NCERT CLASS XII

SCIENCE
MIND MAPS
Biology | Chemistry | Physics |
Mathematics & Applied Mathematics |
English | Physical Education

*Digital Format
 English Core (Subject Code 301)

3 Reading Skills, Creative Writing Skills, Literature (Flamingo,

Vistas)

Physical Education
61 Management of Sporting Events, Children and Women in Sports, Yoga
as a Preventive Measure for Lifestyle Disease, Physical Education and
Sports for CWSN, and more....

These mind maps Mathematics & Applied Mathematics

comprehensively cover the entire 93 Relations & Functions, Inverse Trigonometric Functions, Matrices,
Determinants, Continuity & Differentiability, Application of
NCERT syllabus. Topics that are Derivatives, Integrals, Application of Integrals and more....
not part of the CBSE curriculum
are clearly marked, as Not included in CBSE

allowing students to skip them.

Physics
144 Electric Charges And Fields, Electrostatic Potential And Capacitance,
Current Electricity, Moving Charges And Magnetism, Magnetism And
Matter, Electromagnetic Induction and more....

Chemistry
166 Solutions, Electrochemistry, Chemical Kinetics, The d-and f-Block

Navigation
Elements, Coordination Compounds, Haloalkanes and Haloarenes,
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers and more....

Guide Biology
Click on the page number to 187 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants, Human Reproduction,
access the relevant subject Reproductive Health, Principles of Inheritance and Variation,
Molecular Basis of Inheritance and more....
directly.
 Back to Index

ENGLISH
CORE
Subject Code 301

3
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SECTION A
READING SKILLS

4
 Reading Skills - 22 Marks
Two unseen passages (Q 1 & 2) with combined word limit of 700-750 words
are asked in Section A of the English Paper as

Factual, Descriptive Case-based

or Literary Passage Passage
12 Marks 10 Marks
(Total 10 questions, attempt all) (Total 8 questions, attempt all)

5
 Back to Index

FACTUAL, DESCRIPTIVE OR LITERARY PASSAGE

1. What is RC?
Reading comprehension the ability to read text in the passage and understand its meaning and answer questions based on the passage given.
It tests the students' ability to understand, analyze, and interpret text and visuals.

2. Skills Tested 4. Theme of Passages: Passages can be based

Comprehension on following themes
Interpretation
Analysis and inference. Themes Examples
Vocabulary assessment will also be assessed via inference
Factual Facts, reports, instructions, explanations

Descriptive Description of people, places, events, processes

3. Marks & Format*
Total Marks: 22
Word Limit: 350–400 words Literary Fiction, drama, essay, biography
Question Mix - MCQs, Objective Questions, Short Answer
Questions (40–50 words)

5. Types of Questions & Tips to Solve

6. Tips to Approach RC
1. Main Idea: 5. Tone / Attitude
What is the main idea of the passage? The tone of the passage can best be described as ________. Read the passage carefully to
Read the beginning and ending of the passage. Identify the writer’s overall mood and adjectives used. understand the main idea. Underline
Write the idea that covers the whole passage. Match it with the entire passage. key points, examples, and arguments.
2. Factual / Direct: 6. Title / Theme Quickly read the questions to know
According to the passage, ________ Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for what information you need to look for.
Which statement is true according to the passage? the passage? Scan the passage and mark the lines
Locate the exact line in the passage. Ask what the passage is mostly about. that may contain the answers.
Answer using words from the passage. Choose the title that summarises the passage. Underline unfamiliar words and guess
3. Vocabulary in Context: 7. True / False their meaning from the context.
The word “_____” in the passage most nearly means: Does the following statement agree with the information given Re-read the relevant part of the
Read the sentence with the word. in the passage? passage to cross-check your answers.
Choose the meaning that fits the sentence. Match the statement with the passage line. Write answers briefly and to the point.
4. Inference: Mark True if supported, otherwise False. Base your answers only on
What can be inferred from the passage? 8. Case-Based / Data information or inference from the
Think about what is suggested in the passage. Based on the given case/data, which statement is correct? passage, not personal opinion.
Choose the most logical meaning. Read the case or data carefully.
Answer using only the given information.

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

6
 CASE- BASED PASSAGE
1. What are these passages?
A Case-Based Factual Passage is a short, formal analytical text used to inform about a specific study, industry, or social issue using both verbal (text) and
visual (data) inputs.

4. Question Types
2. Marks & Format*
Total Marks: 10 Type of Question Examples
Question Pattern: 10 questions × 1 mark each
Questions may be MCQ or subjective, depending on framing. List any two points tourists were asked
Factual Details (directly stated
about.
information)
What were the more preferred destinations?
3. Data Presentation Formats
Reason / Cause (why Why did the Indian FMCG industry grow
Data Presented Examples Sample something happened) despite lockdowns?

What is the ultimate goal for stakeholders?

30% of students opted for science stream. Inference / Conclusion
The concluding paragraph makes a clear
Narrative/ Text Statistics or numbers 20% opted for arts and remaining 50% (logical understanding)
case…
opted for commerce stream.................
Classification / Categorisation Classify the following as preference or
(identifying types or groups) challenge.

Pie charts Showing distribution or proportion Visual / Data Interpretation

From the given pie chart, which segment
(reading charts, tables,
accounts for the maximum percentage?
diagrams)

Impact / Outcome (effects or What will be the impact of increased brand

results of trends) consciousness?

Tables Listing categories and examples

5. Steps to Solve Case-Based RC

Identify the Topic: Read the title and intro to grasp the subject.
Look for Key Facts: Note key data, people, and context.
Scan Keywords in the Question: Find relevant sections based on
keywords.
Graphs showing trends or comparisons
Trust Data, Not Opinion: Answer using passage facts, not personal
views.
Write Clear Answers: Be concise, formal, and stick to the facts.

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

7
 Back to Index

SAMPLE PASSAGES
Passage 1: Descriptive Passage 2: Case Based
(1) Travel is often said to broaden the mind, offering transformative A recent survey on youth happiness in seven countries, including India, revealed that financial
experiences that challenge preconceived notions. As Mark Twain stated, security, family support, and having a purpose in life are key factors for happiness. In India, 87% of
“Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness”. Immersing youth reported high happiness, with family support (89%) being the most important, followed by
yourself in a new culture offers a crash course in life, especially when financial security (66%). However, 65% felt stressed about academic performance, and 25%
navigating unfamiliar languages or winding streets. Mistakes, like experienced loneliness, indicating a need for better mental health support. Family support was also
confusing piazza for pizza, become valuable lessons. crucial in other countries, with 59-67% of European youth and 61-64% of North American youth
citing it as important for well-being. The survey highlights the importance of improving mental
(2) Historical landmarks like the Colosseum provide a tangible history
health resources, such as counseling and support groups, and providing financial support to reduce
lesson, making the past come alive. Travel also teaches resilience and
stress among youth.
adaptability—missed flights, lost luggage, and unexpected situations build
creativity and problem-solving. Every journey is a chapter in your life’s
1. What are the two findings that the survey mentioned in paragraph 1 reveals?
story, and the world is your classroom, with endless lessons waiting to be
learned.
2. Elaborate, giving data, how stress has a significant impact on the happiness of today’s youth.
1. The word “preconceived” as used in the passage most nearly means:
3. Which of the following factors, with reference to the given passage, does not play a substantial
(A) carefully planned
role in the well-being of Indian youth?
(B) formed in advance without enough information
(C) strongly supported
(A) Family support and strong ties
(D) widely accepted
(B) Social connection and technology
(C) Books and literature
2. The comparison of ‘piazza’ to pizza primarily highlights:
(D) Economic stability
(A) the difficulty of learning a new language
(B) the humor in traveling
4. State whether True or False, with reference to the given passage:
(C) the educational value of travel mistakes
It is not necessary to provide financial support to the youth as only academic performance plays an
(D) the frustration of travel
upper hand in deciding the stress level.
3. How does travel help in developing resilience and adaptability
5. The mental health of today’s youth can be managed by resources like __________ and
according to the passage? (Answer in about 40 words)
__________.
4. Complete the sentence suitably:
Answers
Travel is a passport to knowledge because __________.
1. The survey reveals that in India, 87% of youth report high happiness, with family support (89%)
and financial security (66%) being key factors. It also highlights that 65% feel stressed about
Answers
academic performance, and 25% feel lonely.
1. (B) formed in advance without enough information
2. The passage states that 65% of youth in India feel stressed about academic performance or
2. (C) the educational value of travel mistakes
workload, and 25% feel lonely, demonstrating that stress plays a significant role in their overall
3. Sample Answer : The passage explains that travel develops resilience
happiness and well-being.
and adaptability by placing individuals in unexpected situations like
3. (C) The passage highlights family support, economic security, and other factors, but does not
missed flights or lost luggage. Handling these challenges enhances
mention books or literature as substantial contributors to youth well-being.
creativity, problem-solving skills, and the ability to adjust confidently to
4. False The passage emphasizes the need for financial support to reduce stress, indicating that
unfamiliar environments.
academic performance alone does not determine stress levels.
4. Travel is a passport to knowledge because it provides endless
5. The mental health of today’s youth can be managed by resources like counseling services and
opportunities to learn from diverse cultures, experiences, and challenges.
support groups.

8
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SAMPLE PASSAGES
Passage 1: Descriptive Passage 2: Case Based
(1) Travel is often said to broaden the mind, offering transformative A recent survey on youth happiness in seven countries, including India, revealed that financial
experiences that challenge preconceived notions. As Mark Twain stated, security, family support, and having a purpose in life are key factors for happiness. In India, 87% of
“Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness”. Immersing youth reported high happiness, with family support (89%) being the most important, followed by
yourself in a new culture offers a crash course in life, especially when financial security (66%). However, 65% felt stressed about academic performance, and 25%
navigating unfamiliar languages or winding streets. Mistakes, like experienced loneliness, indicating a need for better mental health support. Family support was also
confusing piazza for pizza, become valuable lessons. crucial in other countries, with 59-67% of European youth and 61-64% of North American youth
citing it as important for well-being. The survey highlights the importance of improving mental
(2) Historical landmarks like the Colosseum provide a tangible history
health resources, such as counseling and support groups, and providing financial support to reduce
lesson, making the past come alive. Travel also teaches resilience and
stress among youth.
adaptability—missed flights, lost luggage, and unexpected situations build
creativity and problem-solving. Every journey is a chapter in your life’s
1. What are the two findings that the survey mentioned in paragraph 1 reveals?
story, and the world is your classroom, with endless lessons waiting to be
learned.
2. Elaborate, giving data, how stress has a significant impact on the happiness of today’s youth.
1. The word “preconceived” as used in the passage most nearly means:
3. Which of the following factors, with reference to the given passage, does not play a substantial
(A) carefully planned
role in the well-being of Indian youth?
(B) formed in advance without enough information
(C) strongly supported
(A) Family support and strong ties
(D) widely accepted
(B) Social connection and technology
(C) Books and literature
2. The comparison of ‘piazza’ to pizza primarily highlights:
(D) Economic stability
(A) the difficulty of learning a new language
(B) the humor in traveling
4. State whether True or False, with reference to the given passage:
(C) the educational value of travel mistakes
It is not necessary to provide financial support to the youth as only academic performance plays an
(D) the frustration of travel
upper hand in deciding the stress level.
3. How does travel help in developing resilience and adaptability
5. The mental health of today’s youth can be managed by resources like __________ and
according to the passage? (Answer in about 40 words)
__________.
4. Complete the sentence suitably:
Answers
Travel is a passport to knowledge because __________.
1. The survey reveals that in India, 87% of youth report high happiness, with family support (89%)
and financial security (66%) being key factors. It also highlights that 65% feel stressed about
Answers
academic performance, and 25% feel lonely.
1. (B) formed in advance without enough information
2. The passage states that 65% of youth in India feel stressed about academic performance or
2. (C) the educational value of travel mistakes
workload, and 25% feel lonely, demonstrating that stress plays a significant role in their overall
3. Sample Answer : The passage explains that travel develops resilience
happiness and well-being.
and adaptability by placing individuals in unexpected situations like
3. (C) The passage highlights family support, economic security, and other factors, but does not
missed flights or lost luggage. Handling these challenges enhances
mention books or literature as substantial contributors to youth well-being.
creativity, problem-solving skills, and the ability to adjust confidently to
4. False The passage emphasizes the need for financial support to reduce stress, indicating that
unfamiliar environments.
academic performance alone does not determine stress levels.
4. Travel is a passport to knowledge because it provides endless
5. The mental health of today’s youth can be managed by resources like counseling services and
opportunities to learn from diverse cultures, experiences, and challenges.
support groups.

10
 Back to Index

SECTION B
CREATIVE WRITING SKILLS

11
Creative Writing Skills - 18 Marks
The following topics are included in Section B (Questions 3 to 6) for Creative Writing Skills

Formal/Informal
Notice Invitation and Reply
4 Marks
(Attempt any 1 out of 2 questions) 4 Marks
(Attempt any 1 out of 2 questions)

Letters
Article/Report
A. Application for a Job with Bio Data or Resume Writing
B. Letters to the Editor
5 Marks
5 Marks (Attempt any 1 out of 2 questions)
(Attempt any 1 out of 2 questions)

12
 Back to Index

NOTICE
2. Marks & Format*
1. What is a Notice Word limit: 40–50 words
A notice is a short, formal written announcement used to inform or notify a specific group Total Marks: 4
about an event, activity, instruction, or issue. Format: 1 Accuracy (Spelling &
Content: 2 Grammar): 1

3. Recommended Format

Name of the issuing

Agency/Authority St. Peters School

NOTICE
Notice

Date of Issue January 7 20XX

Educational Tour
Title/Subject of the Event
This is to inform all the students of class XI and XII that our school is organizing an educational tour to Science City,
Body (Date/ Time Kolkata on 22nd January. Interested students are requested to enlist their names and deposit an amount of Rs.
Duration/ Place/Venue) 1000 to the undersigned by 15th January. The written permission of the guardian is mandatory for this tour.
For further details, contact the undersigned.
Authorized Signatory
(Name, Signature & XYZ
Designation) (School Captain)

4. Body Content 5. Notice Themes asked in Exam

Notice Body must have:
Events / Programmes (seminar, competition, camp)
What (event / information) Who (target audience) Meetings
When (date & time) Whom to contact Cleanliness / Awareness drives
Where (venue) (name/designation) Lost and Found
Language: formal, simple, third person; mostly passive voice. Tours / Camps
Safety / Public information
Order to follow in format:
NOTICE → Date → Heading → Body → Name & Designation

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

13
6. Sample Question – Notice Writing

QUESTION 1
You are the Secretary of the Health Club of Maple Leaf Public School, Jaipur. Draft a notice
informing students about a blood donation camp to be held in school. (50 words)
Answer:
MAPLE LEAF PUBLIC SCHOOL, JAIPUR
NOTICE
15 August 20XX

BLOOD DONATION CAMP

All the students are hereby informed that the Health Club of Maple Leaf Public School, Jaipur
is organising a Blood Donation Camp in the school premises on 30 August 20XX from 9:00
a.m. to 1:00 p.m. The club needs volunteers to assist the medical team and manage the event.
Interested students may register their names with the undersigned.

Ria Sharma
Secretary, Health Club

QUESTION 2
You are the Cultural Secretary of Horizon Public School, Pune. Draft a notice for an inter-house
quiz competition. (50 words)
Answer:
HORIZON PUBLIC SCHOOL, PUNE
NOTICE
20 October 20XX

INTER-HOUSE QUIZ COMPETITION

This is to inform all students that the Cultural Club is organising an inter-house quiz
competition on 28 October 20XX from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. in the school hall. Each house will
send a team of three participants. Interested students may give their names to their
respective House Captains by 22 October 20XX.

Kabir Kumar
Cultural Secretary

14
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INVITATIONS AND REPLIES

1. What is an Invitation 2. Word Limit & Marks*
An invitation is a written request asking someone to attend an event or occasion. Word limit: Up to 50 words
Its purpose is to inform, invite, and seek confirmation in a polite and appropriate manner. Marks: 4 Accuracy (Spelling & Grammar) – 1
In the CBSE Class 12 examination, it is a short writing task on either an invitation or its reply Format – 1 (One out of the two given
Content – 2 questions is to be attempted.)

3. Types of Invitations
[Link]-Based: [Link]-Based:
Formal: For official events or specific guests. Formal: For mass invites (e.g., weddings, annual days, showroom openings).
Informal: For personal events, inviting friends or family. Formats (depends on target audience and purpose)

4. Recommended Format - Invitations And Replies

Question: Write a letter to the Divisional Police to inagurate sports meet in your school.

Question: Write a letter to the Divisional Police to inagurate sports meet in your school. Question: Write a letter to your friend to invite her for diwali vacations.
Recommended Format- Letter Based Formal Recommended Format- Letter Based informal

Sender’s Address GREEN VALLEY SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

Sender’s Address 45, Green Park Extension
Chandigarh
New Delhi
Date 10 October 20XX Date 7 October 2024

Subject: Invitation to inaugurate the Annual

Subject/Purpose of invitation Salutation (Dear …) Dear Ananya,
Sports Meet
I hope you are doing well. We are
Salutation (Dear Sir/Madam) Sir/Madam celebrating Diwali at our home on 12
Details of the occasion October 2024 at 7:00 p.m., and would
The school is organising its Annual Sports Meet on 18 October (what, when, where) love you and your family to join us.
Brief details of the event 20XX at 9:00 a.m. in the school playground. We request you to
(what, when, where) Please come in traditional attire so that
kindly inaugurate the event as the chief guest. we can enjoy the festivities together.

We look forward to your esteemed presence.

Polite request to attend Friendly request
Thank you. to attend Looking forward to seeing you.

Closing line Yours sincerely,

Informal closing Warm Regards,
Neha Arora
Name and designation
Sports Secretary Name of sender Aarav Mehta
of sender
Green Valley Senior
Secondary School
*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.
15
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[Link] Format - Formal Invitation

Card Format

Question: Write a formal invitation letter( card format ) to invite dignitaries for sports event in your school.

Recommended Format

Sender’s Position / Institution Green Valley School

INVITATION
Purpose of the Invitation The Principal of Green Valley School
cordially invites you to the

Type of Event ANNUAL SPORTS DAY

on Saturday, 10th February 2026 at 9:00 AM

Date, time and venue of the event at the
Green Valley School Grounds,
45, Green Street, Mumbai.

Any other relevant details like brief The event will feature exciting sports competitions, an awards
program schedule can be added ceremony, and much more. We look forward to your presence.

RSVP
RSVP Principal, Green Valley School
9XXXXXXXXX

17
5. Sample Question – Invitations (Formal)
Question: Send a formal letter of invitation in 50 words to Dr. Mehra, noted novelist and educationalist, to speak on ‘The
Importance of Books’ You are Lena/Sanjay, Secretary, Literary Club, S.S. Public School. Mention day, date, time and venue.

Answer:
S.S. Public School
Nagpur, Maharashtra
28th August, 20XX

Dr. Mehra
Mumbai

Subject: Invitation to speak on ‘The Importance of Books’

Respected Sir,
This is to inform you that Literary Club, S.S. Public School is organising a session on the Importance of Books for the
students. For the same, we shall be honoured if you could grace us with your presence on the occasion of Teachers’ Day at
12 p.m. to speak on the Importance of Books. Kindly confirm your acceptance by 1st September and oblige.

Yours sincerely
Lena/Sanja
(Secretary, Literary Club)

Sample Question – Invitations (Informal)

Question: You are Sooraj Dwivedi. Your friend, Manav from Mumbai is staying in a paying guest accommodation. Invite him to
join Diwali celebrations with you at your residence in 50 words.
Answer:
417/2, Block B-1, Janakpuri
New Delhi-110058
11th November, 20XX

Dear Manav,

I am so excited for the upcoming festival of lights, Diwali. I know that you are excited too. So, let’s double up our excitement
and celebrate Diwali together. I know you won’t be able to go home this Diwali and so I am inviting you to celebrate it at my
house. We will have loads of fun with widespread sweets and Diwali gifts. Looking forward to your arrival.

Yours affectionately
Sooraj

18
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6. Invitation Replies
What are Invitation Replies?
Invitation replies are responses sent after receiving an invitation to accept or decline it. Replies must clearly state whether the invitee will attend or not.

