similar obligation and privilege vis-4-vis their own Those same subordi-
control

have a
nate the top to the bottom of the orgarnisational [Link], and so
procedures, even performance appraisals all Orders, directives,
requests,
function as command mes-
sages.

William V. Haney, Communication and Organisational Behaviour,

6 Homewood, IlIl.: Richard D. Irwin, 1983.
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
670
MANAGEMENT
3. Influence and Persuasive Function. Of all that has been written about com
munication over the years, perhaps more has been written about the persuasive
function of communication than about any other aspect. There are those who
take the position that allcommunication is persuasive in character. However. in
management, influence and persuasion taken together represent one of the sey.
eral functions as other functions are equally important. Managers can influence
others either through coercively or communicatively. Since influence through
coercion has its limitations in organisational setting, managers can do well to
influence others through effective communication. In fact, leadership is more
effective than exercise of authority in getting the maximum from the employees,
Leadership, to a very great extent, depends upon how the manager communi
cates with his employees arnd others who may be related with the organisation in
one way or the other.
4. Integrative Function. Communication performs the integrative function by
relating various components of the organisation and maintaining equilibrium
among them. In the broadest sernse, the integrational aspect includes all
behavioural operations which: (i) serve to keep the system in operation, (ii)serve
to regulate the interactional process, and (iii) relate the particular context to the
larger context of which the particular interaction is but a special situation. The
communication that occurs has the consequence of energising, organising, and
channellising the behaviour of living systems. However, if the messages we
create in order to comprehend our environment were not cumulative and
self-organising in some way, it would be impossible to gain or to maintain the
necessary degree of equilibrium or stable state relations with various aspects of
environment. For example, at the larger than face-to-face human groups, some
formalisations take place and integrative functions are provided in part by
bureaucratisation, proceduralisation, institutionalisation, etc. In fact, when a
social system exceeds the integrative limits of face-to-face interactions, the
necessary integrative mechanisms become embedded in that social system's
literature, art, folklore, mythology, beliefs, mores, institutional practices, etc.

Communication Symbols
The subject-matter of communication-message, idea, suggestion, etc-are not in
physical form but in abstract and intangible form; its transmission and receipt re
quire the use of certain symbols. The subject-matter of the communication is en
coded into these symbols which are then transmitted as we have seen in
communication process. Communication symbols may be in the form of words ei
ther in oral or in written form or may be in other forms wihch incude non-verbal
and pictorial forms. Each of these symbols may be either used exclusively or two or
more of these can be used to supplement each other. For example, in face-to-face
communication, diagrams and charts may be used to clarify what one is talking
about. Similarly, facial expression and movement of the parts of the body may aSO
be used to emphasise a particular point. Let us see how these symbols contribute in
communication process.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Words are the most comnmon symbols of communication and that too in oral torm
both in organisational and non-organisational contexts. In organisational settn8
many employees spend more than 50 per cent of their time in some form of Oral
communication. In oral communication, both the parties to the communicattot
process--sender and receiver--exchange their ideas through oral words either n
face-to-face communication or through electronic devices like telephone etc.
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
672
MANAGEMENT
Taking into account the merits and demerits of oral communication, it
observed that it is effective in some cases whileineffectivein others. Oral can be
cation is useful where the subject-matter is complex and a final decision commni-
deliberations from the persons concerned. Moreover, in the requires
day-to-day organisatio-
nal operations, where routine activities are involved, oral communication is
relied
upon. Where the messages are to be kept for future reference, oral communication
not relevant and written communication is used.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication is in the form of letters, circulars, notes, manuals. ha...
magazines, etc. in the organisational context. Besides, there may be diaries,
Sugges-
tion system, etc. where written communication is used. Like oral communication,
part of the total communication of an organisation is in written form. With
invention of internet, instant writtern communication has been facilitated.

Merits of Written Communication

In various situations, written comnunication is used because it has certain merts. In
one way, all the demerits of oral communication are the merits of written communi
cation as both are opposite to each other. In general, written communication has the
following merits:
1. Authenticity. Written communication is authentic whether it is in the forms of
orders or organisational manuals. When any thing comes in writing, people tend to
take it more seriously and it becomes binding on them. Therefore, it has much force
as compared to oral communication.
2. Proof for Future Reference. Written communication provides
reference and this is the biggest merit of written communication. proof for future
In the society, we
learn lot of things about the past because of written communication. In
ganisational context, many records are maintained for future reference such asthe polior
cies, procedures, rules, performance records, employee information, and so on. Al
such records are in written form. Besides, many orders must be given in writing tor
record purpose.
[Link] to Distance Places. Written communication is useful in send
ing and receiving messages at distarnce places where the contact may not be possiDe
through alternative sources. Thus, it saves time and cost to that
system and internet has provided facilities to send written extent. Presently, lax
places. messages to dista

Demerits of Written Communication

Like oral communication, written communication has certain limitations which are
as follows:
1. Costly. Written communication is
cation. Cost involved is both in terms aofcostly
time affair as compared
and money. to oralwritten
ln drafting con com-
munication, much more time is involved because it has to be drafted more precisely,
clearly and authentically leaving no Scope for ambiguity. This requires much more
time to structure the message than what it may require in oral communication.
Moreover, in preparing written communication, cost is involved on stationery etc.
2. Overemphasis on Formalisation. Written formal
communication becomes
means. While some degree of formalisation is essential, its overemphasis hampers
efficiency. In bureacratic organisations where too much emphasis is put on formal
written communication, inefficiency emerges because the efforts are directed to-
wards maintaining written records rather than achieving results.
COMMUNICATION
673