7. Recommended Format - Formal Reply

Question: Write a letter to express inability to attend Annual Award Ceremony. Question: Write a letter to your friend that accepting her invitation for spending
Diwali celebration with her.
Recommended Format
Recommended Format

Sender’s name Amit Verma

and address 32, Park View Apartments, Sender’s Address 45, Green Park Extension
New Delhi New Delhi

Date 8 October 2024

Date 10 December 2024
Salutation Dear Ananya,
To
Receiver’s name
The Director Thank you for inviting me to your Diwali
and address
XYZ Corporation, Noida Acceptance or polite celebration on 12 October 2024. I would love to
refusal attend and will be there with my family. Looking
forward to celebrating together.
Subject line Subject: Regret for Declining Invitation
to the Annual Awards Ceremony
Friendly closing Warm regards,

Salutation Dear Sir/Madam,

Name of sender Aarav
Thank you for inviting me to the Annual
Clear acceptance Awards Ceremony on 20 December 2024.
or regret Due to prior professional commitments, I
regret to inform you that I will be unable 8. Do’s and Don’ts
to attend the event.
Do’s Don’ts
Reason (if declining) Follow the correct format Do not mix formal and
I wish the programme great success.
Mention date, time, venue informal styles
clearly Do not use slang or
Polite closing Yours sincerely, Maintain appropriate tone abbreviations in formal
Use correct grammar and writing
spelling Do not miss essential details
Name and designation Amit Verma Keep within the word limit Do not exceed 50 words

19
9. Sample Question – Reply Writing (Formal) Sample Question – Reply Writing (Informal)
Question: You are Mr Shyam Sundar, Professor of Psychology. You are Question: You have received an invitation on the wedding of your friend, Akshat.
invited by S.K.M. College, Mehboob Nagar to be the keynote speaker at As Radhika/Rakesh, write a letter expressing your extreme happiness at the news
its Annual Conclave on ‘Student Health - The Emotional Impact of Social and explaining your inability to attend the function. Convey your best wishes for
Media’. Draft a reply letter expressing your inability to accept the the future to the couple
invitation and also cite a reason for refusal.
Answer:
Answer:
K-366, Greenpark Colony
K-159, Shastri Nagar New Delhi - 110013
Ludhiana - 141012 23rd November, 20XX
8th March, 20XX
Dear Akshat,
S.K.M. College
Mehboob Nagar It was a great pleasure to have received your invitation to attend your wedding. I
would have been delighted to be a part of the wedding but unfortunately my
Subject: Inability to Accept the Invitation business trip has been arranged in the same week. Hence, I would not be able to
attend the wedding. I express my sincere regret and wish you and your partner
Respected Sir/Ma’am, the best in your married life.
I am honoured to have received your invitation as the keynote speaker at
your Annual Conclave on Student Health The Emotional Impact of Social Yours sincerely
Media’. However, I regret to inform you that I am unable to accept the Radhika/Rakesh
invitation due to a scheduling conflict. Please accept my sincere
apologies for any inconvenience my absence may cause. While I am
unable to participate as the keynote speaker, I am more than willing to
explore alternative ways to contribute to the event, such as providing
written materials or participating in a panel discussion. I hold your
organisation in high regard and am eager to support its endeavours in
any way I can. Thank you for your kind understanding and consideration.

Warm regards,
Mr. Shyam Sundar
Professor of Psycology

20
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JOB APPLICATION WRITING

1. Job Application Writing 2. Marks & Format*
It is the process of formally applying for a job by submitting a letter and resume, highlighting Total Marks: 5 Expression (Grammar &
qualifications and skills. The purpose is to express interest in the position and secure an interview Format: 1 mark Coherence): 2 marks
opportunity. Content: 2 marks Word Limit: 120-150 words

3. Recommended Format

Ajay Sender’s Address

36, N.J. Colony
Pune
Date: 25th July 2025 Date (Format- 21 July 20XX)

The Principal
Bloom Public School Receiver’s Address
Bhopal
Subject: Application for the Post of Hockey Coach Subject

Sir/Madam, Salutation

I am writing to apply for the position of Hockey Coach at Bloom Public School, as advertised. I am a graduate with
a [Link] degree and have over 5 years of experience as a coach at [Previous School/Club Name]. I am well-versed Introduction (Position you are
in defence techniques, physical and psychological performance development, and fostering team culture. My applying for , with interest)
experience includes preparing students for state and national championships, with several of my trainees securing
top positions.
Content Body (Qualifications,
I am confident that my skills and experience align with the requirements of your school. Please find my bio-data Experience, and Skills relevant
attached for your reference. to the job)

Conlusion (Request an interview

I look forward to the opportunity to discuss my application further. and state your attachment)

Yours sincerely
Closure
Ajay

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

21
4. Effective Job Application Letter Writing Tips

Do's Don'ts

Use Correct Format Avoid Lengthy Content

Be Concise & Relevant Don't Use Informal Language

Maintain Professional Tone Avoid Irrelevant Information

Highlight Suitability Don't Be Too Modest

22
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RESUME/BIO-DATA WRITING

1. What is a Resume/Bio-data? 2. Effective Resume/Bio-data Writing Tips

It is a concise document that outlines an individual's skills, qualifications, experience, and education. Use Clear Format Highlight Key Skills
Its purpose is to showcase suitability for a job and attract the attention of potential employers. Tailor to the Job Role Keep It Concise

3. Recommended Format

Bio-data Heading

Name: Ajay
Father’s Name:
DOB: 21/07/1992
Address: 36, N.J. Colony, Pune Personal &
Contact Details
Phone Number: 9266XXXXXX
Email Address: Axxxxx@[Link]
Nationality: Indian

Educational Qualifications:
Qualification Institution Year of Graduation
Academic
[Link] University of Pune 2020 Details

Graduate in Physical Education University of Pune 2017

Experience:
Hockey Coach, ABc International School, Pune – 5 years Professional
Trained students in hockey defence techniques, fitness, and teamwork. Details
Successfully prepared students for state and national championships, with multiple wins.

Skills:
Expertise in hockey defence techniques Skills
Knowledge of physical and psychological performance development
Ability to foster team spirit and sportsmanship
References: Reference
Coordinator- Bloom Public School, Bhopal

23
4. Sample Questions - Job Application & Resume/ Bio- data Writing

Sample Question 1 Bio-data

Name: Radha/Ram
You are Radha/Ram living at 18, Jan Vihar, Nayapur. You have read the given
Address: 18, Jan Vihar, Nayapur
advertisement and wish to apply for the post of Marketing Executive. Write
Mobile: OXX - 2958XXXX
a job application along with your bio-data.
Email: mxxxxxt9x@[Link]
Nationality: Indian
Answer:
Educational Qualification
18, Jan Vihar
Nayapur Qualification Institution Year of Graduation Percentage
16th August, 20XX
The Director
ABC Corporation BBA in Marketing ABC University 2024 90%
Nayapur

Subject: Application for the Post of Marketing Executive

HSC St. Peters School 2021 78%
Sir/Madam

I am writing in reference to your advertisement in the daily newspaper

dated 13th August, 20XX, for the position of Marketing Executive at ABC
Corporation. I hold a BBA in Marketing and bring over five years of Work Experience
experience in digital marketing, market research, and strategic planning. My Marketing Executive – XY2 Pvt. Ltd. (20XX-20XX)
strengths include effective communication and a strong analytical approach, Managed digital campaigns, boosting engagement by 30%.
which have enabled me to drive successful marketing campaigns, enhancing Conducted market research to optimize product positioning.
brand visibility and customer engagement.
Assistant Marketing Manager – PQR Ltd. (20XX-20XX)
I believe my skills and experience align well with your needs, and I am Developed and executed strategic marketing plans.
excited about the opportunity to contribute to your team. Attached is my Led a team in executing successful promotional activities.
bio-data for your review, and I look forward to discussing my application
with you. Skills
Digital marketing proficiency
Thanking you Market research and analysis
Strong communication and strategic thinking
Yours sincerely
Radha/Ram References [Link] Marketing Head

24
 Back to Index

Sample Question 2 Bio-data

You are Dinesh/Deepa of M.G. Nagar, Pratap Nagar. You are a pharma Name: Dinesh/Deepa Kumar
graduate. You saw the given advertisement in a newspaper and wish to Father’s Name Mr. Ravinder Kumar
apply for the position advertised. Write a letter to Ideal Pharma, along Date of Birth 10th August, 1998
with your bio-data, expressing your interest in the advertised post. Email-id: kxmarxxxpak1xx8@[Link]
Nationality: Indian
Answer:
14, M.G. Nagar
Educational Qualification
Pratap Nagar
16th March, 20XX
Qualification Institution Year of Graduation Percentage
The Manager
Ideal Pharma
55, Ajit Arcade B Pharma Panjab University 2017 72%
Tenalipuram

Subject: Application for the post of sales representative

Senior Secondary CBSE 2014 89%
Sir/Ma’am

I am writing in response to your advertisement in The Hindustan

Times dated 14th March, 20XX, for the position of Sales
Representative. I would like to be considered for this role. Work Experience
Medical Representative – Apollo Pharmaceuticals (20XX-20XX)
I hold a B. Pharm degree with First Class division from Panjab Promoted products and achieved sales targets.
University, and have three years of experience as a Medical Managed sales data and client interactions.
Representative at Apollo Pharmaceuticals. During my tenure, I
worked with numerous clients and gained exposure to various Skills
medicines and surgical instruments. This experience has helped me Digital marketing proficiency
develop strong communication skills and proficiency in using Market research and analysis
computers for work. Strong communication and team skills

I believe my qualifications and work experience are well-aligned with References

the responsibilities mentioned in your advertisement. Please find my Ravi Kumar
resume enclosed for your consideration. I am available for an Sales Manager, Apollo Pharmaceuticals
interview at your convenience and can join the position within one Email: [Link]@[Link]
month, if selected. I look forward to your positive response. Priya Sharma
Regional Sales Director, PQR Ltd.
Thanking you Email: [Link]@[Link]

Yours sincerely
Dinesh/Deep

25
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LETTER TO EDITOR
1. What is Letter to Editor 2. Total Marks: 5*
Format: 1
A formal letter written to the editor of a newspaper to highlight a public, social, or civic issue and suggest solutions.
Content: 2
Purpose of Letter Expression: 2
Raise public concern Suggest solutions
Create awareness Appeal to authorities
Highlight social/civic issues 3. Language & Tone
Formal, polite, clear, logical, third person

4. Recommended Format - Letter to Editor

Question: Write a letter to the editor highlighting the alarming rise in cyber frauds targeting senior citizens and the need for digital awareness.

Recommended Format

Sender’s Address 123, XYZ Apartments

Green Park, New Delhi
Date can be written in 2 ways. For 12 June 2025
Example: 12 June 2025 or June 12, 2025
The Editor
Receiver’s Address The New India News
New Delhi
Subject line mentions the purpose behind writing
the letter. (It should be in a single sentence) Subject: Rising cases of cyber fraud targeting senior citizens

Salutation Sir/Madam

Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to draw the attention of the concerned
Body of the letter –Paragraph 1 Introduce
yourself and mention the issue or concern. authorities to the increasing cases of cyber fraud affecting senior citizens. Many elderly people, due to lack
of digital awareness, are becoming easy targets of online scams and fraudulent calls.
Body Paragraph 2 – Elaborate on the issue. Several incidents have been reported where senior citizens have lost their life savings to cyber criminals posing
Add details of the problem or matter. as bank officials or government representatives. This has caused fear and anxiety among the elderly population.

Body Paragraph 3 –Ask for help or mention I request the authorities to conduct awareness programmes, strengthen cyber helplines, and ensure strict
what resolution you want. action against offenders to protect senior citizens.

Complimentary Closing I hope this issue receives immediate attention.

Yours faithfully
Sender’s Name, Signature, Designation (if any)
Nandini

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

27
5. Sample Questions – Letter To Editor
SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
You are Jyoti / Jagan of Park Avenue, Karampur. You feel concerned to see A recent survey reveals that advertisements strongly influence both the young and the
people littering roads with complete disregard for sanitation and elderly. Consumers are often attracted by heavy discounts and exaggerated claims made by
cleanliness. As a responsible citizen, write a letter to the editor of a product manufacturers. Write a letter to the editor of a national daily expressing your
national daily highlighting the need for educational institutions to instil views on how advertisements mislead consumers and suggesting ways in which people can
civic responsibility among school children. make informed purchasing decisions.

You may use the following cues along with your own ideas: You are Carol / Philip.
cleanliness drives You may use the following cues along with your own ideas:
spreading awareness campaigns misleading advertisements
eco club activities in schools inaccurate facts and exaggerated features
volunteering for clean-up heavy discounts
workshops and seminars promotion of products with unproven value
distraction through visuals
Answer:
Answer:
Park Avenue
24, Rosewood Apartments
Karampur
Bengaluru
12 June 2025
15 June 2025
The Editor
The Editor
The Hindustan Times
The Indian Express
New Delhi
New Delhi
Subject: Need to instil civic responsibility among school children
Subject: Misleading advertisements and the need for consumer awareness
Sir/Madam,
Sir/Madam,
Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to draw attention
Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to draw attention to the growing
to the growing problem of littering on roads and public places. People often
problem of misleading advertisements that influence consumers of all age groups. Many
throw garbage carelessly, showing complete disregard for cleanliness and
advertisements present inaccurate facts, exaggerate product features, and attract buyers
sanitation.
through heavy discounts and appealing visuals. Products with unproven value are often
promoted aggressively, leading consumers to make impulsive and uninformed purchases.
Educational institutions play a crucial role in shaping responsible citizens.
Schools should organise cleanliness drives, awareness campaigns, and eco-
Such practices create false expectations and result in financial loss and dissatisfaction.
club activities to sensitise students. Workshops and seminars on civic
Consumers must read advertisements carefully, verify claims through reliable sources, and
responsibility can further help inculcate good habits. Encouraging students
compare products before making decisions. Regulatory authorities should also ensure
to volunteer for clean-up activities will develop a sense of ownership
strict monitoring of advertising standards.
towards public spaces.
I request you to publish this letter to create awareness among consumers and draw the
I hope the authorities and schools take effective steps to address this issue.
attention of the concerned authorities.
Yours sincerely
Yours sincerely
Jyoti
Philip

28
 Back to Index

ARTICLE WRITING

1. What is an Article? 2. Total Marks: 5

An article is a written composition on a specific topic that
Component Marks
presents a detailed analysis, opinion, or information about the
subject. It is often aimed at a broad audience and aims to
inform, persuade, or entertain. Format (Title, clear structure, and proper paragraphing) 1

Content (Relevance, clarity, and depth of ideas) 2

Word Limit: 120-150 words
Expression (Coherence, vocabulary, grammar, and creativity) 2

3. Types of Articles 4. Do’s and Don’ts

Category Examples Focus Do's Don'ts

Follow the clear

"The Role of Technology Educating the structure: Title, Don’t stray off-
Informative in Education", reader, providing Introduction, Body, topic.
Articles "Renewable Energy facts, explaining Conclusion.
Sources" concepts
Don’t use slang
Be concise and precise,
Expressing or overly
"Should School Uniforms sticking to the word limit
personal views, informal
Opinion-based Be Made Mandatory?", (100-120 words).
supporting language.
Articles "The Impact of Social
arguments, logical
Media on Youth" Don’t over-
reasoning Engage the reader with
complicate
an appropriate tone.
sentences.
Vividly describing
"A Visit to the Taj scenes or events, Support arguments with
Descriptive Don’t ignore the
Mahal", "The Benefits of engaging sensory relevant facts and
Articles conclusion.
Reading Books" details, emotional examples.
connection

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

29
5. Recommended Format of Article Writing
Question: Digital communication tools have revolutionised the educational landscape. The introduction of online learning platforms, virtual classrooms, and interactive tools
has made education more accessible and engaging. You are Nooran Sheikh. Write an article for the monthly magazine edition of The Progressive Educator and discuss the
role of digital communication in education. Write the article using your own ideas as well as the cues given.

Student engagement Teachers and students' roles

Accessibility of education Learning outcomes

Recommended Format

The Role of Digital Communication in Education Title/Heading

By Nooran Sheikh Byline

(Name of the Writer)

Digital communication tools have significantly transformed the educational landscape, making
learning more accessible, engaging, and effective. Online learning platforms and virtual Introduction:
classrooms have bridged geographical barriers, enabling students to access quality education Overview, Hook, Context
anytime, anywhere. These tools foster student engagement by incorporating interactive features
like quizzes, discussions, and multimedia content, keeping learners motivated and involved.

The roles of both teachers and students have evolved with these advancements. Teachers now
have the ability to use digital tools for more dynamic teaching methods, while students take a Content Body:
more active role in managing their learning. The integration of digital tools has also led to Structure, Clarity. Evidence
improved learning outcomes, as students can revisit lessons, engage in real-time discussions, and
access a variety of resources.

In conclusion, digital communication has revolutionized education, promoting flexibility, Conclusion:

collaboration, and a deeper understanding of the subjects taught. Summary, Reflection. Action

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 Back to Index

6. Sample Questions- Article Questions

1. Opinion-based Article 2. Descriptive Article

Question: In an era of rapid globalisation and technological advancement, the Question:
preservation of cultural heritage remains a vital challenge, particularly for the Write a descriptive article on "The Importance of Nature Walks". Describe the
youth. India continues to navigate the complexities of maintaining tradition benefits of walking in nature, the sights, sounds, and feelings experienced
alongside modernity. Write an article exploring the role of cultural heritage in during such walks, and how they contribute to mental and physical well-being.
shaping the identities of today's Indian youth. Provide examples to illustrate your
points wherever necessary. You may use some of the given cues along with your Answer:
own ideas. You are Arti Nirula of Class XII-A.
How have global interactions and technologies influenced or changed these The Importance of Nature Walks
traditional practices among today's youth? By [Your Name]
What are the benefits of preserving cultural heritage for young people? How
does it contribute to their sense of identity and community? Nature walks provide a refreshing escape from the hustle of everyday life,
Suggest ways in which young people and institutions can work together to offering an opportunity to reconnect with the environment. As I step onto the
ensure the preservation of cultural heritage. soft earth, the crisp air fills my lungs, and the rustling of leaves creates a calming
rhythm in my mind. The vibrant colors of blooming flowers and the chirping of
birds form a serene backdrop, allowing me to relax and unwind.
Answer:
Physically, nature walks improve cardiovascular health and boost energy levels.
The Role of Cultural Heritage in Shaping Youth Identity Mentally, they help reduce stress and enhance creativity by providing a break
By Arti Nirula, Class XII-A from technology and routine. Walking through lush greenery allows one to reflect
and recharge. The peaceful surroundings foster mindfulness, helping individuals
In today’s rapidly globalizing world, the preservation of cultural heritage is a to live in the moment.
challenge, especially for the youth. Global interactions and technological
advancements have greatly influenced traditional practices, often leading to the In conclusion, nature walks are not just about physical exercise but about
dilution of cultural values. However, cultural heritage remains a key element in embracing the therapeutic power of nature to refresh the body and soul, making
shaping the identities of today’s Indian youth, offering a sense of belonging and them a vital part of a balanced lifestyle.
community.

Preserving cultural heritage provides young people with a strong foundation of

values and traditions, helping them connect with their roots while navigating
modern influences. It fosters a deeper understanding of history, encourages
respect for diversity, and strengthens national unity.

To ensure the preservation of cultural heritage, both youth and institutions must
collaborate. Schools and communities can promote cultural activities, encourage
youth involvement in traditional arts, and use technology to make heritage more
accessible. This way, young people can embrace modernity while staying
connected to their rich cultural past.

31
 REPORT WRITING
1. What is Report Writing 2. Total Marks: 5
A report is a formal document that presents information, findings, Component Marks
or analysis on a specific topic, event, or issue. It is structured and
objective, focusing on providing facts, data, and recommendations Format (Title, Byline, Dateline, proper divisions-(Introduction, Body, Conclusion) 1
in a clear and concise manner for a specific audience.
Content (Relevance, clarity, presentation of facts, data, and observations) 2
Word Limit: 100-120 words Expression (Coherence, grammar, vocabulary, and formal tone) 2

3. Types of Report Writing 4. Do's and Don’ts for Report Writing

Category Examples Do's Don'ts

Annual Day Celebration, Don’t use

1. School Use a clear and informal
Inter-school Science
Reports concise format language or
Exhibition, Sports Meet
contractions.
2. Media/ Road Accidents, Natural
Don’t include
Newspaper Disasters (e.g., floods), Stick to the facts
personal
Reports Blood Donation Camps and present them
opinions or
logically.
emotions.
Career Counseling
Seminars, Creative Keep the language Don’t stray off-
3. Event/Process
Writing Workshops, formal, objective topic or include
Reports
Health Awareness and grammatically irrelevant
Drives correct details.

Fire in the Chemistry Ensure coherence Don’t leave out

4. Incident Lab, Theft in the Library, between the essential
Reports Sudden Onset of an introduction, body, information or
Epidemic and conclusion. data.

*Marks and Format as per CBSE guidelines 2025-26.

32
 Back to Index

5. Recommended Format of Report Writing

Question : The environmental awareness campaign was recently organized by your school to promote sustainability and eco-friendly practices. As a member of the student
council, write a report for the school magazine detailing the activities of the campaign. Include the following aspects:
Organisation and significance
Activities carried out
Student participation
Impact on the school community

Recommended Format

Report on Environmental Awareness Campaign

By ABC, Student Council Member Heading with Byline (What)

New Delhi, 14th July 20XX Place and Date (as per question)

XYZ School recently organized an environmental awareness campaign aimed at educating

students and staff about sustainability practices and eco-friendly habits. The event was organized Introduction: Introduce the
by the school's Eco Club, with support from faculty and the student council. The campaign aimed topic and its relevance.
to raise awareness about issues such as waste management, water conservation, and the
importance of reducing carbon footprints.