3. Lack of Secrecy. Sometimes, communication requires secrecy particularly when

the information is a sensitive one. In the written form, the message comes in
record
and leakage of that may be detrimerntal to the organisation concerned. Of late, there
have been cyber crimes in the form of decoding the confidential information of
others transmitted through internet which is in written form.
Like oral communication, various merits and demerits of written communica
tion suggest that it cannot be followed in all situations. Where the information is to
be maintanined for future reference, written communication is the only possibility.
Similarly, where the message requires authenticity and formalisation, it should be
communicated in writing. In day-to-day operations, insistence on written communi
cation is not desirable.
NON-VERBAL AND PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION
Besides words in oral or written form, message can be transmitted without using
words. Such methods may be either non-verbal in the form of gestures or pictures
including graphs and diagrams. Most of the time, these are used alongwith
communication through words though occasionally, these can be used execlusively.
For example, in news telecast meant for deafs, the news reader does use words but
communicates through fingers and other parts of the body. However, in
organisational communication, these are used as supplements to verbal
communication. Techniques used in non-verbal and pictorial communication are
different. Therefore, both will be discussed separately.
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is very important in both organisational and non-or
ganisational settings. Look at how dumbs communicate without using a single
word; how the dancer of Bharatnatyam dance conveys the meanings through her
actions from different parts of the body; how a manager emphasises a particular
pointby moving his hands or making specific facial expressions. These things con
vey meaning sometimes more effectively than words. Non-verbal communication
can take the form of body movements, the intonations or emphasis which we give to
words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and the
receiver of the message. Looking into the role of non-verbal communication, a new
academic study of body movements, known as kinetics has been developed. It refers
tothe study of gestures, facial configurations and other movements of the body to
communicate meanings. However, it is relatively a new field and it has been subject
to far more conjecture and popularising than the research findings support.
There are three important aspects in non-verbal communication. First, a body
nosition or movement may not by itself have a precise or universal meaning, but
uben it is linked with spoken words, it may give fuller meaning to a sender's
message. Second, sometimes, there mnay be contradiction between verbal and non-
verbal communication. The literal meanirng of sender's words nay be different than
what he conveys through non-verbal communication. Therefore, it is important for
the receiver to be alert to this aspect of communication. He should look for non-ver-
bal clues as well as listen to the literal meaning of the sender's words. Third, action
speaks louder than words in the long run. A manager who says one thing but does
another
thing will soon find that his employees listen to mostly what he does rather
what he says. When there is a difference between what one says and what one
we call that a communication credibility gap. does,
Pictorial Communication
Lird type of symbol that is used to
communicate is picture. It may include
pictures, graphs, diagrams, charts, etc. Organisations make
Such as blueprints, progress charts, maps,
extensive use of pictures,
visual aids in training
programmes, scale
674 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMEN

models of products and similar devices. The use of such means of communication :
increasing in training and education as well as in organisational communication
Pictures can provide powerfulvisual images, as suggested by the proverb, "a pictu
is worth a thousand words." In fact, many companies have designed their adve
tisement copies in which only pictures are used and no words are spoken. To ha
words and
more effective, however, pictures should be combined with well-chosen
actions to tell the complete message.

Communication Network
organisation.
In the organisational context, anetwork is a structured fabric of the
made up of system of lines, or channels, which are interconnected. Communication
networks, then,are these network channels or lines used to pass information serially
from one person to another. We can safely say that organisational communication is
really the flow of information through the network of interrelated human role rela
tionships. Since within an organisation, human beings are interrelated both formally
and informally, communication takes place to maintain these interrelationships.
Thus, organisational communication network is made up of two types of channels
which are interrelated and interdependent, viz., formal and informal. The existence
of these channels is necessary for organisational communication to take place. Fur
ther, these channels also determine to a very significant extent the smoothness, ra
pidity, and correctness with which the messages flow in an organisation. Thus, if
the channel is too narrow considering the volume of message flowing through it,
messages may get delayed or blocked. Ifthe channel is too long or circuitous, again
the same thing may happen. Besides, the existence of a number of filtering points in
the channel may also affect the accuracy of the messages flowing through it: some
thing may get added to or taken away from the original message at each of these
points.
Before we proceed to take up the details of formal and informal channels, let us
have a look at differences between formal and informal communication. A message
coming through the formal channel is known as formal communication and that
coming through informal charnel is known as informal communication. Differences
between the two are presented in Table 26.1.
TABLE 26.1: Differences between formal and informal communication
Formal Communication Informal Communication
1. It is based on formal organisational It emerges out of social interactions
relationships. among the people.
2 The channels of communication are Channels of communication depend on
prescribed. individuals' relationships.
3. It is rigid as deviations are not allowed. It is quite flexible because nothing is
prescribed.
4 The speed of message travel is slow Message travels faster.
because of formalisation.
5. Chances of message distortion are low. Messages are often distorted.
6. It is treated as authentic. It is not authentic even if the message
is correct.

FORMAL CHANNEL
The formal channel, as the very name implies, is the deliberately created, officially
prescribed path for flow of communication between the various positions in tne
COMMUNICATION
675

organisation. It is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow of organisational commu

nication so as to make it orderly and thereby to ensure that information flows
smoothly, accurately and timely to the points to which it is required. Further it is
also intended to prescribe for filtering of the information to various points to ensure
that information does not flow unnecessarily thereby causing the problem of over
load. The officially prescribed communication network may be designed on the basis
of a singlechannel or multiple channels as shown in Figure 26.2.