The campaign included various activities such as tree planting, a waste segregation workshop,
and a poster competition. Students were actively involved in planting saplings around the school
campus and were also given the opportunity to participate in discussions about the importance Body: Organize with cause-
effect or problem-solution,
of sustainability.
supported by facts.
Over 300 students participated, and the event had a positive impact on the school community. It
fostered a sense of responsibility towards the environment and encouraged students to adopt
eco-friendly practices in their daily lives.

In conclusion, the event was a success, and it is hoped that such campaigns will continue to Conclusion: Summarize and
suggest actions.
inspire students to take active steps towards protecting our planet.

33
6. Sample Questions- Report Writing

1. School Reports 2. Media Reports

Question: Imagine you are a student representative at your school. Write a Question: A new community center has been inaugurated in your town to serve
report on the recently held Science Exhibition at your school. as a hub for cultural and social activities. As a reporter for the local newspaper,
write a report on the inauguration event. Include the following details:
Answer:
Dignitaries and guests
Science Exhibition Showcases Young Scientific Talent Significance of the community center
By Student Representative Key activities at the event
Benefits for the local community
A Science Exhibition was successfully organised in our school on 15 July 2025 in
the school auditorium. The event was conducted by the Science Department
with the aim of promoting scientific thinking, innovation, and practical learning Answer:
among students. New Community Center Inaugurated in Chandigarh
By ABC, Reporter
The exhibition was inaugurated by Dr. R. K. Sharma, a renowned scientist from Chandigarh, 15th June 2025, the newly built Community Center was officially
the State Science Centre. Students from Classes IX to XII actively participated inaugurated in Chandigarh. The event was graced by several dignitaries, including
and displayed more than 80 working and non-working models on themes such the Mayor of Chandigarh, and local councillors. A large gathering of community
as renewable energy, artificial intelligence, waste management, robotics, space members, volunteers, and school students attended the ceremony, marking an
science, and health technology. important milestone for the town.

The exhibits included solar-powered devices, rainwater harvesting models, The community center, which spans over 250 square feet, will serve as a hub for
robotic arms, and eco-friendly innovations. Participants confidently explained cultural, educational, and social activities, benefiting people of all ages. The center
their projects to visitors, teachers, and judges, demonstrating a clear is equipped with modern facilities such as a multipurpose hall, classrooms for
understanding of scientific concepts and real-life applications. workshops, and spaces for local artists to showcase their work.
The exhibition attracted parents, teachers, and students from neighbouring
schools. A panel of judges evaluated the projects based on creativity, scientific During the inauguration, a variety of cultural performances were held, including
accuracy, and presentation skills. Prizes were awarded to the best projects, and folk dances, live music, and an art exhibition featuring local artists.
certificates were given to all participants.
The Community Center will provide a space for youth, families, and senior citizens
The Science Exhibition proved to be an enriching and inspiring experience. It to engage in constructive activities, promoting a stronger sense of community and
encouraged curiosity, teamwork, and innovation among students and unity. It is expected to offer a wide range of programs, from yoga classes to career
successfully fulfilled its educational objective. counseling workshops, positively impacting the residents of Chandigarh.

34
 Back to Index

3. Event/Process Reports 4. Incident Reports

Question: You are Hina Aziz, student of Class XII-D and a Question: A minor accident occurred in the school playground during the sports day. Write
member of the school magazine editorial board. Write a an incident report as the head of the safety committee, detailing the following aspects:
comprehensive report detailing the activities undertaken by What happened
students as part of the celebrations on Yoga Day. Include Immediate actions taken
descriptions of the events, participation details, and the overall Follow-up steps and preventive measures
impact of these activities on the school community. You may Suggestions for future safety improvements
organise your report by following - Who - What – When –
Where – Why – How. (Actual Question.) Answer:
Incident Report: Minor Accident during Sports Day
Answer: By ABC, Head of Safety Committee
Report on Yoga Day Celebrations XYZ School, 18th June 2025, During the annual Sports Day at XYZ School, a minor accident
By Hina Aziz, Class XII-D occurred in the playground. A student from Class IX, [Student Name], tripped while running
during the 100-meter race and sustained a sprained ankle. The student was immediately
XYZ School, 21st June 2025, attended to by the first aid team and was escorted to the school infirmary for further
XYZ School celebrated Yoga Day on 21st June 2025 with great treatment.
enthusiasm. Organized by the school’s Sports and Wellness
Committee, the event aimed to promote physical and mental The incident was reported to the Sports Day coordinator, and the injured student’s parents
well-being. The yoga sessions, held from 7:00 AM to 9:00 AM in were contacted. The student’s condition was stable, and they were advised to rest and avoid
the school’s open auditorium and playground, were led by physical activity for a few days.
professional instructors. Students, along with several teachers,
actively participated in a variety of yoga practices, including As a follow-up, the safety committee conducted a review of the incident. It was determined
asanas, breathing exercises, and meditation. that the race track area had no visible obstructions, but the student had not been wearing
the required sports shoes, which contributed to the fall. To prevent similar incidents in the
Over 300 students participated, and the atmosphere was future, the committee has recommended that all students be reminded to wear appropriate
serene and focused, contributing to a successful event. The footwear for sports activities. Additionally, a brief safety awareness session will be
students reported feeling relaxed and energized after the conducted prior to each event to ensure that all students are aware of safety protocols.
sessions. The event highlighted the importance of health,
fitness, and mindfulness in daily life. In conclusion, the incident was handled promptly, but further emphasis on safety equipment
and preparation is essential to prevent accidents in future events.
In conclusion, the Yoga Day celebrations were a success,
bringing the school community together. It is recommended
that such events be organized regularly to encourage wellness
and balance in students' lives.

35
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LITERATURE
FLAMINGO

37
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 1: THE LAST LESSON

AUTHOR: ALPHONSE DAUDET

Brief Summary Important Themes Common Question-Focus Areas

The story is set during the Franco-Prussian War Focus on theme-based long and short Character-Based Questions
(1870–71) in the French districts of Alsace and answers: M. Hamel: patriot, dedicated teacher,
Lorraine, captured by Prussia. An order from Berlin Linguistic Chauvinism emotional, self-critical
declares that German will replace French as the Forcing a dominant language on others. Franz: carefree → regretful →
medium of instruction in schools. Prussians impose German, suppressing awakened
French identity. Villagers: collective guilt and respect
The narrator Franz, a schoolboy afraid of being Importance of Mother Tongue Extract-Based Questions
scolded for not preparing participles, reaches school Language preserves culture, unity, and Mood and tone (shock,
to find an unusual silence. He learns from his teacher, freedom. regret,patriotism)
M. Hamel that this is their last French lesson. Loss of language = loss of identity. Symbolism (language = key, pigeons)
Regret and Lost Opportunities Inference questions (why villagers
Villagers attend the class to show respectand regret Franz, villagers, and even M. Hamel regret came, why silence)
for neglecting their mother tongue.M. Hamel delivers neglecting French.
a deeply emotional lesson, highlighting the beauty Realisation comes too late.
and importance of the French language, calling it the Patriotism and National Identity
key to freedom. He ends the lesson by writing: “Vive La France!” symbolizes resistance.
“Vive La France!” Love for language equals love for the
nation.
The story stresses language as identity, patriotism, Role of a Dedicated Teacher
regret, and the danger of taking things for granted. M. Hamel as a true patriot and sincere
teacher.
Accepts responsibility for students’
neglect.

Key Phrases / Extract Lines

These lines are frequent extract-based or
reference-based questions:
“This is your last French lesson.” Symbols to Remember
“When a people are enslaved, as long as they hold Symbol Meaning
fast to their language, it is as if they had the key to
their prison.” French language Freedom & identity
“Vive La France!” Blackboard message Silent resistance
“What a thunderclap these words were to me!”
“Will they make them sing in German, even the Sunday clothes Respect & farewell
pigeons?” Villagers in class Collective regret
“Poor man! It was in honor of this last lesson that he
Pigeons Natural freedom
had put on his fine Sunday clothes.”

38
 CHAPTER 2: LOST SPRING
AUTHOR: ANEES JUNG

Brief Summary Common Question-Focus Areas

Lost Springpresents the harsh reality of child labour Character-Based Questions
and poverty through the lives of two children— Saheb-e-Alam: innocent, deprived,
Saheb-e-Alam and Mukesh. symbol of lost childhood
Mukesh: hopeful, courageous, symbol of
Part I – Sometimes I Find a Rupee in the Garbage resistance
Saheb, a ragpicker from Seemapuri (Delhi), migrated Bangle makers: helpless victims of
from Bangladesh with his family. Poverty forces him tradition and poverty
to pick garbage, which is his “gold”. Though he Extract-Based Questions
attends no school, he dreams of playing tennis. When Symbolism of garbage, bangles, lost
he starts working at a tea stall, he earns ₹800 but spring
loses his freedom, showing how poverty crushes Irony in children’s statements
childhood dreams. Inference-based meanings

Part II – I Want to Drive a Car

Mukesh belongs to Firozabad, the centre of India’s
bangle industry. Children work in dangerous Important Themes
Symbols to Remember
conditions, exposed to heat and glass dust. Mukesh
Loss of Childhood
dreams of becoming a car mechanic, daring to break Symbol Meaning
Children forced into labour insteadof
the family tradition. However, social pressure,
school. Garbage Survival and hope
poverty, and exploitation trap most children in the
Innocence replaced by responsibility and
same cycle. Spring Youth and childhood
survival.
Poverty and Migration Bangles Tradition and bondage
The chapter highlights systemic exploitation, loss of
Refugees like Saheb live withoutidentity
childhood, and social injustice. Tennis shoes Lost dreams
or security.
Lack of basic facilities keeps them Car Freedom and aspiration
trapped.
Child Labour and Exploitation
Children work in hazardous conditions.
Key Phrases / Extract Lines Employers benefit whilechildren remain
“Sometimes I find a rupee in the garbage.” poor.
“Garbage to them is gold.” Social Injustice and Apathy
“Together they have imposed the baggage on the Government laws exist but are ineffective.
child that he cannot put down.” Society accepts exploitation as “normal”.
“Lost spring.” Dreams vs Reality
“Why should I learn to make bangles when I can drive Saheb dreams of tennis.
a car?” Mukesh dreams of becoming a mechanic.
“The bangle makers are caught in a vicious circle.” Dreams are crushedby harsh realities.

39
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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 3: DEEP WATER

AUTHOR: WILLIAM DOUGLAS

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

Very frequent extract-based questions from these:
Deep Water is an autobiography Character-Based Questions
“The terror that gripped me in the water.”
describing the author’s fear of William Douglas: determined, reflective, courageous
“I was paralysed with fear.”
water & his struggle to overcome it. Instructor: patient, methodical, supportive
“The fear of water had deprivedme of the joys of
Bully: irresponsible, careless (symbolof sudden
canoeing, boatingand swimming.”
William Douglas develops a fear of trauma)
“All we have to fear is fear itself.”
water after two traumatic incidents: Extract-Based Questions
“I crossed to oblivion.”
Being knocked down by waves Use of imagery(darkness, suffocation, panic)
“At last I felt released—free to walk the trails.”
at a beach in California Description of near-death experience
Being thrown into the deep end Psychological transformation
of a swimming pool by a bully at
the YMCA
Important Themes
The second incident leaves him
Fear and Its Psychological Impact
terrified, helpless & nearly
·Fear can paralyze both body and mind.
drowning. This fear continues into Symbols to Remember
·Psychological fear lasts longer than physical injury.
adulthood, preventing him from
Willpower and Determination
enjoying water activities. Symbol Meaning
·Douglas decides to fight his fear systematically.
·Persistence leads to victory. Deep water Fear and danger
Determined to overcome it, Douglas
Courage and Self-Confidence Instructor Guidance and support
hires an instructor, who trains him
·Facing fear buildsinner strength.
step-by-step using breathing Swimming pool Psychological trauma
·True courage is confronting inner weaknesses.
exercises, paddling & kicking
Freedom Through Self-Conquest Lakes and rivers Final testing ground
techniques. Though he learns to
· Overcoming fear restores joy and independence.
swim, the psychological fear Fear Inner enemy
·Personal victory leads to emotional freedom.
remains.

Douglas finally conquers it by

challenging himself in lakes and
rivers. When he realises that the
fear has vanished, he experiences a
deep sense of freedom and
confidence.

The chapter highlights that fear is

more dangerous than physical
danger and can be defeated through
willpower and perseverance.

41
 CHAPTER 4: THE RATTRAP
AUTHOR: SELMA LAGERLÖF

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

The Rattrap is a moral and These lines are frequently used for extract-based Character-Based Questions
philosophical story that questions: The Peddler: cynical → greedy → repentant →
highlights the basic goodness in “The whole world is a rattrap.” reformed
human beings. “It offered riches & joys, shelter & food, heat & clothing.” Edla Willmansson: compassionate, kind,moral
“He had let himself be fooled by a bait.” strength
The story revolves around a “The rat trap had closed on him.” Ironmaster: authoritative, impatient, class-
poor peddler who sells “She did not want him to go away.” conscious
rattraps. One day, he compares “The rattrap was not a prison for him any longer.” Crofter: trusting, lonely, naïve
the world to a giant rattrap, Extract-Based Questions
where material temptations Explanation of the rattrap metaphor
act as bait and trap people. Psychological conflict of the peddler
Important Themes Contrast between Edla and Ironmaster
The peddler takes shelter with a The World as a Rattrap (Central Metaphor)
lonely crofter, who trusts him Material temptations lure people.
and shares his savings. Once tempted, escape becomes difficult.
Tempted by the money, the Human Greed and Consequences
peddler steals it and escapes Greed leads to moral downfall.
into the forest. Soon, he Theft traps the peddler in fear and guilt.
realises that he himself has Power of Kindness and Compassion
been caught in the rattrap of Edla’s empathy reforms the peddler.
greed. Human goodness can awaken conscience.
Redemption and Transformation
Later, he meets Edla The peddler transforms from thief to honest man.
Willmansson, whose kindness Trust restores self-worth.
and compassion transform him.
Unlike her father, she treats the
peddler with dignity. Touched
by her generosity, the peddler Symbols to Remember
repents, returns the stolen
money, and reforms. Symbol Meaning
Rattrap World full of temptations
The story conveys that love,
trust, and compassion have the Forest Moral confusion
power to bring about moral Crofter’s money Bait of greed
transformation.
Edla Compassion and hope
Christmas spirit Redemption

42
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 5: INDIGO
AUTHOR: LOUIS FISCHER

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines

Indigo is a biographical account describing Mahatma Gandhi’s role in the Champaran movement These lines are very frequently asked in extract-based
(1917), the first successful civil disobedience movement in India. questions:
“The peasants were crushed and fear-stricken.”
Gandhi visits Champaran (Bihar) after being requested by Rajkumar Shukla, a poor peasant, to look “The battle of Champaran is won.”
into the exploitation of indigo farmers by British landlords. The peasants were forced to grow “Freedom from fear is more important than legal justice.”
indigo on 15% of their land (tinkathia system) and sell it at very low prices. “They thought he would demand repayment.”
“Civil disobedience triumphed for the first time in modern
Gandhi defies British authority, gathers evidence, and mobilises peasants peacefully. The India.”
government appoints a committee, and Gandhi secures the refund of illegal compensation to “Gandhi believed in self-reliance.”
farmers. More importantly, peasants gain courage, unity, and self-respect.

The chapter highlights that true freedom is freedom from fear, and leadership lies in
service, truth, and non-violence. Common Question-Focus Areas
Character-Based Questions
Mahatma Gandhi: visionary leader, fearless,
compassionate
Important Themes Rajkumar Shukla: determined, loyal, symbol of suffering
Exploitation of Peasants British officials: authoritative, exploitative
British landlords forced farmers to cultivate Champaran peasants: oppressed → united → confident
indigo. Extract-Based Questions
Economic injustice and oppression prevailed. Significance of civil disobedience
Gandhian Philosophy Meaning of “freedom from fear”
Truth, non-violence, civil disobedience. Gandhian methods and leadership traits
Moral strength over brute force.
Freedom from Fear
Psychological freedom more important than
money. Symbols to Remember
Peasants gain confidence and unity.
Leadership and Social Service Symbol Meaning
Gandhi leads by example. Indigo cultivation Colonial exploitation
Focus on long-termempowerment, not
instantgain. Champaran Awakening of resistance
Self-Reliance and Education Tinkathia system Economic injustice
Gandhi promotes cleanliness, education, and
Civil disobedience Moral courage
health.
Indians must solve their own problems. Refund Partial victory, moral triumph

43
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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 6: POETS AND PANCAKES

AUTHOR: ASOKAMITRAN

Brief Summary Important Themes Key Phrases / Extract Lines

Poets and Pancakes is a humorous autobiographical Satire on Film Industry “This was the hierarchy at Gemini Studios.”
account of the author’s experiences at Gemini Exposes artificial glamour. “The make-up department was the largest and the
Studios, a famous film studio in Chennai. Shows insecurity, rivalry, noisiest.”
and hierarchy. “Everyone thought he was a communist.”
Asokamitran describes the make-up department, Role of Appearances “I did not understand what he was talking about.”
which used a brand of make-up called Pancake that Heavy make-up hides “The office boy was convinced that Subbu was the cause
often caused skin problems. The studio environment reality. of his misery.”
was full of confusion, hierarchy, gossip, and egos. Outer glamour contrasts “The poet’s visit was an unexplained mystery.”
inner emptiness.
The author also narrates the role of the Office Boy, Miscommunication and
who believed he was a great artist but blamed Subbu Ignorance
(the producer’s favourite) for his failures. Subbu, in Staff fails to understand
contrast, was generous, creative, and supportive. English poet. Common Question-Focus Areas
Lack of awareness about Character-Based Questions
The chapter introduces a mysterious visitor, an Communism. Asokamitran (Narrator): observant, humorous,
English poet who speaks about Communism. The Jealousy and Human Nature reflective
staff, unfamiliar with English poetry and political Office boy resents Subbu. Subbu: creative, generous, adaptable
ideology, fail to understand him. Talent often Office Boy: frustrated, jealous, delusional
overshadowed by envy. English Poet: intellectual, misunderstood
Through irony and satire, the chapter exposes the Power and Hierarchy Extract-Based Questions
pretentiousness, ignorance, and narrow- Strict divisions among Satirical tone
mindedness of people working in the film industry. staff. Irony in characters’ beliefs
Influence determines Contrast between appearance and reality
success.

Symbols to Remember
Symbol Meaning
Pancake make-up Artificiality
Gemini Studios Film industry
Office boy Frustration and jealousy
Subbu Talent and adaptability
English poet Misunderstood intellect

45
 CHAPTER 7: THE INTERVIEW
AUTHORS: PART I: CHRISTOPHER SILVESTER, PART II: INTERVIEW WITH UMBERTO ECO

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

Part I – The Interview as a Genre These lines are frequently used in Character-Based Questions
Christopher Silvester traces the history extract-based questions: Definition and role of interviews
and significance of interviews. He “Some people claim that interviews are Advantages and disadvantages of interviews
explains how interviews have become a an intrusion into the private lives of Interviews as historical records
powerful means of understanding celebrities.” Extract-Based Questions
personalities, opinions, and creative “An interview is a supremely serviceable Umberto Eco: intellectual, disciplined,
processes of public figures. medium of communication.” philosophical
The chapter highlights contrasting views “I use the interstices of time.” Interviewer (Mukund Padmanabhan): perceptive,
on interviews: “The Name of the Rose became a balanced
Some see interviews as intrusive bestseller.”
and harmful “I am a university professor who writes
Others consider them valuable tools novels on Sundays.”
for truth and self-expression “The interview helps us understand the
Despite criticism, interviews shape man behind the mask.”
public perception, preserve ideas, and
document lives.