Chain Wheel Circular Free flow InvertedV

FIGURE 26.2: Communication network

Single Chain. Single chain communication network exists between a superior and
his subordinate. Since there may be a number of levels in an organisation, each
individual within those levels is both superior as well as subordinate, except the
person at the top or bottom. Communication flows downward or upward through
each successive level. Communication flow through the chain may be orderly and
communication
easy to control but it is very time consuming. Often we find such a
network in bureaucratic organisations.
Wheel. In wheel network, all subordinates under one superior communicate
through him only as he is the hub of the wheel. They are not allowed to communi
network.
cate among themselves. Thus, there is no horizontal communication. In this
problem of coordination is the main drawback.
Circular. In circular network, the communication moves in a circle. Each person
can communicate with his adjoining two persons. In this network, communication
flow is slow.
Free Flow. In this network, each person can communicate with others freely. In this
network, communication flow is fast but problem of coordination exists, This is
followed in free-form organisations or in task force.
Inverted v. In this network, an individual is allowed to communicate with his
immediate superior as well as his superior's superior. In the later case, the subject
matter of communication is prescribed. In such a network, communication travels
faster.
Come of these networks allow for speedy flow of conmunication and provide
satisfaction to the individuals. Some of these are used to control unnecessary flow of
communication.

Single Channel Vs Multiple Channels. As discussed above,

be a single one or multiple. Asingle channel communicationtormal
networkchannel may
prescribes
only one path of communication for any particular position and all communications
in that
position would have necessarily to flow through that path only. Ordinarily,
this path
is the line of authority linking a position to its line superior. This is what is
commonly referred to as 'through proper channel' i.e.,
through the line of superior-
COMMUNICATION 677

In single strand network, the individual communicates with other individuals

through intervening persons. In gossip network, the individual communicates non
selectively. In probability network, the individual commuicates randomly with
other individuals according to the law of probability. In cluster network, the individ
ual communicates with only those individuals whom he trusts. Out of these
informal networks, the cluster is the most popular.
Although grapevine information tends to be oral, it may be in written form too.
Sometimes, handwritten or typed notes are also used. In the modern electronic of
fice, grapevine messages typjcally are flashed on computer screens, creating the new
era of the electronic grapevine.
Accuracy in Grapevine. Usually, there is a perception that grapevine is inaccurate.
This happens because grapevine tends to be associated with rumour, another form
of informal communication, which more often tends to be inaccurate. However,
contrary to this perception, the accuracy level is very high in grapevine. Sometimes,
major portion of grapevine may be true but inaccurate part may make the whole
grapevine meaningless. To emphasise this aspect, Newstrom and Davis have given
an example which is as follows:
"On one grapevine, a story about a welder marrying the general manager's
daughter was true with regard to his getting married, the date, the location, and
other details. The one wrong detail in this 90 per cent accurate story was that the
woman was not the general manager's daughter but only happened to
have the
same last name. This one wrong point made the whole communication wrong in
details".0
general meaning even though it was 90 per cent accurate in
Since it is true that grapevine information is usually incomplete, it may be seri
it
ously misinterpreted. That is, even though the grapevine tends to carry the truth,
rarely carries the whole truth.
Positive Aspect of Informal Co:nmunication
informal chan
Many authors on this subject opine that the communication through
nel generally performs a positive service to the organisation. It operates with much
communication
greater speed. Moreover, there might be certain subject-matters of This channel
which do not require their transmission through the formal channel.
also satisfies the communication needs of the various persons in the organisation,
more particularly those persons who freely mix up with others and rely upon infor
mal relationships. Informal communication is thus a need fulfilment device gener
ated when it is found that the existing formal communication is inadequate or
insufficient. The requirement of speedier communication creates conditions for in
formal communication which is supplemental to the formal one. Chester Barnard
opines that communication function of the executives includes the maintenance of
informal executive organisation as an essential means of communication. The func
tionsof informal executive organisation are the communication of intangible facts.
suggestions, suspicions that cannot pass through formal channels without raising
issues caling for decisions without dissipating dignity and objective authority. l0 In a
research study by L.M. Prasad, it was tound that subordinates communicating un
Eauourable work performance, problems relating to work, unfavourable reactions to
rarious organisational practices, used to communicate through informal channe!.
Themajor reasons tor usSng intormal channel for such communication were: it being

Daniel Goleman, "The Electronic Rorschach", Psychology Today, February 1983, pp. 36-43.
8Newstrom and Davis, op. cit., p. 77.
lbid., p. 77.
Barnard, The Functions of the Executive,
10Chester
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1961.
 678 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMEN

more convenient and such subject-matter of upward communication did not reguirs
formal channel, !1
Negative Aspect of InformalCommunication
Informal communication, on the other hand, has certain basic limitations. It is Jese
orderly and less static also. Sometimes, messages communicated through the infor.
mal channel are so erratic that any action based on these may lead to a diff.
cult situation in the organisation. In this case, the irresponsibility of the person
communicating through the informal channel is most important factor. Since
origin and direction of the flow of information is hard to pinpoint, it is difficult to
assign responsibility for false information or morale-lowering rumours. Moreover.
as each person conveying the message may add, subtract or change the original
message according to his motive, informal communication problems multiply.
There is a chance that by the time a communication completes a complex
joumey, it may be completely distorted.
The informal communication is a part and parcel of the organisational process.
The only thing management can do in this respect is to take suitable action to
minimise the adverse effect of this channel. Management must be aware through the
understanding of the informal communication, the utilityand the positive contribu
tions to the operation of the organisation that the informal
make. As such, proper analysis of informal communication andcommunication can
a suitable clarifica
tion in this respect will be helpful in making its use towards
efficiency. organisational
RUMOUR
The word rumour is sometimes used as a synonym for
the whole informal commu
nication, but there is a difference between the two. Rumour
which is communicated without any standard of is grapevine information
evidence
injudicious and untrue part of the grapevine. Since, in most being present. It is the
information, it is presumed to be the most undersirable feature cases, it is incorrect
our is a product of interest and ambiguity in a of grapevine. Rum
and ambiguity differs among individuals, situation. Since perception of interest
person. Depending upon the interest, each personrumour tends to change from person to
original message through the process of elaborationsubtracts or adds something to the
and assimilation.
Dealing with Rumour
Since rumour is generally incorrect, a major
epidemic that sweeps through an [Link],
of it can be a devastating
with firmly and consistently. However, while rumour should be dealt
strike at the whole grapevine because it happens dealing with rumour, it is not wise to
Moreover,certain rumours are harmless and die out to be the agent that carries rumour.
Such rumours may not be worthwhile. as the time passes. Dealing witn
tend to be harmful. In dealing Problems come with those rumours which
with such rumours, the organisation
following practices: can adopt tne
1. Reduction of Causes. The
best way to control rumour is to
rather than trying tostop it after it has already
get at its cause
of handling rumour. Possibility of spreading of started. This is a preventive approacn
rumours is reduced
reasonably secure, understand the
team. In such situations, ambiguity things that matter to them, andwhen feel
people teel
part
in the situation is reduced and need for of the
nication through informal channel is reduced. On the commu
are emotionally upset or inadequately informed other hand, when the people
about their environment, they are
11,
COMMUNICATION 679

:kely to be rumour-mongers. The managemnent can create the situation under which
possibility of raising rumours is reduced.
[Link] to Rumour. Regardless of the importance of rumour, it should be lis
tened to carefully. Even though it may not be true, usually it carries the message
about the employees' feelings on the subject-matter of rumour. In this way, the
management can know where the ambiguity prevails and what actions can be taken
to clear the ambiguity.
3. Providing Facts. As soon as the rumour, particularly when it is harmful, starts,
the management can weaken it by releasing the facts related to the subject-matter of
rumour. In such a case, the ambiguity is reduced and the truth tends to prevail. Time
factor is very important in dealing with such a rumour. The action should be taken
the moment rumour starts because once the general theme of a rumour is known
and accepted, employees distort future happenings to conform to the rumour.
4. Use of Reliable Sources. The communication of facts is more effective if it comes
from a source that employees think is in a position to know the true facts. The source
also should be a person who has a dependable communication record. Additionall,
informal leaders should also be contacted to communicate facts. If need be, the
management can confirm the facts in writing without referring to
the rumour.
employees about the
5. Use of Trade Union. Often rumours arise in the minds of
particular and the organisation
management practices concerning the employees in is
quite harmful if management-employee relation
in general. Such rumours may bemanagement leaders
can take the help of employee
not good. In such situations, the put more trust on their leaders as com
torefute rumours as the employees tend to is concerned.
communication
pared tOmanagement so far as

DIRÉCTION OF COMMUNICATION
FLOW
Communication, as defined earlier, requires two parties, the sender and the receiver:
other determining in the organisational context the
their juxtaposition vis-a-vis each
communication flow. Thus, the commnunication flow
particular dimension of the the different
inter-scalar when two parties are at
within the organisation may be same hierarchical level-this is
levels or intra-scalar when they are at the
managerial The inter-scalar communication mav
also known as horizontal communication. flows from the higher to lower
again be classified as downward, when the message
the other way round.
level, or upward when it is
Downward Communication
superior either in
Downward communication within the organisation tlows from a
the sane line of command or in a aitferent one. It stands out as a great torce for
controlling,influencing and initiating activities of organisation members. Communi
cation in this category includes (1) orders and instructions about job, (2) directions
about understanding of job and its relationships with other jobs, (3) organisational
policies and procedures, (4) feedback of subordinates' performance, (5) reprimands,
Friticisms, etc., and (6) questions invitng upward communication. In the organisa
ion. people at lower levels have a high degree of fear and respect towards such
which Jeads to a high degree of acceptance of such
annd resistance are three important problemscommunication.
communication

distortion
Coordination,
downward communication process.
that character-
ise the
Upward Communication

communication flows from asubordinate position to

Upward
information about (1) subordinate's a superior position. It
includes
work, (3) performance
work performance, (2) problems relat-
ing to appraisal of their subordinates, (4) feedback
of under-
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
680
MANAGEMENT
standing of orders, instructions, etc., (5) clarifications of order, etc., (6)
attitude, feeling, etc., (7) procedures, methods, practices followed in doing theopinion,
work,
(8) criticisms, (9) new ideas and suggestions, and (10) personal and family problems,
Upward communication is more susceptible to various obstructions and bottlenecks
discussed later on, because of its special nature. Managers, often at times, fail t
realise that upward communication cannot be taken for granted, as is the case wi
downward communication. This is so because, unlike downward communication,
upward communication is devoid of any support of managerial hierarchy. On tho
contrary, it has to flow in a direction directly opposite to the flow of official authow
ity, from the dependent subordinates to the superiors on whom they (subordinates
are directly or indirectly dependent for the satisfaction of their needs. As such, thee
is a strong possibility of upward information being distorted or coloured.
Horizontal Communication
It is the flow of information between persons of the same hierarchical level. Formal
organisation provides for horizontal communication by means of right at any level
to consult or work with others at the same level. Communication among peers, in
addition to providing task coordination, also furnishes emotional and social support
to the individual. Horizontal communication is impeded in the organisation that
overstresses functional departmentalisation. The creation of functional departments
or units creates problems of coordination and communication between members of
such units. Some companies develop committee structure near the top level of the
organisation to assist the chief executive in achieving coordination and better hori
zontal communication in terms of control function in the organisation. Horizontal
communication, if in operation at various level in an organisation, is a real check on
the power of the top leaders.

Barriers in Communication
It is probably no surprise that managers frequently cite communication breakdown
as one of their major problems. The problem of communication arises because there
are various obstacles which may entirely prevent a communication, filter part
out, or give it incorrect meaning. These obstacles are known as of it
communication
barriers. These barriers may operate in organisational communication as well as in
non-organisational communication. Different barriers of communication may be
grouped as semantic barriers, emotional or psychological barriers, organisational
barriers, and personal barriers. Some of these barriers operate in all types of
nication while others may be more relevant for organisational commu
communication.
SEMANTIC BARRIERS
Semantics is the science of meaning, as contrasted with phonetics, the
sounds. All communications are symbolic, that is, these use symbols science of
tures, actions, etc.) that suggest certain meanings. Semantic (words, pie
barriers arise
tations in the symbols with which we communicate. Following types offrom mm
barriers are more prominent: semante
1. Symbols with Different Meanings. Communication
variety of meanings, and we have to choose one meaning symbols usually nave
from many. In verva
communication, a particular word may have a variety of meanings.
English word 'round' has 110 different meanings: as adjective-23, For
as
example, ue
noun Engisit
verb-l6, as preposition-13 and as adverb16. The 500 most common
words have an average of 28 definitions each. l2 Moreover, a particular word mnay
1C. Glernn, et al, Principles of Business Communication: Theory, Application and Technology, New York: Jon
Wiley, 1984, p. 524.
COMMUNICATION 681

givecontradictory meaning in differernt parts of the country. For example, the Hindi
rord 'Kaka' means uncle in one part of the country but small boy in another part of
the country. Similarly,non-verbal symbols may also convey different meanings to
different persons. In such a situation, often there is a possibility that the receiver of
the symbols may attach quite different meaning as compared to intended by the
breaks down.
sender and communication
2. Badly Expressed Message. Lack of clarity and precision in amessage makes it
badly expressed. Poorly chosen and empty words and phrases, careless omission,
lack of coherence, bad organisation of ideas, awkward sentence structure, inade
quate vocabulary, platitudes, numbering repetition, jargons, failure to clarify im
plications are some common faults found in this case.
3. Faulty Translations. Every manager receives various types of communication
information destined for
from superiors, peers, subordinates and he must translate the message
subordinates, peers and superiors into language suitable to each. Hencereceiver oper
has to be put into words appropriate to the framework in which the
which will be understood bythe
ates, or it must be accompanied by an interpretation understanding
receiver. This needs a high level of linguistic capacity. Approximate
impaired efficiency and
of words and the consequent faulty translations lead to
heavy costs.
uncommunicated assumptions
4. Unclarified Assumptions. There are certain
a message appears to be specific, its
which underlie practically allmeanings. Thoughreceiver.
underlying assumptions may not be clear to the
technical personnel and special
[Link]'s Language. It is often found that This
groups tend to develop a special, peculiar and technical language of their own.
Whatever
a communication barrier.
increases their isolation from others and builds
it hinders their communication with per
be the intention of this special language, receiver's ignorance of that type of lan
sons not in their speciality, because of the
guage.
OR PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
EMOTIONAL
Emotional or psychological factors are the prime barriers in interpersonal communi
upon the emotional or psycho
cation. The meaning ascribed to a message depends a communication, apart from the
logical status of both the parties involved. In
message, there is a meta-message, that is, what
one gets out of a message when
decoding. Meta-message is the most pungent thingplay in a sweet-word language. In
getting a meta-message, the emotions of the receiver
a vital role and he may not
Davis opines that these "'exist
be at a wavelength as that of the communicator. Keith
actions such as being hard to contact or
in the people's minds or because of theircommunication
difficult to understand., These barriers to are just as effective as an
than a
actual physical wall. Often these human barriers are more like filter paperthereby
brick wall. They let through some communications but hold back others,
making communication inadeqate. This "half-way' communication gets "half-way'
results'",1 Some emotional barriers are as follows:
1 Premature Evaluation. Rogers and Roethlisberger in 1952 first pointed out this
barrier.l4 Premature evaluation is the tendency of prematurely evaluating communi
ations, rather than to keep an uncompromised position during the interchange.
Such evaluation stops the transfer of information and begets in the sender a sense of
EThis barrier can be remedied by empathy, non-evaluative listening, where
13Keith Davis: Human Behaviour at Work, New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 1975, p.
338.
ars and FJ. Roethlisberger, "Barriers and Gateways to Communication",
46-59 Harvard Business Re
July-August 1952, pp.
view,
 682 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMEN'T