Part II – An Interview with Umberto Eco

Mukund Padmanabhan interviews
Umberto Eco, a famous novelist and
scholar. Eco discusses:
His academic background Important Themes
His ability to write both fiction and
non-fiction Interviews as a Powerful Medium
The concept of “interstices”—using Help reveal personality and ideology
small gaps of time productively Influence public opinion
His novel The Name of the Rose, Intrusion vs Information Symbols to Remember
which became popular despite Debate over privacy vs. curiosity
Ethical concerns of interviews Symbol Meaning
being serious and intellectual
Eco explains that success was Creativity and Intellectual Discipline Interview Medium of truth and influence
unexpected, and he dislikes being Eco’s disciplined use of time
Interstices Productive use of time
labelled as merely a novelist. He views Writing as a planned, scholarly process
writing as a carefully structured Fame and Identity Bestseller Mass appeal vs seriousness
intellectual activity. Eco resists being defined by popularity Mask Public image
Intellectual work over celebrity status
Genre Form of communication

46
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 8: GOING PLACES

AUTHOR: A. R. BARTON

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

Going Places explores the world of “She was so engrossed in her own fantasy.” Character-Based Questions
adolescent fantasies, hero-worship, “He was a young Irish footballer.” Sophie: imaginative, dreamy, unrealistic
and the gap between dreams and “Sophie felt a tightening in her throat.” Jansie: practical, realistic, grounded
reality through Sophie, a teenage girl. “She waited there till dusk fell.” Geoff: reserved, understanding, mature
“She pictured herself in the stories.” Danny Casey: symbol of fame and illusion
Sophie belongs to a lower-middle-class “The future was a beautiful thing.” Extract-Based Questions
family and frequently imagines a Emotional conflict
glamorous future—becoming a fashion Use of imagination
designer, actress, or owning a boutique. Contrast between fantasy and reality
Her fantasies are encouraged by her
best friend Jansie, though Jansie is more
practical.
Important Themes
Sophie idolises Danny Casey, a young
football star. She imagines meeting him, Adolescent Fantasies
having a date, and later believes he Teenagers dream big to escape
stood her up. These fantasies help her routine life.
escape her monotonous reality, but also Imagination offers temporary
isolate her emotionally. happiness.
Hero-Worship
Her brother Geoff understands her Sophie idolises Danny Casey.
need for escape but recognises the Media creates unrealistic
danger of such unrealistic dreams. The expectations.
chapter ends on a note of Dreams vs Reality
disillusionment, revealing how Sophie’s dreams clash with her social
fantasies can comfort yet mislead. reality.
Reality eventually shatters illusions. Symbols to Remember
Escapism
Fantasies act as emotional refuge. Symbol Meaning
Escapism leads to isolation. Danny Casey Unrealistic dreams
Social Class and Limitations
Boutique Desire for status
Economic background restricts
ambitions. United match World of fantasy
Hard work, not fantasy, brings success. Geoff Silent support
Waiting by canal Illusion and disappointment

47
 POEM 1: MY MOTHER AT SIXTY-SIX
POET: KAMALA DAS

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

The poem captures the poet’s sudden realisation These lines are very frequently used in Poetic Devices (High-Scoring Area)
of her mother’s aging and mortality during a extract-based questions:
drive from her parents’ home to the airport. “Her face ashen like that of a corpse” Device Example Effect
“Old familiar ache, my childhood’s “ashen like that of a Emphasises ageing
As Kamala Das looks at her mother, asleep in the fear” Simile
corpse” & death
car, she notices her ashen, pale face, which “Young trees sprinting”
reminds her of a corpse. This triggers a deep, “Children spillingout of their homes” Imagery airport, trees, children Visual contrast
painful fear of losing her mother. “See you soon, Amma” Forced
“Smiled and smiled and smiled” Repetition “smiled and smiled”
reassurance
To distract herself, the poet looks outside at
young trees sprinting and happy children, symbols Contrast youth vs age Life vs death
of life, energy, and continuity. However, the fear
returns when she looks at her mother again at the Extract-Based Questions
airport. Emotional response of the poet
Important Themes Meaning of metaphors and similes
Before leaving, the poet smiles and says “See you Contrast between inner fear and outer smile
Fear of Loss and Death
soon, Amma”, hiding her fear behind a brave
Poet fears losing her aging mother.
expression. The poem reflects love, anxiety,
Death is inevitable and universal.
separation, and acceptance of the inevitability of
Ageing and Mortality
death.
Mother’s physical decline reflects
human fragility.
Contrast between youth & old age.
Childhood Fear
Fear of separation has existed since
childhood.
Symbols to Remember Age does not diminish emotional
bonds.
Symbol Meaning Love and Filial Attachment
Deep emotional connection
Ashen face Nearness of death
between mother and daughter.
Young tress Youth & vitality Silent expression of love.
Children Continuity of life Acceptance and Emotional Maturity
Poet hides her pain behind a smile.
Smile Emotional strength Acceptance of reality without
Airport Separation dramatization.

48
 Back to Index

POEM 2: KEEPING QUIET

POET: PABLO NERUDA

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines

The poem is a meditative appeal to humanity to These lines are very frequently used in extract-
observe a brief moment of silence and stillness. The based questions:
poet asks everyone to count till twelve and stop all “Now we will count to twelve and we will all keep
activity, including speaking, moving, or working. still.”
“For once on the face of the earth, let’s not speak
This pause is not about death or total inactivity, but in any language.”
about self-reflection and introspection. Neruda “Fishermen in the cold sea would not harm
believes that silence can help humans understand whales.”
themselves, realise the futility of violence, and “Those who prepare green wars, wars with gas,
develop a sense of universal brotherhood. wars with fire.”
“A sudden strangeness.”
Through examples like fishermen harming whales “Life is what it is about.”
and wars and green wars, the poet criticises human
greed,destruction, and exploitation of nature. Silence
would help mankind realise the importance of peace,
harmony, and coexistence.
Important Themes
The poem ends with the poet returning to his work,
emphasising that silence is only a temporary pause, Importance of Silence
not an escape from life. Silence leads to self-awareness. Common Question-Focus Areas
Helps humans reconnect with Poetic Devices (High-Scoring Area)
themselves.
Peace and Non-Violence Device Example Effect
Condemnation of wars and Emphasises
violence. Repetition “wars… wars”
destruction
Symbols to Remember Silence promotes harmony.
Man and Nature Relationship Symbolism Counting to twelve Unity of humanity
Symbol Meaning Humans exploit nature for profit. Moment of
Pause allows respect for nature. Metaphor “sudden strangeness”
Counting to twelve Unity and completeness realisation
Universal Brotherhood
Silence Self-reflection Silence removes barriers of Imagery fishermen, wars Visual impact
Fishermen Human exploitation language and nationality.
Creates unity. Extract-Based Questions
Wars Violence & destruction Reflection, Not Inaction Meaning of silence and stillness
Sudden Strangeness Awakening Poet clarifies silence is temporary. Citicism of human actions
Life must continue with awareness. Poet’s tone (appeal, concern)

49
 POEM 3: A THING OF BEAUTY
POET: JOHN KEATS

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

The poem is an excerpt from Keats’s long “A thing of beautyis a joy forever.” Poetic Devices (High-Scoring Area)
poem Endymion and celebrates the “Its loveliness increases; it will never
everlasting power of beauty. According to pass into nothingness.” Device Example Effect
the poet, a thing of beauty gives eternal “A bower quiet for us.” “endless Beauty as eternal
joy and continues to uplift the human “In spite of all, some shapeof beauty Metaphor
fountain” source
spirit. moves away the pall.”
“An endless fountain of immortal Imagery sun, moon, trees Sensory appeal
Keats believes that beauty acts as a drink.” Alliteration “noble natures” Musical quality
healing force in a world full of suffering, “From our dark spirits.”
Symbolism beauty Hope and joy
pain, and despair. Despite human cruelty,
greed, and negativity, beautiful things like
nature, noble deeds, and legends provide Extract-Based Questions
comfort and hope. Meaning of “joy forever”
Role of beauty in human life
The poet lists examples of beauty—the Contrast between suffering and beauty
sun, moon, trees, flowers, clear streams,
and heroic tales—which help us overcome
sadness and strengthen our connection
with life. Beauty, therefore, becomes a
source of spiritual nourishment. Important Themes
Power of Beauty
Beauty gives permanent joy.
It leaves a lasting impact on the soul.
Beauty as a Healing Force
Helps overcome sadness and despair.
Symbols to Remember Removes negativity from human life.
Nature as Source of Beauty
Symbol Meaning Natural objects uplift the spirit.
Beauty Eternal joy Nature provides peace and comfort.
Transience of Life vs Permanence of Beauty
Dark spirits Negativity and despair Human life is temporary.
Bower Peace and shelter Beauty remains eternal through memory &
impact.
Fountain Everlasting source Escapism through Aesthetic Pleasure
Legends Noble human values Beauty provides relief from harsh realities.
Acts as spiritual sustenance.

50
 Back to Index

POEM 4: A ROADSIDE STAND

POET: ROBERT FROST

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

The poem highlights the “The little old house was out with a little new shed.” Poetic Devices (High-Scoring Area)
plight of poor rural people “The polished traffic passed with a mind ahead.” Device Example Effect
living by highways who set “The hurt to the scenery wouldn’t be my complaint.”
“greedy good-
up small roadside stands “The childish longing in their faces.” Irony Exposes hypocrisy
hoping to earn a little money “Greedy good-doers, beneficent beasts of prey.” doers”
from passing motorists. “I can’t help owning the great relief it would be.” Imagery roadside stand, cars Visual contrast
“polished traffic
Instead of helping them, the Alliteration Rhythm
wealthy city people ignore or passed”
mock these stands. The Metaphor beasts of prey Exploitation
villagers’ dreams of a better
life remain unfulfilled, while Extract-Based Questions
the urban rich remain Poet’s attitude towards rural poor
indifferent to their suffering. Meaning of ironic phrases
Social criticism
The poet criticises economic
inequality, urban selfishness
and false promises made by
politicians and social
reformers who talk about
progress but fail to improve Important Themes
rural lives. Rural Poverty and Exploitation
Villagers struggle for survival.
The poem ends with the poet Their hopes are ignored by urban society.
expressing a momentary Urban–Rural Divide
wish to put the villagers out Symbols to Remember City people live comfortably.
of their misery, but he Rural people remain marginalised.
immediately realises that Symbol Meaning False Promises of Development
such thoughts are wrong. Politicians and planners exploit the poor.
True relief lies in economic Roadside stand Rural hope Development benefits only the rich.
justice and empathy, not Polished traffic Urban indifference Indifference of the Rich
escape through death. Motorists ignore roadside stands.
City money Economic inequality
Lack of empathy worsens inequality.
Greedy good-doers Hypocritical reformers Human Compassion and Moral Conflict
Childish longing Innocent hope Poet sympathises deeply.
Struggles between emotion & moral reasoning.

51
 POEM 5: AUNT JENNIFER’S TIGERS
POET: ADRIENNE RICH

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines

The poem portrays the silent suffering of “Aunt Jennifer’s fingers fluttering
women in a patriarchal society through through her wool.”
the character of Aunt Jennifer. She is “The massive weight of Uncle’s
trapped in an oppressive marriage, wedding band.”
symbolised by her trembling hands and “Prancing, proud and unafraid.”
the heavy wedding ring. “They do not fear the men beneath the
tree.”
Aunt Jennifer expresses her suppressed “Still ringed with ordeals she was
desires and longing for freedom through mastered by.”
her art— embroidering tigers on a screen. “Will go on prancing.”
These tigers are strong, fearless, and free,
sharply contrasting with her own fearful
life.

Even after Aunt Jennifer’s death, the Important Themes

tigers will continue to prance proudly,
symbolising the permanence of her spirit Female Oppression and Patriarchy
and unfulfilled dreams. The poem Marriage as a source of
highlights female oppression, resilience, domination.
and the power of art as silent protest. Woman’s individuality suppressed.
Fear vs Freedom Common Question-Focus Areas
Aunt Jennifer lives in fear. Poetic Devices (High-Scoring Area)
Tigers represent courage and
independence. Device Example Effect
Art as Escape and Resistance Symbolism Tigers Freedom & strength
Embroidery becomes a medium of
Symbols to Remember expression. Metaphor Wedding band Oppression
Art outlives suffering. Imagery Fluttering fingers Fear and weakness
Symbol Meaning Gender Inequality
Tigers Freedom and courage Social expectations burden women. Aunt Jennifer vs
Contrast Bondage vs freedom
Male dominance restricts female Tigers
Wedding ring Marital oppression
freedom.
Embroidery Silent resistance Immortality of Art Extract-Based Questions
Fluttering fingers Fear Tigers live on even after Aunt Meaning of symbols (tigers, ring)
Jennifer’s death. Contrast between fear and strength
Prancing tigers Eternal hope Art symbolises eternal hope. Feminist message

52
 Back to Index

LITERATURE
VISTAS

53
 CHAPTER 1: THE THIRD LEVEL
AUTHOR: JACK FINNEY

Brief Summary Important Themes Common Question-Focus Areas

The Third Level is a psychological fantasy that explores Escapism Character-Based Questions
the theme of escapism from the anxieties of modern Desire to escape modern anxieties. Charley: anxious, imaginative, escapist
life. The story is narrated by Charley, a man living in a Retreat into an imagined peaceful Sam Weiner: practical, adventurous,
world filled with fear, war, insecurity & stress. past. decisive
Reality vs Fantasy Louisa: supportive, realistic
Charley believes that while travelling through Grand Thin line between imagination and Psychiatrist: rational, scientific thinker
Central Station in New York, he accidentally reality. Extract-Based Questions
discovered a mysterious third level—a place that does Uncertainty keeps the mystery Meaning of “waking dream”
not exist in reality. This third level transports him back alive. Why the third level appeals to Charley
to Galesburg, Illinois, in 1894, a time he considers Psychological Stress of Modern Life Evidence that supports or questions the
peaceful, slow, and humane. Unlike the modern War, insecurity, and pressure cause reality of the third level
world, Galesburg represents simplicity, order, and mental strain.
happiness, where people are relaxed and life is free Fantasy becomes a coping
from pressure. mechanism.
Time Travel as Symbol
Charley’s wife, Louisa, and his psychiatrist friend Not literal science fiction.
dismiss this experience as a “waking-dream wish Represents mental escape rather
fulfilment”, suggesting that Charley’s mind created than physical movement.
this illusion as an escape from modern stress. Human Desire for Simplicity
According to the psychiatrist, many people seek refuge Past seen as calm, orderly, and
through hobbies, fantasies, or dreams, and Charley’s humane.
stamp collecting supports this idea. Contrast with the chaotic present.

However, the story takes a surprising turn when

Charley finds real evidence—old-style currency, a first-
day cover, and a letter written by his friend Sam Key Phrases / Extract Lines
Weiner, who claims to have escaped permanently to
Galesburg. This letter blurs the line between reality “I’ve been on the third level of the Grand Symbols to Remember
and imagination, making the reader question whether Central Station.” Symbol Meaning
the third level is merely a psychological illusion or an “The modern world is full of insecurity,
actual portal to the past. fear, war, worry.” Third level Escape from reality
“A waking-dream wish fulfilment.” Galesburg Ideal, peaceful past
The story ultimately suggests that escapism is a “I wanted two hundreddollars worth of
old-style currency.” Grand Central Station Confusing modern life
natural human response to the stress and chaos of
modern life, and sometimes fantasy provides “He has been in Galesburg for two Old currency Authenticity of fantasy
emotional comfort when reality becomes weeks.”
Link between fantasy &
overwhelming. “That’s the reason, the psychiatrist said.” First-day cover
reality

54
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 2: THE TIGER KING

AUTHOR: KALKI

Brief Summary Important Themes Common Question-Focus

The Tiger King is a satirical story that exposes the arrogance of power, Arrogance of Power Areas
blind belief in fate, and the misuse of authority. The story revolves Rulers misuse authority to satisfy Character-Based Questions
around the Maharaja of Pratibandapuram, who comes to be known as ego. The Tiger King (Maharaja):
the Tiger King. Power blinds the Maharaja to arrogant, obsessive, tyrannical
consequences. Astrologer: cunning, fearful,
At the time of his birth, astrologers predict that the prince will be killed Fate vs Free Will opportunistic
by a tiger. Instead of fearing death, the prince mockingly asks the The Maharaja tries to control Dewan: loyal, submissive,
astrologers about the cause of his death, showing his arrogance. When destiny. manipulative
he becomes king, he decides to defy fate by killing all the tigers in his Fate triumphs in an ironic manner. British officer: symbol of colonial
kingdom. Satire on Kingship and Bureaucracy arrogance
Astrologers, ministers, and officials Extract-Based Questions
The Maharajabans tiger hunting by others and kills 99 tigers himself. flatter power. Use of irony and satire
When tigers become scarce, he marries a princess from a kingdom rich Truth is suppressed to please the Significance of the prophecy
in tigers and continues his mission. His reckless obsession leads to mass ruler. How fate operates in the story
slaughter of wildlife and misuse of royal power. Environmental Destruction
Indiscriminate killing of tigers.
Ironically, the Maharaja survives the 99 tigers but is finally killed by a Human greed leads to ecological
wooden toy tiger, whose splinter causes infection. The astrologer’s imbalance.
prophecy comes true in an unexpected manner. Irony and Humour
Death comes from a toy tiger, not a
The story criticises dictatorial rulers, blind faith in astrology, and the real one.
destruction caused by human pride, proving that no one can escape Serious themes conveyed
destiny. humorously.

Symbols to Remember
Key Phrases / Extract Lines Symbol Meaning
“The hundredth tiger was the cause of the Tiger King’s death.” Tiger Power and fate
“The prophecy was that the Maharaja would be killed by a tiger.” Toy tiger Irony of destiny
“The Tiger King became famous for his mania for tiger hunting.”
“You may kill ninety-nine tigers, but beware of the hundredth.” Astrologer Blind faith
“The astrologer was warned to be careful.” Crown Absolute authority
“The operation was successful. The Maharaja was dead.”
Hunting Abuse of power

55
 CHAPTER 3: JOURNEY TO THE END OF THE EARTH
AUTHOR: TISHANI DOSHI

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

Journey to the End of the Earth is a travel- “Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and Character-Based Questions
cum-reflective narrative describing the windiest continent.” What is the Students on Ice programme?
author’s visit to Antarctica, the coldest and “It holds the key to the Earth’s past.” Why is Antarctica important for understanding
most remote continent on Earth. Tishani “A place where human civilisation has climate?
Doshi travels as part of a Students on Ice never existed.” How is Gondwana relevant?
expedition, which aims to educate young “The world’s geological history is trapped Extract-Based Questions
people about climate change and in ice.” Description of Antarctica
environmental responsibility. “A warning about the future of our Scientific references
planet.” Environmental message
The author describes Antarctica as a vast, “The Students on Ice programme.”
desolate landscape of ice, silence, and
beauty, untouched by human civilisation.
She highlights its importance as a
storehouse of Earth’s geological history,
where layers of ice preserve records of
Important Themes
changes over millions of years. Environmental Awareness
The chapter also explains the Gondwana Antarctica highlights the impact of
landmass, which existed about 650 million climate change.
years ago, when Antarctica was part of a Need for conservation and sustainable
warm continent with forests and wildlife. living.
The breaking apart of Gondwana led to Human Impact on Nature
drastic climatic changes, shaping the Industrialisation has disturbed
planet as it is today. ecological balance.
Global warming threatens fragile
Doshi reflects on how human activities, ecosystems.
industrialisation, and population growth Antarctica as a Time Machine
have caused global warming, threatening Ice preserves Earth’s climatic history.
the delicate Antarctic ecosystem. Melting Helps scientists predict future changes. Symbols to Remember
ice sheets could raise sea levels, Interconnectedness of Life
Actions in one part of the world affect Symbol Meaning
endangering coastal regions worldwide.
the whole planet. Antarctica Fragile Earth
The journey becomes a powerful reminder Humanity shares responsibility for
Ice layers Climatic history
that human survival depends on Earth’s future.
respecting nature, and Antarctica serves Education and Responsibility Gondwana Earth’s evolution
as a warning and a lesson about the Young people must be sensitised to Students on Ice Awareness and education
consequences of environmental neglect. environmental issues.
Knowledge leads to responsible action. Silence Nature’s purity

56
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 4: THE ENEMY

AUTHOR: PEARL S. BUCK

Brief Summary Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas

The Enemy is a war-time story that “If he were a common soldier, he would be killed.” Character-Based Questions
examines humanity, professional “The man was their enemy.” Dr. Sadao: compassionate, courageous, ethical
ethics, and moral courage against the “I will not let him die.” Hana: supportive, sensitive, morally strong
backdrop of the Second World War. “The general had a narrow escape.” American Soldier: helpless, symbolic of shared
The protagonist, Dr. Sadao Hoki, is a “The servants left quietly.” humanity
Japanese surgeon educated in “Dr. Sadao was a good patriot.” The General: powerful, selfish, ironic figure
America who lives by the sea with his Extract-Based Questions
wife, Hana. Dr. Sadao’s internal conflict
Contrast between patriotism and humanity
One day, they find a wounded Irony in the General’s behaviour
American soldier, an enemy, washed
ashore near their house. Although Dr.
Sadao knows that helping the enemy
is punishable by death, his medical
conscience does not allow him to let
the man die. After much inner
conflict, he decides to operate on the
soldier and save his life.
Important Themes
Dr. Sadao and Hana face social Humanity Above Nationalism
isolation, fear, and danger. Servants Saving life is a universal duty.
leave the house, and neighbours Moral values transcend political boundaries.
suspect disloyalty. Despite being a Conflict Between Duty and Conscience
loyal Japanese citizen, Dr. Sadao Dr. Sadao torn between law and ethics.
places human life above nationalism. Chooses conscience over fear.
Later, when the soldier recovers, Dr. War and Its Dehumanising Effects
Sadao secretly helps him escape by War creates enemies, not humanity.
providing food, clothes, and a boat. Symbols to Remember Ordinary people suffer moral crises.
Symbol Meaning Professional Ethics
Ironically, the Japanese General, Doctor’s duty is to save lives without
whom Dr. Sadao serves loyally, fails Wounded soldier Shared humanity
discrimination.
to report him due to his own selfish Sea Fate and moral test Medical ethics override war loyalties.
dependence on Sadao’s medical skills. Irony and Hypocrisy
The story highlights that true Operation Ethical duty
General’s selfishness saves Dr. Sadao.
patriotism does not negate humanity, Servants leaving Social fear Authority fails moral responsibility.
and moral duty often demands
personal risk. Boat Freedom and survival

57
 CHAPTER 5: ON THE FACE OF IT
AUTHOR: SUSAN HILL

Brief Summary
Symbols to Remember
On the Face of It is a play that explores loneliness, prejudice, self-
acceptance, and the healing power of empathy. The story centres on Derry, Prejudice and Social Isolation
a young boy whose face is badly scarred by acid, and Mr Lamb, an elderly Society judges people by
man with a tin leg. appearance.
Emotional pain caused by
Derry feels isolated and bitter because people judge him by his appearance. discrimination.
He avoids social interaction, convinced that others fear or pity him. He Fear and Self-Pity
enters Mr Lamb’s garden hesitantly, expecting rejection. Instead, Mr Lamb Derry’s biggest enemy is fear.
welcomes him warmly and engages him in honest conversation. Isolation worsens suffering.
Importance of Human Connection
Mr Lamb encourages Derry to look beyond physical disability and embrace Mr Lamb’s friendship heals Derry.
life with confidence and openness. He believes that fear and isolation are Acceptance restores confidence.
more damaging than physical impairment. Through stories and examples, Inner Strength vs Physical Disability
Mr Lamb helps Derry realise that self-pity and withdrawal only deepen Physical impairment does not
suffering. define worth.
Mental resilience matters more.
Derry is deeply influenced and begins to feel hopeful. However, when he Transformation Through Empathy
returns to Mr Lamb’s house after his mother forbids the friendship, he finds Mr Lamb’s optimism changes
Mr Lamb dead, having fallen from a ladder. Though tragic, the encounter Derry’s outlook.
becomes a turning point in Derry’s life, inspiring him to face the world with Human kindness inspires growth.
courage.