the communicator is listened to in a non-committal and unprejudiced way so that

sagacious decision and action can follow.
2. Inattention. The preoccupied mind of a receiver and the resultant non-listenino
is one of the major chronic psychological barriers. It is acommon phenomenon that
people simply fail toreact to bulletins, notices, minutes and reports.
3. Loss by Transmission and Poor Retention. When communication passes through
various levels in the organisation, successive transmissions of the same message are
decreasingly accurate. It is said that in case of oral communications, about 30% of the
information is lost in each transmission. Even in case of written communication, loss
of meaning might occur as far as the appended interpretation, if any, is concerned.
Poor retention of the information is again a malady. It is shown that employees
retain about 50% of information only, whereas supervisors retain about 60% of it.
4. Undue Reliance on the Written Word. Written word is no substitute for sound
face-to-face relationships and that employees cannot be persuadedto accept
companies' viewpoints and policies through "slick", easy-to-read, well-illustrated
publications, unless there is a fair degree of mutual trust and confidence between the
organisation and its employees. Further, a written communication might fail to
explain the purpose of order, procedure or directive. Chester Barnard has laid down
that a communication must appeal to the receiver as consonant with the
organisations' purpose and with his own personal interest. Written communication
often tells what is to be done, but not why it should be done, and it lacks the
persuasive quality." Moreover, a written communication can be above the level of
readership, and failure to ascertain the response to communication is also there.
Hence, written media must be considered as supplementary to productive
face-to-face relationships.
5. Distrust of Communicator. It arises out of ill-considered judgements or illogical
decisions or frequent countermanding of the original communication by the commu
nicator. Repeated experience of this kind gradually conditions the receiver to delay
action or act unenthusastically, hence making the communication unsuccessful,
though apparently it is complete.
6. Failure to Communicate. It is quite an accepted fact that managers often fail to
transmit the needed messages. This might be because of laziness on the part of the
communicator, or assuming that "everybody knows," or procrastination or
"hogging" information or deliberately to embarrass.
ORGANISATIONAL BARRIERS
An organisation being a deliberate creation for the attaintment of certain specified
objectives, day to-day happenings within it require being regulated in such a manner
that they contribute to attain these objectives in the most efficient mnanner. This is
usually attempted through a variety of official measures such as designing the
organisational arrangements for performance of various activities, prescribng
various policies, rules, regulations and procedures, laying down of norms Or
behaviour, instituting a reward and punishment system, etc. All the inner processes,
including communication in different directions, are markedly affected by these
prescriptions. As such, major organisational barriers may be as follows:
[Link] Policy. The general organisational policy regarding communica
tion acts as an overall guideline to every one in the organisation regarding how he i
normally expected to behave in this matter. The policy might be in the form Or
explicit declaration in writing, or, as is very commonly the case, it has to be interpre.
ted from the behaviour of organisation members, particularly people at the top.
15Barnard, op. cit.
 C O M M U N I C A T I O N 683

his policy is not supportive to the flow of communication in different directions,

communication flcow would not be smooth and adequate.
Organisational of
affect the flow
Rules and Regulations. Organisational rules and regulations
communication by prescribing the subject-matters to be
mmunicated and also the channel through which these are to be communicated.
The rules may restrict the flow of certain messages and may leave many important
[Link] the other hand, comnmunication through proper channel in a specified way
prescribed by these rules delays it and works against the willingness of persons to
convey the message. This barrier is strongly operative in Indian public sector
enterprises where observance of rules and regulations is more rigid.
[Link] Relationships. The placing of people in superior/subordinate capacity in
formnal organisation structure also blocks the flow of communication and more
particularly in upward direction. Greater the difference between hierarchical posi
tions in terms of their status, greater would be the possibility of communication
breakdoWn.
there are num
4. Complexity in Organisation Structure. In an organisation wherecommunication
ber of managerial levels, communication gets delayed, chances of
getting distorted are more and the number of filtering points are more. This is more
true in case of upward communication, because poeple generally do not like to pass
up the adverse criticism either of themselves or of their superiors.
[Link] Facilities. Organisational facilitiestakeprovided for smooth, ade
quate, clear, and timely flow of communication may a number of forms. Some
of these have been mentioned earlier in the communication media such as meetings,
cultural
conferences, comnplaint box, suggestion box, open door system, social and to make
gatherings, etc. If these are not properly emphasised, generally people fail
effective communication.

PERSONAL BARRIERS
important influences
While the organisational factors discussed above are,no doubt, two partiessender
operating on communication, a host of factors internal to the
and receiver--to this process also exert important influences on its operation, as
communication is basically an inter-personal process. FHere, for the sake of conve
nience in the analysis, these barriers have been analysed separately and these are
communication.
relevant in the case of downward and upward

Barriers in Superiors
The role of superiors in communication is very vital. Because of their hierarchical
relationships with subordinates, they act as barriers in a number of ways discussed
below:
1. Attitudes of Superiors. The attitudes of superiors towards communication in
general or in anyparticular direction aftect the flow of messages in difterent direc
tions. For example. if this attitude is untavourable, there is a greater possibility that
messages would not flow adequately trOm and or to superiors.
2. Fear of Challenge to Authority. A person in the
a higher position and prest1ge to satisty his needs. Asorganisation always tries to get
to withhold the information comnng such, managers in general try
own
of information may disclose their weakness. the lne or going up as frequent passing
2 Insistance on Proper
Channel. One of the basic features of
the authority is that they superiors exercising
like any type of bypassingwish to remain in
in communication. communication links and they do not
Communication through bypassing
684 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF

may, sometimes, be necessary but superiors treat this as thwarting

MANAGEMENT
of their
and blocks the flow ofcommunication. authority
4. Lack of Confidence in : Subordinates. Superiors generally perceive,
otherwise, that their subordinates are less competent and capable, they areCOrrect or
to advise superiors or they may not have some information coming downwards. not able
5. Ignoring Communication. Sometimes superiors consciously and
ignore the communication from their subordinates to maintain their deliberately
This works against the willingness of subordinates to communicate. importance
6. Lack of Time. Superiors feel, whether correct or othewise, that
they are overhr
dened with the work and they have little time to talk to their subordinates.
7. Lact of Awareness. Employees at lower levels have a
needs. Managers think that they understand employees' number of communication
do not think so.6 This difference in perception tends to needs but their employees
exist at each level thereby
making communication more difficult,particularly in downward direction.
Barriers in Subordinates
Vertical communication in either direction can take
place only when subordinates
also actively participate in this process. There are various
that adversely affect such active participation on factors in the subordinates
been traced in the case of superiors are also their part. Some factors which have
applicable
availability, awareness about the significance, etc. Two here such as attitude, time
the case of subordinates and these are factors are more important in
upward direction: responsible for blocking communication in
1. Unwillingness to Communicate.
upward certain information because they Sometimes, subordinates do not communicate
nate feels that he is likely to be are not willing to do so. Thus, if a
adversely subordi
affected by a particular piece of informa
tion to his superior, he would not be
utilised for control purposes and willing to supply it." Information going up is
information to their superiors aboutsubordinates would not be willing to give ny
tion is necessary, they would modifyany unfavourable happening and if its suppica
their own interest. the information in such a way so
as to protecr
2. Lack of Proper Incentive.
Lact of motivation to
The reward andcommunicate
dinates to communicate upward. also refrains subor"
ganisation is more responsible for this. punishment
does not evoke any attention Thus, if a novel suggestionsystem
by a
of the o
from the organisation, he would suborainas
not convey it.
Making Communication Effective
Communication is the lifeblood of an organisation,
cannot exist. Therefore, and
effective. For ensuring this,managers must ensure that thewithout it, the organis:
communication system is
managers
communication system and take steps for making must identify the essentials of an effective
the system effective.
ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE
The effectivenes of a
system is
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Therefore, the effective measured in terms of its objective achievement.
However, determining the commurnication system is one which achieves its objectives.
of involvement of many objectives of communication may not be precise
because
intervening variables. The ultimate objective of comue
l6stephen A. Rubenfield, John W.
Newstrom, and Thomas Dutf, "Caveat Emptor: Avoiding Pitfalls
Data-Based Decisioin Making'", Review of
LM. Prasad, "Why Subordinates are not Business, Winter 1994, pp. 20-23.
Willing to Communicate up? ntegrated
Management, Jure,
COMMUNICATION
685

to bring desired behaviour in those for whom it is meant. However, the

tion is
desirable behaviour or otherwise is a function of so many variables which extend
communication. Therefore, we have to take into account the immediate
beyond
communication which is in the form of ensuring that clear and
objective of the
adequate information flows at right place and right time. Thus, various elements of
neffective communication system are clarity, adequacy, timing, and integrity:
1Clarity. The communication process, in order to serve its purpose, must ensure
larity of communication, thereby facilitating exchange of ideas and avoiding unnec
essary seeking and tendering of clarifications. A communication possesses clarity
when it is expressed in a language and transmitted in a way that will be compre
of communication is to bring two minds
hended bythe receiver. The basic objective is understood
together, and this can be possible only when what the sender means
by the reciver in the same way.
2. Adequacy. There are, broadly speaking, two aspects of adequacy, viz.: (i) in
and (i) in
terms of coverage, that is, types of messages flowing in various directions;
terms of quantity of various types of messages. The problem of determining ade
Through communication audit, the
quacy in regard to coverage is not very difficult. a frequent
adequacy of coverage can be measured. In the communication audit,
approach is to measure the information need of various groups of managers and
employees and compares it with what has been made available to
them. Norma
tively speaking, the process of communication must ensure that all those messages
that are needed by the various individuals in the organisation in connection with the
effective discharge of their official duties must flow up to them and further that this
flow in respect of different types of messages must be adequate.
Timing. The utility of any message to the receiver is markedly affected by its
[Link]. The process of communication should, therefore, not only ensure that the
mesage reaches the receiver but also that it reaches him when he requires. It is quite
possible that a person may require some time to compile an information having
diversified and complexcontents, which he has to collect from several points in the
organisation. A suitable time span should be allowed for the purpose considering
urgency and time requirement for collection of the information.

4. Integrity. The principle of integrity of communication suggests that the purpose

of communication is to support understarnding by the individuals in their achieving
and maintaining the cooperation needed to meet organisational goals. Effective com
munication is not an end in itself, rather, it is means to get some ends. Though the
immediate objective of any communication is to get behavioural response from the
receiver of the communication, its ultimate objective goes beyond that. The ultimate
objective of communication may be to get change in behavioural response from the
receiver. This may suggest that communication to beeftective shouldbe persuasive
and convincing so that receiver acts accordingly.
Besides, communication can be evaluated in terms of its ultinate objective
where it can be measured in terms of behavioural response. Such responses may
reflected in the form of attitude and morale, employee relations, and other be
The analysis of these factors, in general, will providle total picture of factors.
communication. Though the higher degree of these tactors may be dueetfectiveness
to a variety
of
of
variables, communication plays an important part in this respect.
lead us to conclude about theeffectiveness of Thus, analysis may
In the perspective of the above discussion,conumunication as a whole.
we may conclude that the communi
cation system is effective if:
1. adequate communication flows to different points in
2.. the message received is very close to the organisation;
the message sent;
 he i
5. the communication results in building trusting relationship between
and the target. the source
fur

me
saic

STEP FOR MAKING COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE the

When the communication is evaluated in the light of the criteria discussed ahe ten

and inadequacy is found,marnagement must take appropriate actions to make com at

munication effective. While actions may be specific in the light of the inadequac Wi

ask
1

here, some general guidelines have been provided for effective communication: sta