Key Phrases / Extract Lines Common Question-Focus Areas Symbols to Remember

Character-Based Questions Symbol Meaning
“I don’t like being near people.”
Derry: insecure → hopeful → courageous
“Things don’t change.” Burnt face Social stigma
Mr Lamb: optimistic, empathetic, wise
“You think people are afraid of you?”
Derry’s mother: protective, fearful, conventional Tin leg Physical disability
“It’s all relative.”
Extract-Based Questions Garden Open-mindedness
“You’re afraid of everything.”
Contrast between Derry and Mr Lamb
“We’re not disabled. We’re all people.” Ladder Aspirations
Attitude towards disability
Impact of dialogue on character development Isolation Emotional suffering

58
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 6: MEMORIES OF CHILDHOOD

AUTHORS: PART I – THE CUTTING OF MY LONG HAIR: ZITKALA-SA
PART II – WE TOO ARE HUMAN BEINGS: BAMA

Brief Summary Important Themes Key Phrases / Extract Lines

Memories of Childhood is a dual autobiographical Social Discrimination From Zitkala-Sa:
narrative that highlights racial and caste-based Racism against Native “I was tied fast.”
discrimination faced by children in different parts of the Americans “I felt the blades of the scissors against my neck.”
world. Despite cultural differences, both writers reveal Caste-based oppression of “I cried aloud, shaking my head all the while.”
how social prejudice wounds young minds and how Dalits “I lost my spirit.”
resistance begins in childhood. Loss of Identity From Bama:
Forced cultural assimilation “We too are human beings.”
Part I – The Cutting of My Long Hair (Zitkala-Sa) Denial of dignity and self- “If we study and make progress, we can throw away
Zitkala-Sa, a Native American girl, describes her respect these indignities.”
traumatic experience at a missionary school run by Childhood Trauma “How could they believe we were untouchables?”
white Americans. There, Native American children are Psychological pain
forced to abandon their cultural identity. Cutting long experienced at a young age
hair—considered sacred in her culture—is a symbol of Lasting emotional scars
humiliation and loss of freedom. Resistance and Empowerment Common Question-Focus Areas
Silent resistance by Zitkala-Sa Character-Based Questions
Despite resistance, Zitkala-Sa’s hair is cut forcibly, Education as empowerment Zitkala-Sa: courageous, sensitive, resistant
leaving her emotionally shattered. The incident for Bama Bama: observant, questioning, determined
represents the colonial attempt to erase indigenous Equality and Human Dignity Bama’s brother: rational, motivating, progressive
identity and impose alien values in the name of All humans deserve respect Extract-Based Questions
civilisation. Discrimination is man-made Emotional response to discrimination
and unjust Symbolic significance of events (hair-cutting, food-
Part II – We Too Are Human Beings (Bama) carrying)
Bama recounts her childhood experience of caste Message against social injustice
discrimination in a Tamil village. She observes a Dalit
man carrying food for an upper-caste land lord without
touching it. Initially amused, Bama later realises the
cruel reality of untouchability. Symbols to Remember
Her brother explains that Dalits are treated as inferior Symbol Meaning
regardless of their abilities. Instead of surrendering to Long hair Cultural identity
humiliation, he advises Bama to study hard and rise
above caste oppression. Education becomes a tool of Scissors Oppression
empowerment and resistance. Food packet Untouchability
Education Empowerment
Together, both narratives assert that dignity, equality,
and self-respect must be fought for, not begged for. Childhood memory Awakening

59
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PHYSICAL
EDUCATION

61
 CHAPTER 1: MANAGEMENT OF SPORTING EVENTS

Functions of
Introduction to Event Explaining Social Behavior Functions of Sporting Events
Sporting Events
Management Management
Management Organizing large-scale events requires
specialized committees to delegate The management of sporting events involves
responsibilities and ensure smooth execution core functions performed effectively for
Tournaments and across aspects like publicity, logistics, and success. These include planning, organizing,
Fixtures safety. Committees are formed under three staffing, directing, and controlling, each
Committees for Event heads: Pre-meet (e.g., publicity, contributing to smooth execution.
ground/equipment, reception), During-meet Planning:
Management
Key (e.g., refreshment, transport), and Post-meet Description: Process of setting
(e.g., awards, disbanding). predetermined goals; decides what,
Terminology Key Committees and Their Responsibilities: how, when, and by whom tasks are
Press and Media Committee: done.
Publishes/advertises events; handles Significance: Forms the basis for all
media interactions. other functions.
Transportation Committee: Arranges Organizing:
Introduction to Event Management transport for participants, guests, officials. Description: Assigns duties, groups
Equipment Committee: Procures/sets up tasks, establishes authority, and
Event management in sports is a systematic sports equipment; prepares allocates resources to implement plans.
process involving detailed planning, organizing, grounds/tracks/fields. Significance: Ensures structured
staffing, directing, and controlling to ensure Refreshments Committee: Supplies execution.
successful outcomes. Proper planning sets food/drinks to participants, officials, Staffing:
objectives and decides how to achieve them, guests. Description: Finds the right person for
laying the foundation for effective resource Decoration and Ceremonies Committee: the right position at the right time;
utilization, meeting deadlines, and accomplishing Decorates venues; coordinates involves recruitment and placement.
goals within budget. It improves success rates by opening/closing ceremonies; welcomes Significance: Matches skills to roles for
identifying potential failures early and enhances chief guests. optimal performance.
efficiency while adhering to financial constraints. Registration Committee: Sends entry Directing:
Key Aspects of Planning: forms; prepares seating/fixtures; manages Description: Supervises, motivates,
Improving Success Rate: Establishing clear, registrations/schedules. leads, and communicates with
achievable objectives. Technical Committee: Selects/coordinates subordinates to achieve objectives.
Timely Completion: Ensuring tasks finish referees, judges, umpires, officials. Significance: Guides team toward
within predetermined timelines. Announcement Committee: Makes goals.
Identifying Causes of Failure: Anticipating announcements for smooth Controlling:
challenges and implementing mitigation communication. Description: Establishes performance
strategies. Health and Safety Committee: Provides standards, measures actual output,
Efficiency in Execution: Maximizing first aid; ensures participant health/safety. compares with standards, and takes
resources for desired outcomes. Jury of Appeal: Handles protests; ensures corrective actions for deviations.
Budget Adherence: Controlling expenses fair play. Significance: Keeps the event on track.
while meeting targets.

62
 Back to Index

Tournaments and Fixtures

Tournaments determine winners through Fixture Drawing for Tournaments:
scheduled competitions; fixtures outline Knock-out Tournaments: Use
match plans. Types depend on teams, bye/seeding.
facilities, officials, and time. Knock-out Seeding: Places strong teams to
eliminates losers immediately; league avoid early meetings; based on
ensures all play each other. Procedures past performance/rankings;
for fixtures include bye, seeding, and special seeding allows direct
methods like staircase/cyclic. quarter/semi-final entry.
Types of Tournaments: Bye Method: Teams skip first
Knock-out (Elimination) Tournament: round; calculated as next power
Description: Loser eliminated per of 2 minus teams; given in first
match until one winner; if teams not round only.
power of 2, byes given. Total Matches: N-1.
Advantages: Rounds: Power of 2 teams =
Fewer matches; quicker exact multiple; otherwise, next
completion. multiple.
Requires fewer officials. Halves: Even teams = equal; odd
Disadvantages: = (N+1)/2 upper, (N-1)/2 lower.
Strong teams may eliminate Byes Placement: Last lower half
early from poor performance. (1st bye), first upper (2nd), first
Weaker teams may advance far. lower (3rd), etc.
League (Round Robin) Tournament: League Tournaments: Use
Description: Each team plays all staircase/cyclic methods.
others; sufficient time/resources Staircase Method: Sequential
needed. arrangement like a staircase; no
Types: byes; easiest for even/odd teams.
Single League: Each plays others Cyclic Method: Rotation-based
once; matches = N(N-1)/2 (N = matching; systematic for fair play.
teams).
Double League: Each plays Key Terms
others twice; matches = N(N-1).
Advantages: Physical Process: Great skill or ability.
Fairer outcomes; all compete Goals: Target to be achieved.
equally. Jury of Appeal: Committee for protests and fair play.
Disadvantages: Bye: Privilege to skip round (random).
Time/resource-intensive. Seeding: Privilege for top performers.
Fixtures: Tournament match schedule.
Knock-out: Elimination-based tournament.
Round-Robin: League-based tournament.

63
 CHAPTER 2: CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN SPORTS

Common Common Postural Deformities

Introduction to Postural
Postural This section covers various deformities, their Round Shoulders:
Deformities descriptions, causes & corrective measures. Description: Shoulders drawn forward, head
Deformities
Deformities arise from genetic, environmental, or extended, and chin pointing forward.
lifestyle factors & can lead to difficulties in movement Causes:
or pain. Poor posture during work (e.g., desk jobs).
Special Considerations for
Corrective Knock Knees: Faulty furniture.
Women in Sports Description: Both knees touch or overlap in a Carrying heavy loads on shoulders.
Measures for normal standing position, causing walking Improper sitting or standing posture.
Postural difficulties. Corrective Measures:
Deformities Key Causes: Lateral neck flexion.
Terminology Weakness of ligaments and muscles. Chest doorway stretch.
Overweight body. Reverse shoulder stretch.
Lack of balanced diet. Band pull-apart.
Deficiency in Vitamin D. Additional Exercises: Place fingertips on
Corrective Exercises: shoulders and encircle elbows clockwise/anti-
clockwise; hold horizontal bar; perform
Introduction to Postural Deformities Butterfly flutters.
Chakrasana and Dhanurasana.
Sumo squats.
Postural deformities refer to abnormal Side lunges.
Cycling. Lordosis:
alignments or curvatures in the body's structure, Description: Inward curvature of the spine with
often affecting the spine, legs, feet, or shoulders. Horse riding.
an increased forward curve in the lumbar region;
These can result from factors like poor posture, Flat Foot:
affects standing and walking.
nutritional deficiencies, muscle weakness, or Description: No arch in the foot, making it
Causes:
improper habits. They impact daily activities such completely flat; affects standing, walking, jumping,
Habitual overeating.
as walking, standing, and physical performance. and running.
Improper environment.
Common types include knock knees, flat foot, Causes:
Lack of exercise.
bow legs, kyphosis, lordosis, round shoulders, Heaviness of the body.
Diseases affecting vertebrae.
and scoliosis. Early detection and corrective Prolonged standing. Improper muscle development.
exercises can help mitigate these issues, focusing Faulty posture. Corrective Measures:
on strengthening muscles, improving flexibility, Use of poor-quality footwear without arch Plank.
and promoting proper alignment. support. Side plank.
Key Aspects: Corrective Measures: Superman exercise.
Functional Deformities: Affect soft tissues Foot roller. Bhujangasana.
like muscles and ligaments; correctable Calf raise. Additional Exercises: Forward lunge with knee on
through physical activities. Heel raise. mat, pushing hips forward; sit with feet apart and
Structural Deformities: Involve bones and joints; Toe crawl. bend shoulders between knees, reaching under
may require medical intervention. Additional Exercises: Rising on toes, climbing chair; lie prone and push torso up with palms on
Prevention: Emphasize balanced diet, proper stairs, cycling; focus on flexor, foot & ankle flexion; floor; sit with knees extended and bend forward
posture, avoiding heavy loads, and regular wear orthopedic shoes with arch support; practice to touch toes.
exercise. writing alphabets with toes gripping a pencil while
seated.

64
 Back to Index

Kyphosis: Bow Legs: Corrective Measures for Postural Deformities

Description: Exaggerated backward curve Description: Wide gap between knees when
or reduced forward curve in the spine; also standing; opposite of knock knees; Corrective measures focus on exercises to strengthen affected areas,
known as round upper back. noticeable during walking or running. improve posture, and restore alignment. These include yoga poses,
Causes: Causes: stretches, and strength-building activities. Measures are tailored to
Reading in dim light. Extra weight on leg muscles. deformity type, with emphasis on consistency.
Carrying heavy loads on shoulders. Lack of balanced diet. General Principles: Combine exercises with lifestyle changes like
Wearing tight or shapeless clothes. Deficiency in calcium or phosphorus. balanced nutrition and proper footwear. Functional deformities
Habit of bending while walking. Improper walking. respond well to physical activities; structural ones may need medical
Corrective Measures: Forcing a baby to walk too early. advice.
Superman exercise. Corrective Measures: Exercises for Specific Deformities: As detailed above, with additional
Chakrasana. Wall squat. notes:
Bhujangasana. Side abduction. For Kyphosis: Emphasize pectoral stretches and posterior neck
Cat and camel exercise. Side lunges. strengthening.
Additional Exercises: Swimming, bench Gaumukhasana. For Flat Foot: Involve toe gripping and arch-supporting activities.
press, push-ups; corner exercises (stand Additional Exercises: Walk bending toes For Bow Legs: Focus on inner leg strengthening.
facing corner, move body forward from inwards; walk on inner edge of feet; For Knock Knees: Include horse riding and
ankle); lie on bench with ring weights perform Ardh Matsyendrasana and padmasana/gomukhasana.
hanging from elbows; hold towel/stick Garudasana; use walking calipers; keep For Round Shoulders: Use bar holds and yoga like
overhead with wide grip. pillow between knees while standing erect; chakrasana/dhanurasana.
seated quadriceps contractions and For Lordosis: Prioritize core and hip stretches.
Scoliosis: hamstring curls. For Scoliosis: Incorporate opposite-side bending and swimming.
Description: Three-dimensional deviation of
the spinal axis, involving bending, twisting,
or rotating; can be C-shaped (single curve)
or S-shaped (two curves) extending through
the spine. Special Considerations for Women in Sports
Causes:
Women in sports face unique physiological challenges Female Athletes Triad:
Hereditary defects.
related to reproductive health and nutrition, impacting Description: Syndrome in teenage/adult female athletes
One-sided flat foot.
performance and well-being. Key areas include: due to unmet energy needs, leading to undernourishment;
One-sided vision or hearing defects.
Menarche: comprises anaemia, osteoporosis & amenorrhoea.
Short leg on one side.
Description: First menstrual cycle in young women, Components:
Paralysis of spinal muscles.
marking puberty; typically occurs between ages 9-15 Anaemia: Decrease in red blood cells or haemoglobin;
Corrective Measures:
(or 16-18 in 5% of cases); signifies physical and sexual reduces oxygen transport.
Plank.
maturation. Osteoporosis: Weakened bones from low estrogen,
Cow and cat.
Significance: Important social rite; coincides with poor nutrition (e.g., low calcium); leads to fractures
Ardh Matsyendrasana.
increased physical activity. and injuries; can end athletic careers.
Pelvic tilt.
Menstrual Dysfunction: Amenorrhoea: Absence of menstruation (no periods
Additional Exercises: Repeat voluntary
Description: Abnormal bleeding without uterine by 18 or missing 3+ months); disrupts hormonal
efforts; hang from hands; develop spinal
pathology; includes primary/secondary amenorrhoea, balance.
extensor strength; swim with backstroke;
oligomenorrhoea & luteal phase deficiency. Disordered Eating: Often triggers the triad; ranges from
bend opposite to C-curve; swim
In Athletes: Linked to delayed puberty (e.g., no breast calorie restriction to eating disorders like anorexia/
breaststroke; hang from horizontal bar and
development by 13.5 years); affects energy levels and bulimia; aimed at weight loss for performance but harms
swing body left/right.
performance. health.

65
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CHAPTER 3: YOGA AS A PREVENTIVE MEASURE FOR LIFESTYLE DISEASE

Introduction to Yoga Obesity and 2. Obesity and Related Asanas
and Asanas Related Obesity is a condition where excess body fat accumulates, negatively
Asanas impacting health, typically when Body Mass Index (BMI) exceeds 30.
Causes of Obesity:
Diabetes and Binge eating.
Related Asthma and Related Frequent consumption of sugary, fatty, or fast foods.
Emotional issues like bulimia or abnormal eating patterns. (b) Decreased
Asanas Asanas Energy Expenditure and Lack of Exercise:
Sedentary lifestyle (e.g., watching TV, playing computer games).
Heavy homework or using leisure time for study.
Hypertension and Key Avoiding regular exercises.
Related Asanas Terminology Asanas to Cure Obesity: Specific asanas target obesity by improving
digestion, toning muscles, and promoting weight management. Procedures,
benefits, and contraindications are detailed below.
Paschimottanasana (Seated Forward Bend Pose):
1. Introduction to Yoga and Asanas Description: Derived from Sanskrit words meaning "west/back
stretch"; involves sitting and intensely stretching the back forward.
Yoga plays a vital role in promoting a Guidelines for Practising Asanas: Preparatory poses: Ankle rotation in sitting position, Balasana (Child
healthier lifestyle by enhancing Sequence: Practice in the order of Pose), Janusirsasana (Head to Toe Pose).
physical and mental health, leading to standing, sitting, prone-lying, and supine- Procedure:
improved productivity. It serves as a lying positions. Sit with legs stretched forward, hands by sides, palms on ground,
therapeutic approach for modern Avoid haste, undue force, or jerks. fingers pointing forward.
lifestyle diseases such as stress, Perform with body and breath awareness, Inhale, stretch arms above head; exhale, bend forward with
diabetes, asthma, and hypertension. coordinating breath with movements. straight back.
Yoga's strength lies in its simplicity, General rule: Inhale while raising body Loosen back muscles, bend as far as possible; place hands on
flexibility, and diversity, gaining global parts; exhale while bending down. thighs.
popularity and research focus in Follow instructions sincerely with optimal Exhale completely, reach for toes, relax neck between legs.
recent decades. Amid lifestyle attention. Hold toes with forefingers, place forehead on knees.
disorders requiring conscious changes, Maintain final position as long as After a few seconds, raise head, release toes, return to start.
yogasanas act as preventive measures comfortable, respecting personal Benefits:
by offering physiological benefits. limitations. Stretches spine, lower back, and calf muscles; improves blood
Factors like busy schedules, long Increase holding time cautiously. circulation.
commutes, heavy study loads, and Practice regularly for the body to respond Pressures digestive and pelvic organs, enhancing digestion and
late-night work reduce physical effectively. releasing blocked gas.
activity, contributing to issues like Key Aspects: Improves respiration by pressuring thorax and abdomen.
hyperactivity, obesity, hypertension, Preventive Role: Yogasanas help fend off Aligns vertebral column.
and diabetes. lifestyle diseases through physiological Therapeutic for diabetes, weak liver/kidney.
Asana Definition: An asana is a stable, advantages. Benefits women with menstrual disorders.
comfortable posture maintained for Holistic Benefits: Improves overall health, Contraindications:
an extended period, providing counters sedentary lifestyles, and Slipped disc, hernia, spondylitis.
physical and mental stability. addresses modern challenges. Enlarged liver/spleen.
Pregnancy.