[Link] in Idea. The communicator should be quite clear about what he wants tn
communicate. Communication is a process starting with ideation which includes
generation of ideas meant for communication. This is the subject-matter of comm. Ke
nication and may include opinions, attitudes, feelings, views, suggestions, orders, Ba
etc. Co
Co
2. Purpose of Communication. Every communication has some
purpose, basic
purpose of any communication being to get behavioural response from thethe receiver
Do
Et
of the communication. However, the ultimate objective may be
extended further, for Er
example, getting an order accepted by the subordinate. The communication should
be directed towards this objective by the efforts of Fo
communicator. G
3. Empathy in Communication. The way for effective
sitive towards receiver's needs, feelings, and [Link] is to be sen
This is what psychologists
He
call empathy in communication, implying putting legs in other's
oneself into the viewpoint of the other person. When the sender ofshoes, or projecting
at the problems from receiver's point of view, much of the the message looks D
avoided. misunderstarnding is
4. Two-way Communication. Communication is a two-way
must be realised in communication. Two way traffic and this fact
communication brings two mnas
together which is the basic core of any communication. It inyolves a continuous
dialogue between sender and receiver of the message. Upward
become a reality in the organisation and effective if this fact is communication cau
recognised.
5. Appropriate Language. The subject-matter of communication
encoding it into some symbols. Such symbols may be in the formis oftransmitted words, eitheroy
spoken or written, and gestures. If the words are used, the language used
munication should be such which is understandable by the receiver. tor co
nology and multisyllable words may be impressive looking, but they can aso Technical te
troublesome to the listener. One way of making the communication
repetitive language with which the receiver is quite familiar. simple s
6. Supporting Words with Action. Often it is said that
words. While communicating, the sender may use the actions action speaks louuoint.
to emphasise
This enhances the understanding as well as emphasises theimportant point&n
in com-
munication. Further, the sender of the message must also follow in action what he
says to others. This will ensure the seriousness
in communication.
[Link] in Communication.
cation is that it has One criterion
credibility or believability. The for effective managerial
subordinates
communi-

obey the order of the

of
superior because he has demonstrated through his competence that he is worthy 18
trust. He must also maintain his trust and Thus, any
c o m m u n i c a t i o n

which is based on this trust and credibility willcredibility.

be followed by the subOrami
 687
( O M M U N I C A T I O N

sGood Listening. Acommunicator must be a good listener too. By this

he is not only giving chance to others to speak but he gathers useful information for
urther communication. By concentrating on the speaker's explicit and implicit
meanings, the manager can obtain a much better understanding of what is being
[Link] suffer from some common habits of bad listening, though much of
their communication time is spent in listening. Newstrom and Davis have suggested
ten points which may be observed in listening. These are: stop talking, put the talker
at ease. show the talker that you want to listen to, remove distractions, emphasise
with the talker,be patient, hold your temper, go easy on arguments and criticism,
ask questions, stop talking. They have emphasised 'stop talking because without
cannot listen to.18
stopping talking, one

Key Concepts for Review

Barriers to communication Informal communication
Communication network Non-verbal communication
Communication process Oral communication
Downward communication Personal barriers
Eftective communication system Rumour
Emotional barriers Semantic barriers
Formal channel
Tow-way communication
Grapevine Upward communication
Horizontal communication Written communication

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. "Communication is sharing of understanding." Discuss this
communication. and bring out the process of
2. "Management is a
cation" Discuss thistwo-way traffic; it is based upon the effective machinery of communi-
statement.
wet ao
of oral andyouwritten
mean by communication symbols? Discuss the relative merits and
demerits
4. What do
you
communication.
of formal and mean by Communication network? Discuss the relative merits and demerits
informal channels.
5. "The
existence of a variety
of commnunication.'" of communication media does not itself guarantee
Comment. the success
6. What are the
for making essential characteristics of a goodd communication system? Discuss the
7. What are communication effective. steps
different barriers of
barriers? communication? What steps can be taken to overcome
these
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
COMMUNICATION
687

8. GoodI Listening. Acommunicator must be a good listener too. By this process,

eis not only giving chance to others to speak but he gathers useful information for
turther communication. By concentrating on the speaker's explicit and implicit
meanings, the manager can obtain a much better understanding of what is being
said. Managers suffer from some common habits of bad listening, though much of
their comnmunication time is spent in listening. Newstrom arnd Davis have suggested
ten points which may be observed in listening. These are: stop talking, put the talker
at ease, show the talker that you want to listen to, remove distractions, emphasise
with the talker, be patient, hold your temper, go easy on arguments and criticism,
ask questions, stop talking. They have emphasised stop talking because without
stopping talking, one cannot listen to, l8

Key Concepts for Review

Barriers to communication Informal communication
Communication network Non-verbal communication
Communication process Oral communication
Downward communication Personal barriers
Effective communication system Rumour
Emotional barriers Semantic barriers
Formal channel Tow-way communication
Grapevine Upward communication
Horizontalcommunication Written communication

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. "Communication is sharing of understanding." Discuss this and bring out the
communication. process of
. "Management is a two-way traffic; it is based upon the effective
cation." Discuss this statement. machinery of communi
3. What do you mean by communication symbols?
of oral and writtern Discuss the relative merits and demerits
4. What do you communication.
of formal and mean by communication network? Discuss the relative merits and demnerits
informal channels.
5. "The existence
of a variety of communication media
of communication." Comment. does not itself guarantee the success
6. What are the
essential characteristics of a
for making
communication good communication system? Discuss the steps
7. What are different barriers effective.
of communication? What
barriers? steps can be taken to Overcome
these
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the
following isnot an element of
(A) Encoding communication process?
(C) Receiver (B) Channel
2. Which one of the (D) Measurement
following is a function of
(A) Creating der communication?