67
Katichakrasana: Contraindications: Contraindications:
Description: A standing, dynamic yoga posture Reeling sensation complaints. Severe migraine, high/low blood pressure,
part of intestinal cleansing (Shankha Prakshalana); asthma, slip disc, advanced spondylitis.
different from Chakrasana (Wheel Pose). Pavanmuktasana (Wind-Relieving Pose) During menstrual cycle (or under guidance).
Procedure: Description: Releases accumulated wind/gas from
Stand with legs two feet apart, arms by sides. stomach/intestines; prevents ailments like acidity, Ardha-Matsyendrasana (Half Lord of the Fishes Pose)
Inhale, raise arms to shoulder level; exhale, migraine, joint pains. Description: Deep, restorative twist calming the
twist left, place right palm on left shoulder, Procedure: mind and aiding detoxification.
wrap left hand around waist; turn head left, Lie on back, feet together, arms by body; relax Procedure:
look over shoulder. with deep breaths. Bend right leg, place foot near buttock (outer
Retain breath briefly. Inhale, raise legs to 90°; exhale completely. edge on ground).
Inhale, return to start; repeat on right side. Inhale, bring knees to chest, press on lower Bend left leg, place foot flat outside right knee.
Perform 5-10 rounds (about 5 minutes). abdomen with hands; exhale. Bring right arm over left knee, hold left foot;
Benefits: Hold with breaths; exhale to press thighs/knees twist trunk left, wrap left arm behind waist.
Tones waist, hips, back, neck, shoulders; deeper. Turn head left, look back; hold 5-10 seconds.
increases flexibility. Inhale, raise head/neck/chest to knees (chin Benefits:
Burns calories and fat; aids weight between knees if possible). Improves concentration.
management. Hold, focusing on position; exhale to press Fully stretches vertebrae.
Addresses stomach issues like constipation, deeper. Reduces digestive problems.
indigestion. Inhale, release neck/head; straighten legs to Tones trunk muscles.
Relieves back stiffness; corrects posture. 90°; exhale, lower to floor. Contraindications:
Contraindications: Repeat; hold longer for muscle loosening. Peptic ulcer, hernia, enlarged liver, abdominal
Recent spinal/abdominal surgery. Relax with Supta Baddha Konasana, surgery.
Slip disc, chronic spinal disorders. Matsyasana, or Savasana.
Abdominal inflammation, hernia. Benefits: Suryabedhan Pranayama
Pregnancy. Tones legs, arms, shoulders; strengthens Description: Warming breath work focusing on right
thighs/back; firms abdominal muscles; nostril (Surya/sun side); pierces through for warming
Tadasana: improves circulation. effect, correcting cool imbalances.
Description: Imitates a palm tree (Tada in Cures acidity, digestive issues, diabetes, gastric Procedure:
Sanskrit); a basic standing pose foundational for problems, high blood pressure, cervical Sit comfortably; make Mrigi Mudra.
others. spondylosis. Block left nostril; inhale through right.
Procedure: Improves digestion; relieves Close right; exhale through left.
Stand erect, legs together, hands by thighs. constipation/flatulence. Continue: Inhale right, exhale left (1-3 minutes).
Stretch arms upward over head, parallel, Cures joint pains; improves leg circulation Benefits:
palms facing each other. (relieves varicose veins). Activates body functions; increases digestive fire.
Raise heels, stand on toes; hold for a few Strengthens neck/shoulders; eases early Destroys diseases from oxygen insufficiency.
seconds. spondylitis. Awakens Kundalini Shakti; destroys decay/death.
Benefits: Removes fat from lower abdomen, hips, chest, Contraindications:
Strengthens thighs, knees, ankles. arms. Epilepsy, heart disease, anxiety, high blood
Improves height in growing children. Heals migraine via gas release. pressure.
Removes laziness. Avoid at night (may cause insomnia); consult for
chronic conditions.

Tadasana Ardha-Chakrasana Bhujangasana Pavanmuktasana Katichakrasana Shavasana Vakrasana Sitlipranayam

(Mountain Pose) (Half Wheel Pose) (Cobra Pose) (Wind-Relieving Pose) (Standing Spinal Twist Pose) (Corpse Pose) ( Twisted Pose) ( Cooling Breath)

68
3. Diabetes and Related Asanas
Diabetes is a defect in converting glucose to Paschimottanasana Gomukhasana (Cow Face Pose)
energy; glucose is the body's main fuel Refer to Section 2 for full details; Description: Thighs/calves Increases blood supply to
from digested food, especially additionally stretches posterior resemble cow's face; seated legs/arms; counters
carbohydrates. muscles, improves abdominal intermediate pose requiring prolonged sitting.
circulation, corrects postural flexibility. Involves Strengthens knees (if no
Types of Diabetes: deformities. arms/shoulders, back, ligament tear).
Type-1: Occurs in children/young biceps/triceps, hamstrings, hips, Expands shoulders/chest;
adults (genetic causes). Pavanmuktasana knees, pelvis, quadriceps. strengthens upper spine.
Type-2: More common (90-95%); Refer to Section 2 for full details; Preparatory: Baddha Konasana, Improves abdominal organ
affects adults due to inactivity/ obesity. additionally increases digestive Dhanurasana. function/digestion; tones
power, dissolves abdominal fat. Procedure: torso, reduces tummy fat.
Symptoms of Diabetes: Sit with legs extended, spine Improves diaphragmatic
Blurred vision. Ardha Matsyendrasana straight. breathing; fights allergies.
Unusual thirst. Refer to Section 2 for full details. Bend left leg, place foot under Strengthens biceps/triceps;
Slow-healing cuts. right hip. increases shoulder/upper
Erectile dysfunction. Kapalabhati: Bend right leg, place thigh arm flexibility.
Unexplained tiredness. Description: "Skull-shining" over left, foot near left hip Stretches spine; enhances
Frequent urination. breath; compound word from (knees stacked). prana flow.
Rapid weight loss. Kapala (skull) and Bhati (shine). Stretch left arm above head, Contraindications:
Numbness/tingling in hands/feet. Procedure: bend to place palm on back Shoulder/back/hip/knee pain
Sit in meditative posture; near shoulder blade. or stiffness (practice slowly).
Asanas to Cure Diabetes: Focus on close eyes, relax body. Bend right arm behind, reach Hip problems,
improving digestion, flexibility, and organ Inhale deeply through nostrils, for left palm; clasp if possible. knee/hamstring/quadriceps
function. expand chest. Pull palms closer, expand injury.
Bhujangasana (Cobra Pose): Expel breath with forceful chest, raise body upward. Sciatica.
Description: Imitates a cobra with abdominal contractions; relax. Hold; release and repeat on Neck/shoulder injury.
expanded hood. Continue active exhalation, opposite side. Pregnancy.
Procedure: passive inhalation (no strain). Relax with
Bend arms at elbows; place Benefits: Paschimottanasana; advance
palms by shoulders. Improves digestive/gastric to Gomukhasana with
Inhale, raise issues; relieves gas, Garudasana or
head/neck/shoulders; raise heartburn, constipation. Bharadvajasana.
trunk to navel, arch back. Cures insomnia; boosts Benefits:
Hold 10-15 seconds. endorphins for mood uplift. Improves hamstring flexibility
Benefits: Contraindications: (beneficial for athletes).
Makes spine flexible. High/low BP, heart disease, Enhances hip joint flexibility.
Solves digestive problems. hernia, gastric ulcer, epilepsy, Stretches/tones chest
Enhances focus. vertigo, migraine, significant muscles.
Contraindications: nosebleeds, detached retina, Increases blood supply to
Peptic ulcer, hernia, intestinal glaucoma, stroke history, legs/arms; counters
tuberculosis. recent abdominal surgery. prolonged sitting.

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 Back to Index

4. Asthma and Related Asanas

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway Procedure: Gomukhasana: Vakrasana (Twisted Pose):
disorder involving cells/elements, leading to Stand erect, feet together Description: Legs resemble cow's Description: Seated twist; involves
hyper-responsiveness, wheezing, (heels/big toes touching); chest face. lower/middle back, hips, neck.
breathlessness, chest tightness, and out, stomach in, spine up, neck Procedure: Preparatory: Easy raise arm pose,
coughing (especially at night/early morning). straight. Bend right leg, place foot near side bend pose, Janu Sirsasana.
Inhale, raise hands, place palms left buttock. Procedure:
Causes of Asthma: on crown with interlocked Fold left leg, place foot near Sit with legs forward, hands by
Exposure to triggers. fingers; exhale. right buttock. thighs/buttocks.
Bronchiole muscles contract, produce Inhale, raise interlocked fingers Take left arm over shoulder, Bend right leg, keep left foot by
excess mucus. above head (palms up), stand on right behind back; clasp fingers. right knee (raised).
Airways become red, inflamed, toes; stretch upward, exhale. Hold 10-15 seconds. Inhale, raise arms shoulder-high
narrowed. Hold, gaze forward; distribute Benefits: (elbows straight).
weight evenly. Increases concentration; Exhale, twist left; place right arm
Symptoms of Asthma: Optional: Close eyes, focus on induces inner peace. outside left knee, hold left ankle.
Coughing/wheezing. breath/balance. Improves lung capacity. Look backward left; hold.
Difficulty breathing/shortness of breath. Inhale deeply; exhale, lower Useful for arthritis. Repeat variations: Twist right
Chest tightness. heels/arms backward; release. Relieves backache. with left knee bent; use both
Excessive fatigue. Repeat; hold longer for stability. Contraindications: palms on floor for deeper twist.
Difficulty talking/walking due to Advance: Vrikshasana, Urdhva Bleeding piles. Relax with Hindolasana,
shortness of breath. Hastasana, Garudasana. Baddhakonasana,
Benefits: Bhujangasana Paschimottanasana.
Asanas to Cure Asthma: Emphasize Strengthens ankles/knees; tones Refer to Section 3 for full details. Advance: Ardha
improving lung capacity, reducing leg muscles for other poses. Matsyendrasana, Eka Pada
inflammation, and enhancing breathing. Raises hips; supports back, Matsyasana (Fish Pose) Rajakapotasana.
Tadasana (Mountain Pose): expands spine for prana flow. Description: Body floats like a fish. Benefits:
Description: Firm, erect standing like Tones chest/shoulders; Procedure: Tones back muscles; stabilizes
a mountain; foundational pose (also improves posture, strengthens Sit in Padmasana. spine (helps tall people with
Samasthiti, Equal Standing, Prayer upper back. Bend backward, support with poor posture).
Pose). Involves toes, abdomen, Tones abdominal muscles; arms/elbows; lift chest, lower Aligns upper back/shoulders
arms, neck. lengthens spine. head crown to ground. Strengthens neck muscles.
Keeps body light for other Hold big toes; elbows on Tones digestive system,
asanas. ground. intestines, uterus, kidneys;
Contraindications: Benefits: pressures abdomen for organ
Weak leg muscles or difficulty Therapeutic for mild health.
standing long. backache/fatigue. Activates thyroid gland; balances
Severe migraine/giddiness. Useful for throat issues like hormones.
Avoid excessive spine strain. tonsillitis. Contraindications:
Don't overstretch initially. Massages spine. Back injury (aggravates sciatic
Contraindications: nerves).
Peptic ulcer, heart disease, Pregnancy (discomfort to
hernia, back problems. uterus).
Weak neck muscles (may cause
soreness).

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 Back to Index

5. Hypertension and Related Asanas

Hypertension is a long-term condition Ardha-Chakrasana (Half Wheel Shavasana (Corpse Pose): Sitlipranayam (Sitali Pranayama,
with persistently elevated arterial blood Pose): Description: Calms mind, Cooling Breath):
pressure. Procedure: reduces stress. Description: Cools body; calms
Stand straight, feet together, Procedure: nervous system; ideal for
Causes of Hypertension: arms by body. Lie on back comfortably. summer/hot periods per
Smoking. Balance weight equally. Relax neck/shoulders. Ayurveda.
Obesity. Inhale, extend arms Arms by sides, legs mat- Procedure:
Excessive salt in diet. overhead (palms facing). width apart. Sit comfortably
Stress. Exhale, bend backward; Hands upward, eyes closed. (cushion/chair), spine neutral.
Genetics. push pelvis forward, arms in Feel body parts; synchronize Take natural breaths to
Excessive alcohol consumption. line with ears, elbows/knees with breathing. center.
straight, head up, chest Benefits: Curl tongue, extend out;
Symptoms of Hypertension: Rare, but lifted. Calms body/mind. inhale through it.
include: Benefits: Normalizes blood pressure; Release tongue, close mouth;
Dizzy spells. Stretches front upper torso. relaxes heart, reduces exhale through nose.
Headaches. Tones arms/shoulder anxiety. Benefits:
Nosebleeds. muscles. Contraindications: Cooling for body/mind;
Sweating. Contraindications: Avoid lying on back if not calming.
Severe spikes indicate medical Pregnancy. advised. Aids focus; reduces
emergency. Hernia. Severe acidity. agitation/anger.
Lowers body temperature;
Asanas to Cure Hypertension: Focus on Bhujangasana: Vakrasana: useful for hot flushes/hot
relaxation, stress reduction, and Refer to Section 3 for full details. Refer to Section 4 for full details. weather.
normalizing blood pressure. Additional Benefits: Increases Contraindications:
Pavanmuktasana: spine elasticity; stretches Low blood pressure,
Tadasana Refer to Section 2 for full details. muscles; reduces belly fat; respiratory disorders (asthma,
Refer to Section 4 for full details. loosens hip joints; massages bronchitis, excessive mucus),
Katichakrasana: abdominal organs. chronic constipation.
Refer to Section 2 for full detail Additional Contraindications: Heart disease (practice
Severe back pain, ulcer, hernia. without retention).

Binge Eating: Consuming large amounts Erectile Dysfunction: Difficulty getting/keeping erection. Serenity: Calm,
6. Key Terminology uncontrollably. Posterior Muscles: Backside muscles (glutes, hamstrings, peaceful state.
Bulimia: Uncontrolled overeating episodes. calves, erector spinae, rear shoulders).

Tadasana Ardha-Chakrasana Bhujangasana Pavanmuktasana Katichakrasana Shavasana Vakrasana Sitlipranayam

(Mountain Pose) (Half Wheel Pose) (Cobra Pose) (Wind-Relieving Pose) (Standing Spinal Twist Pose) (Corpse Pose) ( Twisted Pose) ( Cooling Breath)

71
 CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS FOR CWSN
(CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS - DIVYANG)

Introduction Organizations Promoting 2. Organizations Promoting Disability Sports

to CWSN Disability Sports
Several international and national Paralympics: Significance: Boosted
organizations promote sports for Description: The world's momentum for equality with
individuals with disabilities, fostering largest sporting event for Olympics; promotes rapid
Advantages of Physical Key physical fitness, courage, joy, skill- people with physical, visual, growth in adaptive sports.
Activities for CWSN Terminology sharing, and community integration. and intellectual disabilities. Deaflympics:
These include Special Olympics, Originated by Sir Ludwig Description: Games
Paralympics, and Deaflympics, each Guttmann, who believed exclusively for deaf athletes;
targeting specific disability groups and sports therapy builds physical previously called
1. Introduction to Children with providing year-round training and strength and self-esteem for International Games for the
competitions. those with physical disabilities. Deaf. Organized by the
Special Needs Special Olympics Bharat: History and Development: International Committee of
Disability is a natural part of human life, with most Description: A National Sports Started in 1948 as Stoke Sports for the Deaf;
individuals experiencing temporary or permanent Federation registered in 2001 Mandeville Games for sanctioned by the
impairments that may cause difficulties in under the Indian Trust Act, WWII veterans with spinal International Olympic
functioning. CWSN are children who face 1882; accredited by Special cord injuries; recognized Committee.
challenges that impede their ability to function Olympics International for by International Olympic History: First held in Paris in
adequately in family, community, or school programs in India. Recognized Association. 1924 as the initial
settings, potentially hindering their full potential. by the Government of India as a First official Paralympic international sporting event
These difficulties can be physical, cognitive, priority National Sports Games in 1960 in Rome for disabled athletes (148
linguistic, social, emotional, or psychological. In Federation for intellectual (post-Olympics), with 400 athletes initially); Winter
addition to common needs, CWSN require special disabilities, especially in rural athletes from 23 Games added in 1949; now a
inputs to overcome barriers. Understanding CWSN areas (covering ~75% of India's countries; initially called global movement.
is crucial for providing tailored support through special needs population). Mandeville Games. Eligibility and Adaptations:
education, sports, and physical activities to Mission: Provide year-round Evolved post-1960: Athletes must have at least
promote inclusion, strength, and self-esteem. sports training and Olympic- Included amputees and 55 dB hearing loss in their
Key Aspects: type athletic competitions for visually impaired in 1976; better ear; no hearing aids or
Integral to Human Experience: Everyone may children and adults with cerebral palsy athletes in cochlear implants allowed.
face impairments; special needs arise from intellectual disabilities; 1980. Adaptations include visual
difficulties in daily functioning. opportunities to develop Growth: Formed cues (e.g., flags instead of
Challenges: Physical (e.g., mobility), cognitive fitness, demonstrate courage, International Coordination whistles, lights instead of
(e.g., learning), linguistic (e.g., communication), experience joy, and build Committee (ICC) in 1980; starting pistols); no sound
social/emotional (e.g., relationships), or friendships with families, replaced by International guidance (e.g., no starter
psychological (e.g., mental health). athletes, and communities. Paralympic Committee guns or referee whistles).
Support Requirements: Extra inputs like Focus: Intellectual disabilities; (IPC) in 1989, leading to Focus: Deaf athletes;
adaptive tools, modified environments, and emphasizes inclusion, skill modernization and emphasizes fair competition
inclusive programs to enable participation and development, and social inclusion of more disability through non-auditory
growth. integration. groups. methods.

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 Back to Index

3. Advantages of Physical Activities for Children with Special Needs

Physical activity involves body movements that enhance Strategies:
health, such as walking, running, dancing, swimming, Sensory Integration: Address sensitivities to loud
yoga, or gardening, ideally at moderate to vigorous music, fluorescent lights, squeaking sneakers, or
intensity. Exercise is a structured form of physical activity bright sunlight. Solutions: Lower music volume or turn
(e.g., weight lifting, aerobics, team sports). For CWSN, off; use soundproof headphones; opt for natural/LED
physical activities offer numerous benefits, improving lighting; provide sunglasses outdoors; consider green
physical, social, emotional, and cognitive aspects while energy incentives for cost-effective changes.
addressing specific challenges. Positive Behavior Interventions: Use Positive
Behavior Interventions and Support (PBIS) to prevent
Advantages: negative behaviors and promote healthy interactions.
Cardiovascular Health: Strengthens heart muscles; Explain behaviors upfront with tools like picture
improves efficiency, lung function, and endurance; schedulers; teach through positive reinforcements.
helps control repetitive behaviors. Team Building: Shift from competitive to creative
Social Development: Builds relationships with peers, games requiring whole-team cooperation; fosters
teammates, and teachers; promotes positive social collaboration and success for all.
behavior changes. Accessibility Improvements: Use safer surfaces (e.g.,
Energy Enhancement: Increases energy levels; makes gym mats, outdoor mats) instead of concrete/asphalt
children more active and engaged. (dangerous for dyspraxia) or sand/wood chips (hard
Health Regulation: Manages blood pressure, for wheelchairs). Level playing fields with adapted
cholesterol, and diabetes; reduces stress. games like sitting volleyball or scooter soccer.
Weight Control: Aids in weight regulation by burning Inclusive Classrooms: Develop education laws for
calories and reducing fat accumulation, especially for CWSN to learn in regular classrooms with peers;
less active CWSN. promotes social acceptance.
Muscular and Motor Skills: Improves muscle Assistive Technology: Provide devices/tools like
strength, coordination, flexibility; enhances motor bigger balls, balls with bells, or balls on strings to
skills, balance, and body awareness. facilitate participation.
Emotional Outlet: Channels physical energy to cope Adaptive Physical Education: Offer separate classes
with stress, anxiety, and depression. or modify games/rules based on disabilities; enables
Cognitive Benefits: Enhances brain metabolism; tailored engagement.
4. Key Terminology
supports skill acquisition, learning, and focus. Creating Specific Environments: Designate play areas Physical Activity: Body movement
Mental Well-Being: Decreases anxiety, reduces with natural lighting, reduced noise/glare; avoid enhancing health (e.g., walking,
depression; improves mood, outlook, and sleep intolerable stimuli like loud music or bright lights. yoga).
quality. Focus on Creative Games: Prioritize non-competitive, Exercise: Planned, structured
team-building activities to boost confidence and physical activity (e.g., aerobics).
Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for reduce unnecessary rivalry. CWSN: Children with Special
Children with Special Needs To ensure CWSN can Accommodations and Modifications: Customize Needs; includes physical,
participate in physical activities, strategies focus on teaching strategies to individual needs; requires cognitive, etc., challenges.
adaptations, inclusivity, and modifications to overcome ongoing adjustments by teachers. PBIS: Positive Behavior
barriers. These include sensory adjustments, behavioral Professional Courses: Develop teacher certification Interventions and Support;
support, team-oriented approaches, and environmental programs and courses for adaptive physic systematic method for behavior
changes. management.

73
 CHAPTER 5: SPORTS AND NUTRITION

Introduction to Components of a 2. Components of a Balanced Diet

Nutrition and Balanced Diet A balanced diet incorporates various food
Balanced Diet groups to provide all essential nutrients. These
Macro Nutrients groups include cereals, pulses, milk products,
meat, nuts, vegetables, and fruits, each
contributing specific macronutrients and
Nutritive and
Micro Nutrients micronutrients for comprehensive health.
Non-Nutritive Key Components and Sources:
Components of Diet Cereals and Millets: Wheat, rice, jowar,
Key Terminology bajra, ragi; sources of carbohydrates,
proteins, Vitamin B-Complex, iron, and
calcium.
Pulses: Red gram (lobia), Bengal gram
1. Introduction to Nutrition and (chana), lentils, green gram (moong);
Balanced Diet sources of proteins, carbohydrates, Vitamin
B-Complex, Vitamin C, and iron.
Nutrition is the science of food and its relationship to Milk and Milk Products: Milk, curd, cheese,
health, encompassing the dynamic process of digestion, paneer, khoya; sources of proteins,
absorption, and utilization of consumed food. It plays a carbohydrates, fats, calcium, and Vitamin
crucial role in maintaining bodily functions, preventing B2.
diseases, repairing tissues, and providing energy. Nutrients Meat and Meat Products: Meat, fish,
are essential substances in food, including carbohydrates, chicken, eggs, and derived products; sources
proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, which support of proteins, Vitamin B-Complex, and
growth, energy production, and overall health. A diet refers calcium.
to a variety of foodstuffs that protects against diseases, aids Nuts and Oil Seeds: Groundnuts, almonds,
tissue repair, and supplies energy. A balanced diet contains cashew nuts, til seeds, pistachio; sources of
adequate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, proteins, Vitamin B-Complex, and calcium.
minerals, salts, vitamins, roughage, and water necessary for Green Leafy Vegetables (GLVs): Mustard
body growth and maintenance, ensuring optimal health and (sarson), bathua, fenugreek (methi), spinach
performance, especially in sports. (palak); sources of Vitamin A, Vitamin B-
Key Aspects: Complex, Vitamin C, iron, and fiber.
Role in Sports: Supports energy needs, muscle repair, Root Vegetables: Potato, colocasia, sweet
immune function, and recovery; prevents deficiencies potato, yam; rich in carbohydrates.
that impair athletic performance. Other Vegetables: Brinjal, ladyfinger, beans,
Importance: Promotes disease resistance, tissue repair, cauliflower; provide fibers, vitamins, and
and sustained energy; essential for athletes to maintain minerals.
peak physical condition. Fruits: Various fruits supply a range of
Roughage: Fibers in food that aid in eliminating bodily nutrients; a combination ensures coverage
wastes, supporting digestion and preventing of all essentials like vitamins, minerals, and
constipation. antioxidants.

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3. Macro Nutrients 4. Micro Nutrients

Functions and Food Sources Macro nutrients are required in large amounts to provide Functions and Food Sources Micro nutrients are required in small amounts but are
energy, support growth, and maintain bodily functions. They include carbohydrates, vital for immunity, cellular processes, and overall health. They include minerals
proteins, fats, and water, acting as primary energy providers. and vitamins, acting as protective elements against diseases.
Carbohydrates: Minerals:
Description: Primary energy source; includes sugars and starches; classified as Description: Essential for bone health, blood formation, and metabolic
simple (quick energy) and complex (sustained energy). functions; known as protective foods.
Types: Key Minerals:
Monosaccharides: Simple sugars like glucose, fructose, galactose. Iron: Forms hemoglobin; deficiency: anemia; sources: meat, eggs, dry
Disaccharides: Formed from two monosaccharides; e.g., maltose, lactose, fruits.
sucrose. Calcium: Builds strong bones/teeth; aids blood clotting, muscle
Polysaccharides: Multiple monosaccharide units; e.g., starch, fiber, cellulose. contraction; deficiency: rickets, asthma; sources: milk, egg yolk, cheese,
Functions: Provide energy for work and physical activities. orange.
Sources: Potato, rice, bread, banana, grapes. Phosphorus: Develops bones/teeth; produces energy; sources: egg, fish,
Proteins: meat, unpolished rice.
Description: Essential for body building; composed of amino acids (building Potassium: Supports growth, cell/blood health; deficiency: muscle
blocks); repair tissues and support growth, especially in children and athletes. weakness; sources: carrot, beetroot, onion, tomato, orange, mango.
Essential Amino Acids: Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Sodium: Ensures nervous system function; sources: milk products, meat,
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine (must be obtained from diet). eggs.
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Alanine, Arginine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Cysteine, Iodine: Supports thyroid function; deficiency: goiter; sources: seafood,
Glutamate, Glutamine, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine (body can synthesize). salt.
Functions: Build and repair cells/tissues; crucial for muscle development and Fluorine: Hardens tooth enamel; prevents decay.
recovery. Copper: Forms red blood cells, connective tissue, nerve fibers.
Sources: Milk, eggs, cheese, pulses, meat, fish. Zinc: Produces insulin; aids male prostate function, digestion, metabolism.
Fats: Magnesium: Develops immune system; nerve transmission.
Description: Provide twice the energy of carbohydrates; stored for later use; Sulphur: Forms proteins.
composed of fatty acids (building blocks).
Types of Fatty Acids: Vitamins:
Saturated Fatty Acids (SFA): No double bonds; animal fats; increase health Description: Help fight diseases; maintain eyes, nerves, gums, skin; grouped as
risks like high cholesterol and cardiac issues. fat-soluble and water-soluble.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids (UFA): Lower cholesterol; reduce heart risks. Key Vitamins:
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA): One double bond. Vitamin A: Maintains eye/skin health.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA): Multiple double bonds. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Releases energy; supports appetite, nervous
Functions: Supply concentrated energy; support cell function; excess leads to system.
high blood pressure, heart problems, obesity. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Releases energy; promotes vision, skin health;
Sources: Butter, ghee, nuts. converts tryptophan to niacin.
Water: Vitamin B3 (Niacin): Metabolizes food; provides energy; supports
Description: Comprises about two-thirds of body weight; essential for all bodily enzymes, digestion, appetite, skin, nerves.
processes. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): Metabolizes protein/glucose; forms hemoglobin.
Functions: Regulates body temperature; transports nutrients; aids excretion; Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin): Builds genetic material; produces red blood
lubricates joints; keeps skin moist; protects from shock. Daily loss: ~2% of body cells; maintains nervous system.
weight; recover via drinking (10-12 glasses or 6-7 liters) and food (20% intake Vitamin C: Strengthens gums; heals wounds.
from food). Vitamin D: Strengthens teeth/bones.
Sources: Direct drinking; food substances.

75
5. Nutritive and Non-Nutritive Components of Diet
Food contains both nutritive (energy-providing) Anti-Nutritional Factors (ANFs):
and non-nutritive (non-caloric) components. Description: Interfere with nutrient
Nutritive components support growth and absorption.
metabolism, while non-nutritive enhance Examples:
appeal, flavor, or provide health Phytates: In unrefined cereals/millets;
benefits/antioxidants without calories. bind iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium.
Nutritive Components: Tannins: In legumes/millets; hinder
Macro-Nutrients: Carbohydrates, fats, iron/protein absorption.
proteins; provide calories/energy for Trypsin Inhibitors: Reduce protein
growth and functions. digestibility.
Micro-Nutrients: Vitamins, minerals, Oxalate: In green leafy
antioxidants; support cellular processes in vegetables/legumes; interferes with
small quantities. calcium absorption.
Non-Nutritive Components: Goitrogen: Hinders iodine absorption
Color Components: Pigments like by thyroid; leads to iodine deficiency.
carotenoids (orange/yellow/red), Beneficial Non-Nutritive Factors:
chlorophyll (green), flavonoids Phytochemicals: Plant compounds
(blue/cream/red); enhance visual appeal in protecting against enemies; found in fruits,
fruits/vegetables. vegetables, grains, beans.
Flavor Components: Derived from Anthocyanin: Gives dark color to grapes,
nutritive/non-nutritive sources; organic blueberries, cranberries.
acids determine acidity/basicity (sour/bitter Flavonoids/Isoflavones: In vegetables,
taste); influence color, texture, and fruits, grains; prevent heart disease, breast
reactions (e.g., fruit juice color, chocolate cancer.
hue, carbon dioxide release). Artificial Sweeteners: Provide sweetness
Plant Components: Non-nutritive without calories; used in diet products.
substances with health effects; e.g., indoles Water: Essential for transport, excretion,
(phytohormones in cabbage, cauliflower) temperature regulation.
act as anticarcinogens, inhibiting tumors in
lab studies.
Anti-Nutritional Factors Non-Nutritive Factors

6. Key Terminology
Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins.
Tissues: Specialized groups of cells.
Fatty Acids: Building blocks of fats.
Wounds: Soft tissue injuries.
Red Blood Cells: Transport oxygen and nutrients.
Nervous System: Involves nerves and sensory organs.
Thyroid Gland: In throat; regulates growth.
Deficiency: Reduced body efficiency due to nutrient lack.

76
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CHAPTER 6: TEST AND MEASUREMENT IN SPORTS

Introduction to SAI Components of a

and Khelo India Balanced Diet 2. SAI Khelo India Fitness Tests for Age Group 5-8 Years (Classes 1-3)
Fitness Program These tests evaluate basic physical abilities Equipment Required: Adjustable-height
Macro Nutrients to support early development, focusing on table, 2 yellow discs (20 cm diameter),
body composition, coordination, and rectangle (30 × 20 cm), stopwatch.
Nutritive and balance. Procedure:
Micro Nutrients Body Composition (BMI): Adjust table height for comfortable
Non-Nutritive Description: Measures distribution of standing.
Components of Diet Key Terminology
muscle and fat; includes height, lengths, Place discs 60 cm apart (centers);
and girths. rectangle equidistant between
Purpose: Screens for weight categories them.
linked to health risks; calculates BMI for Place non-preferred hand on
categorization. rectangle; move preferred hand
[Link] to SAI and Khelo Equipment Required: Flat clean surface, back/forth between discs (over
India Fitness Program weighing machine, middle hand) quickly.
stadiometer/measuring tape on wall. Complete 25 full cycles (50 taps).
The Sports Authority of India (SAI), established in 1984, Procedure: Scoring: Time to complete 25 cycles.
aims to promote sports and achieve excellence at national Remove shoes, bulky clothing, Balance (Flamingo Balance Test):
and international levels. The Khelo India program revives heavy ornaments. Description: Measures ability to
sports culture at the grassroots by building a strong Stand on uncarpeted floor against balance on one leg.
framework for sports in India, positioning the country as a flat wall; feet flat together, Purpose: Assesses leg, pelvic, and trunk
sporting nation. It provides a comprehensive, inclusive back/legs straight, arms at sides, muscle strength plus static balance.
Physical Fitness and Health Profile for all school-going shoulders level, eyes forward (line Equipment Required: Non-slippery
children. For ages 5-8 (Classes 1-3), focus is on acquiring of sight parallel to floor). even surface, stopwatch; optional
Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) as building blocks for Measure height from floor base to beam.
physical activities like games, dance, and sports, wall mark (nearest 0.1 cm). Procedure:
emphasizing locomotor, manipulative, and body For weight: Use digital scale on firm Stand on beam; hold instructor's
management abilities. Tests measure body composition floor (not carpet); stand centered hand for initial balance.
(BMI), coordination (Plate Tapping), and balance (Flamingo barefoot, light clothing; record to Balance on preferred leg; flex free
Balance). For ages 9-18+ (Classes 4-12), tests include BMI, nearest 0.1 kg (e.g., 25.1 kg). leg at knee, hold foot close to
speed, endurance, flexibility, and strength. Scoring: Height in cm/mm; weight in buttocks.
Key Aspects: kg/g. BMI = Weight (kg) / [Height (m)]². Start timer when instructor
Program Goals: Revive grassroots sports; assess and Higher score indicates higher body fat releases; pause on loss of balance
track fitness for holistic development. levels. (e.g., touching floor, releasing foot).
Age-Specific Focus: Younger children build foundational Coordination (Plate Tapping): Resume timing; terminate if >15
skills; older ones enhance performance metrics. Description: Assesses limb movement falls in first 30 seconds.
Inclusivity: Covers all school children for national with coordination and speed. Count falls in 60 seconds.
fitness profiling. Purpose: Tests speed and coordination Scoring: Total falls/losses of balance in
of limb actions. 60 seconds.

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3. SAI Khelo India Fitness Tests for Age Group 9-18+ Years 4. Strength Test 5. Basal Metabolic Rate
(Classes 4-12) Abdominal (Partial Curl-Up): (BMR) and Computation
Purpose: Measures
These tests build on foundational Sit and Reach Flexibility Test: BMR is the energy needed for
abdominal/hip flexor
skills, assessing body composition, Purpose: Measures lower back homeostasis (e.g., body
strength/endurance; improves
speed, endurance, flexibility, and and hamstring flexibility. temperature, fluid balance),
core stability.
strength for advanced fitness tracking. Equipment Required: Sit and determined largely by lean mass
Equipment Required: Flat
Body Composition (BMI): Procedure Reach box (12"×12" sides, (especially muscle). It represents
cushioned surface, two parallel
and details same as for 5-8 years. 12"×10" front/back, 12"×21" top), calories for basic functions like
strips (6 inches apart), stopwatch,
50 m Speed Test (Standing Start): flat cushioned surface/gym mats. breathing, circulation, digestion,
recording sheets, pen.
Purpose: Determines acceleration Procedure: nutrient processing, and protein
Procedure:
and speed. Sit on floor, legs straight synthesis at complete rest. BMR
Lie on surface, knees flexed
Equipment Required: 50m ahead, shoes removed, soles accounts for 60-75% of Total
~90°, hands straight on sides
marked track, measuring tape, flat against box. Energy Expenditure (TTE); rest
(palms down), parallel to
stopwatch, wooden Knees locked/flat (tester may from activities and digestion.
body.
clapper/whistle. hold); palms down, hands Reducing lean mass lowers BMR.
Raise trunk (arms in position),
Procedure: atop each other.
curl up; lower until shoulder
Warm-up with practice Reach forward along line; Computation of BMR:
blades/upper back touch
starts/accelerations. hold 1-2 seconds; no jerks. Formula for Males: BMR = (10
floor.
Start stationary: One foot Scoring: Distance reached × weight kg) + (6.25 × height
Scoring: Maximum curl-ups in 30
forward/behind starting line (cm/mm) between initial and final cm) – (5 × age years) + 5
seconds.
(static/dead start). position. kcal/day.
Muscular Endurance (Push-Ups for
Hints: Stay low, drive Formula for Females: BMR =
Boys, Modified Push-Ups for Girls):
arms/legs; run hard through (10 × weight kg) + (6.25 ×
finish. height cm) – (5 × age years) –
Purpose: Measures upper body
Scoring: Time for completion. 161 kcal/day.
strength/endurance and trunk
600 m Run/Walk: Example: For 60-year-old
stability.
Purpose: Assesses cardiovascular man, 5'4" (162.56 cm), 150
Equipment Required: Cushioned
fitness/endurance. lbs (68.04 kg):
surface/gym mat, paper for
Equipment Required: Stopwatch, BMR = 10×68.04 + 6.25×162.56 –
scoring.
whistle, marker cones, lime 5×60 + 5 = 1401.4 kcal/day.
Procedure:
powder, measuring tape, 400m
Boys: Hands/toes on floor,
track with start/finish marks.
body/legs straight, feet apart,
Procedure:
arms shoulder-
Run 600m at fastest pace;
width/extended (90° elbows).
walking allowed, but aim for
Lower to 90° elbows/touch
shortest time.
object; extend back up.
Start on "ready, start" signal;
Girls: Knees on ground.
announce elapsed time at
Continue until
finish.
exhaustion/rhythm
Scoring: Time in min:sec:mm (run
loss/target reached.
or walk).
Scoring: Number of correctly
completed push-ups

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 Back to Index

6. Rikli and Jones: Senior Citizen Fitness Test Key Terminology

Rikli and Jones developed non-exhaustive tests for seniors, Hamstring: Muscles opposite
assessing various body parts: Chair Stand (lower body strength), quadriceps in legs.
Arm Curl (upper body strength/endurance), Chair Sit and Reach Flexors: Muscles that flex
(lower body flexibility), Back Scratch (upper body flexibility), Eight joints.
Foot Up and Go (agility), Six Minute Walk (aerobic endurance). Homeostasis: Body
Chair Stand Test for Lower Body Strength: temperature and fluid
Purpose: Assesses leg strength/endurance. balance.
Equipment Required: Straight/folding chair (17"/44 cm Mass: A large amount.
seat, no arms), stopwatch.
Procedure:
Sit on chair against wall; feet shoulder-width, wrists Back Scratch Test for Upper Body Flexibility:
crossed at chest. Purpose: Measures upper arm/shoulder girdle flexibility.
Stand fully, sit back (one cycle); repeat for 30 Equipment Required: None.
seconds. Procedure:
Scoring: Completed cycles in 30 seconds. Stand; one hand behind head (palm in), other down
Norms for Men (Age: Below/Avg/Above Avg): 60-64: back (palm out).
<14/14-19/>19; 65-69: <12/12-18/>18; etc. (as in tables). Touch fingers; repeat for both sides.
Norms for Women: 60-64: <12/12-17/>17; etc. Scoring: Distance between fingers.
Arm Curl Test for Upper Body Strength: Norms for Men: 60-64: >6.5/6.5 to 0/<0; etc.
Purpose: Measures upper body strength/endurance. Norms for Women: 60-64: >3.0/3.0 to 1.5/<1.5; etc.
Equipment Required: 5 lb weight (women), 8 lb (men), Eight Foot Up and Go Test for Agility:
chair, stopwatch. Purpose: Measures speed, agility, balance while moving.
Procedure: Equipment Required: Stopwatch, chair (17"/44 cm),
Sit, hold weight in dominant arm (vertical down); cone/marker, measuring tape, clear area.
other arm up/stationary. Procedure:
Curl to shoulder, return; repeat for 30 seconds. Sit fully, hands on knees, feet flat.
Scoring: Completed curls in 30 seconds. On "Go," stand, walk (no run) to/around cone (8 ft),
Norms for Men: 60-64: <16/16-22/>22; etc. return/sit.
Norms for Women: 60-64: <13/13-19/>19; etc. Scoring: Time in seconds.
Chair Sit and Reach Test for Lower Body Flexibility: Norms for Men: 60-64: >5.6/5.6 to 3.8/<3.8; etc.
Purpose: Measures lower body flexibility. Norms for Women: 60-64: >6.0/6.0 to 4.4/<4.4; etc.
Equipment Required: Ruler, straight/folding chair Six Minute Walk Test for Aerobic Endurance:
(17"/44 cm seat). Purpose: Measures aerobic fitness.
Procedure: Equipment Required: Measuring tape for track,
Sit on edge, feet flat; hands atop (middle fingers stopwatch, chairs.
touching). Procedure:
Exhale, bend to toes (straight back/head up); hold 2 Layout 50-yard (45.7 m) rectangular course (45×5
seconds; no bounce/jerk. yards) with cones.
Scoring: Distance (cm) between middle finger tips and Walk quickly for 6 minutes to cover maximum
toes. distance.
Norms for Men: 60-64: <-2.5/-2.5 to 4.0/>4.0; etc. Scoring: Distance covered in 6 minutes.
Norms for Women: 60-64: <-0.5/-0.5 to 5.0/>5.0; etc.

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 CHAPTER 7: PHYSIOLOGY AND INJURIES IN SPORTS

Introduction to Physiological Factors

2. Physiological Factors 3. Physiological Factors
Physiological Factors Determining Strength
Determining Strength Determining Speed
Strength is the ability to produce force, Speed involves rapid movements, relying
Physiological Factors Physiological Factors influenced by muscle characteristics on explosive power, range of motion,
and body factors. Larger muscles and and energy availability. It can be
Determining Speed Determining Endurance heavier body weight correlate with improved limitedly through training
greater strength, while fiber muscle composition, coordination, and
composition plays a key role in force metabolic processes.
production. Explosive Strength:
Effect of Exercise on Muscular System Muscle Size: Description: Essential for quick,
Description: Larger muscles powerful actions; depends on
Sports Injuries produce more force; males muscle composition, size,
Effect of Exercise on Cardio- generally have bigger muscles coordination, and metabolic
than females, leading to higher processes.
Respiratory System
Key Terminology strength despite equal force Significance: Trainable factors
per similar-sized muscle. like coordination enhance
Significance: Directly impacts speed.
maximum force output. Flexibility:
Body Weight: Description: Allows full
1. Introduction to Physiological Factors Description: Heavier individuals utilization of explosive strength
tend to be stronger; positive and maximum range of motion
Determining Physical Fitness Physical fitness components such as correlation in weightlifters with minimal internal
strength, speed, endurance, and flexibility are influenced by various where body weight aids in resistance.
physiological factors. These factors include muscle size, composition, lifting heavier loads. Significance: Contributes to
body weight, explosive strength, flexibility, biochemical reserves, Muscle Composition: speed by enabling efficient,
aerobic/anaerobic capacity, lactic acid tolerance, movement economy, Description: Muscles consist of unrestricted movements.
joint structure, and previous injuries. Understanding these helps in fast twitch (white) fibers Bio-Chemical Reserves and
optimizing training to enhance performance, prevent limitations, and (produce more force, contract Metabolic Power:
improve overall athletic capabilities. Factors like muscle composition faster) and slow twitch (red) Description: Requires high ATP
(fast/slow twitch fibers) and energy systems (ATP/CP) are trainable to a fibers (contract slower but for and CP reserves in muscles for
certain extent, allowing improvements through targeted exercises. longer durations). rapid energy utilization;
Key Aspects: Significance: Higher percentage enzymes enhance metabolic
Role in Sports: Determine an athlete's ability to generate force, of fast twitch fibers enhances power.
move quickly, sustain efforts, and achieve range of motion. strength; composition Significance: Insufficient
Trainability: Many factors (e.g., strength, flexibility) can be determines muscle's force reserves slow contractions;
enhanced via systematic training, while others (e.g., joint structure) potential. training increases ATP/CP
are more inherent. amounts for better speed
Interdependence: Components like explosive strength affect performance.
multiple fitness areas, emphasizing holistic training.

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4. Physiological Factors Determining Endurance 5. Effect of Exercise on Muscular System

Endurance is the ability to sustain prolonged activity, determined by The muscular system includes 650 muscles Body Composition Changes:
oxygen supply, acid tolerance, and energy efficiency. Aerobic and aiding movement and blood circulation. Little total weight change; muscle mass
anaerobic capacities are key, with training improving oxygen Exercise induces contractions (isotonic, increases.
delivery and waste management. isometric, isokinetic) leading to hypertrophy, Joint/muscle motion alters; flexibility
Aerobic Capacity: biochemical changes, and body composition enhances performance/prevents injury.
Description: Involves maintaining oxygen supply to muscles alterations. Short-term effects include Relative/absolute body fat decreases.
for energy; crucial for continuous activities. increased blood supply and temperature; long- Short-Term Effects of Exercise on Muscular
Significance: Enhances ability to perform without fatigue. term include muscle growth and enhanced System:
Lactic Acid Tolerance: energy storage. Increased Blood Supply: Enhances fuel
Description: Ability to handle high lactic acid buildup; vital Muscle Contractions: delivery to active muscles.
for activities lasting 40+ seconds. Isotonic Contraction: Increased Muscle Temperature:
Significance: Improves anaerobic capacity and delays Description: Muscle shortens while Generates heat from contractions, raising
fatigue. lifting constant load with varying body/muscle temp.
Movement Economy: tension. Increased Muscle Flexibility: Boosted by
Description: Efficient movements conserve energy; good Isometric Contraction: blood flow/temp rise; aided by stretching.
technique in endurance sports allows longer performance Description: Tension develops without Accumulation of Lactate: From oxygen
at set speeds with less expenditure. length change. deficit, causing pain/soreness.
Significance: Reduces energy waste, extending duration. Isokinetic Contraction: Micro-Tears in Muscle Fibers: Stress-
Description: Performed at constant induced; repaired to enlarge fibers
speed; maximal tension through full (hypertrophy).
joint range. Long-Term Effects of Exercise on Muscular
Muscle Hypertrophy: System:
Description: Increase in muscle fiber Hypertrophy of Muscle: Thickened fibers
width; enhances strength/endurance increase size/strength.
via weight training. Increases in Strength of Ligaments and
Biochemical Changes in Muscles: Tendons: Prevents injury, boosts
Aerobic Capacity: performance.
Mitochondria increase for more Increase in Size and Number of
energy. Mitochondria: Improves oxygen
Enhanced carbohydrate/fat use/energy production.
breakdown. Increase in Myoglobin Storage: Enhances
Myoglobin (oxygen-binding) rises. oxygen transport to mitochondria.
Glycogen stores expand for energy. Increase in Glycogen Storage: Provides
Anaerobic Capacity: sustained energy (90-120 minutes).
ATP/CP system capacity grows for Increase in Oxidation/Metabolism: Boosts
quick energy. fat oxidation via mitochondrial density.
Glycolytic capacity improves. Increase in Lactic Acid Tolerance: Builds
resistance to muscle pain/soreness.

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6. Effect of Exercise on Cardio-Respiratory 7. Sports Injuries
System Classification Sports injuries interrupt Incision:
The cardio-respiratory system supplies oxygen and nutrients participation due to incorrect movements, Description: Cut from sharp objects
via heart, blood vessels, and lungs. Exercise immediately collisions, overtraining, or lack of (e.g., equipment/spikes); may sever
increases heart rate, output, and blood flow; long-term conditioning. Classified as acute (sudden arteries/veins; free bleeding.
effects strengthen the heart, improve efficiency, and enhance trauma) or overuse (cumulative micro- Sprain and Strain:
lung function. trauma). Common types: sprain, strain, Sprain: Stretching/tearing of ligaments
Immediate Effects of Exercise: dislocation, contusion, fracture, abrasion. (bone-connecting tissues); common in
Heart Rate Increases: From 60-80 bpm at rest to near Further categorized by tissue: soft tissue ankle; treat with RICE (Rest, Ice,
max (220 - age); anticipatory response via (muscles, ligaments, tendons, nerves), Compression, Elevation).
neurotransmitters. bone, joint. Strain: Injury to muscle/tendon; minor
Cardiac Output Increases: Rises with heart rate/stroke Classification of Sports Injuries: overstretch to complete tears.
volume; from 5 L/min rest to 20-40 L/min intense Acute Injuries: From sudden shock; Bone and Joint Injuries:
exercise. e.g., sprains (ligament tear), strains Dislocation:
Blood Flow Increases: Redistributes 80-85% to muscles (muscle/tendon tear). Description: Bones forced from
(from 15-20% at rest); diverts from organs. Overuse Injuries: From repeated micro- normal positions; from trauma (falls,
Stroke Volume Increases: From 50-70 ml/beat untrained trauma; e.g., minor fractures, muscle collisions); affects larger joints.
to 110-130 ml/beat exercise; elite: 150-220 ml/beat; via tears, bone deformities. Fracture:
Frank-Starling Mechanism. Soft Tissue Injuries: Description: Bone break; open
Long-Term Effects of Exercise on Cardio-Respiratory System: Abrasion: (punctures skin) or closed; from
Heart Size Increases: Enlarges left ventricle; Description: Superficial skin accidents, falls, injuries, osteoporosis.
strengthens/thickens walls. rub/scrape/brush burn; minor, Types:
Resting Heart Rate Decreases: From 72 bpm to ~30 bpm treatable at home; may bleed/drain Green-Stick: Bone bends/cracks
in athletes; improves efficiency. initially. without full break.
Blood Flow Increases: More/wider capillaries; efficient Contusion: Comminuted: Bone breaks into 2+
redistribution. Description: Bruise from direct places.
Cardiac Output Increases: From 14-20 L/min untrained to blow; damages skin/deeper tissues; Transverse: Break perpendicular
25-40 L/min trained/elite. common in active children. to bone length.
Risk of Heart Disease Reduces: Lowers stress hormones; Laceration: Oblique: Fracture line oblique to
widens vessels, reduces plaque. Description: Irregular/jagged tear in bone shaft.
Blood Volume Increases: Boosts plasma/red blood cells soft tissue; often contaminated Impacted: Broken ends jammed
for oxygen supply. with bacteria/debris.. together by force.
Lung Function Changes:
Lung Volume: Increases vital capacity (3-4 L untrained to
5-6 L trained).
Breathing Frequency: Decreases at rest (12-20 to 7-8
breaths/min); reflects efficiency.
Maximum Minute Ventilation: Rises from ~100 L/min to
Key Terminology
150-160 L/min. ATP: Adenosine triphosphate (energy
Pulmonary Diffusion: More active/larger alveoli for molecule).
O2/CO2 exchange. CP: Phosphocreatine (energy storage).
Ventilatory Efficiency: Gets 1 L O2 from less air (12 L vs. Pulmonary: Related to
15 L); improved by endurance training. lungs/respiration.

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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 8: BIOMECHANICS AND SPORTS

Introduction to Newton’s Laws of Motion and

Biomechanics Their Application in Sports 2. Newton’s Laws of Motion and Their Application in Sports

Newton's Laws of Motion form the Key Principles: Greater force on

Friction and Sports foundation for mechanical principles in equal masses accelerates faster;
Equilibrium – Dynamic & sports, explaining how forces affect equal forces on different masses
Static and Centre of Gravity movement. They guide training methods, accelerate lighter objects more.
and its Application in Sports Projectile in Sports ensuring techniques align with physics for Application in Sports:
optimal performance. Linear motion Baseball: Hitting the ball hard
(straight-line travel, e.g., sledding) and (greater force) to propel it
angular motion (rotation around a center, farther.
e.g., gymnastics spins) combine in sports Newton's Third Law of Motion (Law
1. Introduction to Biomechanics applications. of Reaction):
Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Description: For every action,
Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to study living
Inertia): there is an equal and opposite
organisms, combining "bio" (pertaining to life or living beings) and
Description: A body at rest reaction (also Law of Reciprocal
"mechanics" (the physics branch analyzing motion using mechanical
remains at rest, and a body in Action Force).
laws). It focuses on mechanics limited to living structures, particularly
motion continues at constant Application in Sports:
the human body and its functions. In sports, biomechanics involves
speed and direction unless acted Walking/Running: Pressing
detailed analysis of movements to minimize injury risk and enhance
upon by an external force. ground backward (action)
performance. It describes, analyzes, and assesses human movement
Application in Sports: propels forward (reaction).
during sports activities, aiding in technique optimization, equipment
Starting sprint races: General: Explains rebounds,
design, and injury prevention.
Overcomes inertia to initiate pushes, and interactions in
Key Aspects:
motion. various sports.
Historical Adoption: Gained international recognition in the early
Lifting opponents in Application of Newton's Laws in
1970s for studying biological systems mechanically.
wrestling: Applies force to Sports:
Relevance in Sports: Applies physics to motion description and
change static position. Linear Motion: Straight-line
force-induced movements; essential for improving athletic
Hammer throw initiation: movements like sledding; laws
efficiency and safety.
External force starts the ensure balanced forces for steady
Benefits: Reduces injury through better understanding of forces;
motion. travel.
improves skills in games like athletics (shot put, hammer throw).
Newton's Second Law of Motion Angular Motion: Rotations in
(Law of Acceleration): diving/gymnastics; inertia
Description: Acceleration of an maintains spin, acceleration
object is directly proportional to changes it, reactions from
the net force acting on it and surfaces aid twists.
inversely proportional to its mass Overall: Training adhering to laws
(also Law of Resultant Force or optimizes skills; deviations are
Momentum). mechanically inefficient

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3. Equilibrium – Dynamic & Static and Centre 4. Friction and Sports
of Gravity and its Application in Sports
Friction is the resistive force along contacting Dynamic Friction:
Equilibrium is a state of rest or balanced forces where surfaces opposing motion. It arises from surface Description: Opposes motion when one
opposite forces cancel, resulting in no net change (sum of roughness/irregularities and molecular/atomic body moves over another; includes
forces/torques = zero). It's crucial for skill execution, with the attraction at contact points. Larger contact areas sliding and rolling subtypes.
center of gravity shifting based on posture. Stability increase friction; smooth surfaces reduce it nearly Sliding Friction:
increases with larger base area, lower center of gravity, and to zero. Friction depends on the coefficient of Description: When body slides over
greater weight; it's inversely proportional to center of gravity friction (ratio of frictional force to pressing force). surface.
height above base. Characteristics of Friction: Application in Sports: Ice skating;
Types of Equilibrium: Resists relative motion of solids, fluids, or pole vault (planting pole).
Dynamic Equilibrium: sliding elements. Rolling Friction:
Description: Balance during movement/actions; line Opposes motion/attempted motion between Description: Slows rolling objects;
of gravity may briefly fall outside base but is quickly surfaces. combines frictional forces at wheel-
restored (e.g., sprint start where body weight shifts Depends on contact force pushing surfaces ground contact (static/molecular for
forward, alternate foot provides support). together. hard surfaces; distortion for soft).
Factors: Depends on enlarged base, lowered center Essential in sports for grip, control, and Application in Sports: Motorcycle
of gravity, force direction, body weight. movement. riding; ball rolling.
Application in Sports: Balancing beam exercises, low Types of Friction: Coefficient of Friction:
dribble in basketball, various dynamic movements. Static Friction: Description: Ratio of frictional force (or
Static Equilibrium: Description: Acts when force applied force to start movement) to pressing force;
Description: Balance at rest or in non-accelerating doesn't cause movement; magnitude symbolized by μ (range ~0-1, sometimes >1
objects; all objects in equilibrium but vary in equals applied force until motion starts. for strong friction).
stability. Depends on: Coefficient of static friction Equation: Fr = μN (Fr: friction force; N:
Factors: Enlarged base, lowered center of gravity, and net normal reaction. perpendicular force).
force direction, body weight enhance stability. Application in Sports: Pushing a wall (no Varies by surfaces in contact.
Application in Sports: Wrestler's positions, cricket motion); initial resistance in movements.
batsman's stance, shooting, archery.
Center of Gravity:
Description: Balance point where body weight acts;
point of even mass/weight distribution and gravity's
force application. Fixed if body shape unchanged;
shifts with position changes.
Line of Gravity: Imaginary vertical line through
center of gravity; depends on body position.
Application in Sports:
Running: Low/forward center aids acceleration.
Stability in Combat: Low center (e.g., sumo
wrestling, kabaddi, basketball) increases
balance; harder to topple.
Direction Change: Lowering (bending legs)
enhances stability for quick adjustments via
greater leg force.

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 Back to Index

5. Projectile in Sports

A projectile is an object thrown horizontally or at an oblique

angle under gravity, following a parabolic path (trajectory).
In sports, projectiles include shot put,
hammer/discuss/javelin throws. Factors like propelling force,
gravity, air resistance, release speed/angle/height affect
trajectory.
Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory:
Propelling Force:
Description: Influences effects based on application
point/direction; causes spin variations
(forward/backspin, clockwise/counterclockwise).
Force of Gravity:
Description: Influences vertical motion; factors:
object weight, upward force, air resistance.
Effect of Air Resistance:
Description: Affects horizontal component;
minimized by lower release angle.
Speed of Release:
Description: Directly proportional to distance;
greater speed covers more ground.
Angle of Release (Trajectory of Release):
Description: Alters horizontal/vertical components;
ideal 45° (no air resistance, same start/land heights).
Height of Release:
Description: Center of gravity height above
ground/landing before release; affects distance.

Projectile in Sports:
Bow and Arrow/Sling-Shot: Arrow follows parabolic
path to target.
Baseball: Hit ball's parabolic trajectory depends on
angle.
Football Kick: Ball travels parabolic arc, falls at angle.
Hammer Throw: Circular force, angled release for max
distance.
Golf: Club hit sends ball in parabolic path; angle/force
key.
Gymnastics: Jumps/stunts follow parabolic motion.
Basketball Throw: Parabolic trajectory into basket.
Volleyball: Ball's net-crossing path is parabolic.

86
 CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY AND SPORTS

Introduction to Dimensions of
2. Dimensions of Personality 3. Types of Personality
Biomechanics Personality
Personality develops through various Personality types are classified based on sociability, qualities
interconnected dimensions, each contributing (trigunas), or universal factors. Classifications include:
to overall traits and behaviors. These are Ayurvedic Classification (Charak Samhita):
Meaning, Concept, and
Types of shaped by genetic and environmental factors, Based on humoral elements: Vata (ether/air), Pitta
Types of Aggression in affecting confidence, adjustment, and social (fire/water), Kapha (earth/water).
Personality
Sports integration. Trigunas (Three Qualities):
Physical Dimension: Sattva Guna: Spiritual qualities; good, clean, truthful,
Description: Refers to body structure disciplined, constructive, caring.
and physique; heredity plays a key Rajas Guna: Passion/desire; greedy, active, restless,
Psychological Attributes in Sports role, with environment aiding dissatisfied, envious.
development. Tamas Guna: Relaxation/luxury; lazy, inactive,
Significance: Strong physique destructive, arrogant, angry.
1. Introduction to Biomechanics correlates with confidence and Friedman and Rosenman's Classification (1950s Study):
health; positive relationship between Type A: Independent, competitive, ambitious, optimistic,
Personality encompasses the totality of an
good physique and vitality. impatient, aggressive, risk-takers; problem-solvers.
individual's behavior, derived from the Latin
Mental and Intellectual Dimension: Type B: Relaxed, happy-go-lucky, cheerful, light-hearted; lack
word "PERSONA" (originally meaning a mask
Description: Involves cognitive urgency, work at own pace.
worn by actors, later referring to the actors
abilities; essential for problem- Type C: Introverted, fact-focused, sensitive, thoughtful,
themselves). It includes unique adjustments to
solving and adjustment. reserved, alert.
the environment, influenced by heredity,
Significance: High mental capabilities Type D: Apathetic, routine-followers, pessimistic (gloom,
environment, and experiences. Personality is
enable better adaptation to worry, irritability, low confidence); avoid risks/ responsibility.
dynamic, involving psychophysical systems
circumstances; psychologists, Jung's Classification (Based on Sociability):
that shape behavior. Definitions emphasize it
scientists, and leaders exemplify this. Introverts: Shy, socially withdrawn, talk less; self-centered,
as the sum of activities, tendencies, instincts,
Social Dimension: not approachable, future-oriented, sensible, rigid ideas.
and dispositions observable over time. It
Description: Innate tendency for Extroverts: Outgoing, friendly, talkative, social; generous,
integrates physical, mental, intellectual, social,
social interaction; humans learn from sportive, courageous; happy-go-lucky, present-focused,
and emotional dimensions, making individuals
society and seek status, power, express feelings, quick decisions, resilient to difficulties.
distinct in how they interact with the world.
affection. Ambiverts: Possess qualities of both introverts & extroverts.
Key Aspects:
Significance: Modifies innate Big Five Theory: Broad trait categories:
Multidimensional: Combines physical
attitudes to fit societal norms; Openness: Imaginative, insightful; high:
(body structure), mental (intellectual
essential for acceptance and survival. adventurous/creative; low: traditional/abstract thinkers.
abilities), social (interactions), and
Emotional Dimension: Conscientiousness: Thoughtful, impulse-controlled, goal-
emotional (responses) elements.
Description: Emotions like love and directed; high: organized/mindful.
Development: Heredity provides the base;
affection add value to life; vary by Extraversion: Excitable, sociable, talkative, assertive; high:
environment (society, experiences) molds
individual and influence responses. outgoing/energized socially; low: reserved/less social energy.
it.
Significance: Make life exciting or Agreeableness: Trusting, kind, affectionate; high:
Significance in Sports: Influences
miserable; increase energy cooperative; low: competitive/manipulative.
motivation, aggression, self-esteem, and
mobilization; positive/negative Neuroticism: Sad, moody, unstable; high: mood
performance; understanding helps in
impacts on body. swings/anxiety; low: stable/resilient.
coaching and team dynamics.

87
 Back to Index

4. Meaning, Concept, and Types of 5. Psychological Attributes in Sports

Aggression in Sports Psychology studies behavior; sports psychology focuses on Examples: "Keep it up," "We can do it"; used pre-
athletes' behavior. Psychological attributes are interview, batting wait, post-match analysis.
Aggression is harm-inducing behavior multidimensional (cognitive, social, emotional) and assessed Functions: Enhances motivation/effort; directs
unrelated to competitive goals, often via systematic testing. Key attributes include self-esteem, attention to actions for quality performance
uncontrolled and outside rules. It's mental imagery, self-talk, and goal setting, aiding (better for fine motor like basketball than gross
interpersonal, intending physical/mental motivation, anxiety reduction, and performance like running).
distress. In sports, it manifests as unprovoked Self-Esteem: Categories:
assaults; addressed over the past 20 years Description: Appreciation/self-liking regardless of Self-Expression: Thoughts/expressions on
amid game changes. Aggression arises from conditions; influences motivation, well-being, past/upcoming events.
insult, hurt, bad feelings, jealousy, threat; new quality of life. Interpretive: Reduces stress/negative
players show it for quick success, experienced Factors: Self-confidence, security, identity, thoughts via expressive thoughts.
ones control it. belonging, competence; synonyms: self-worth, Self-Regulatory: Builds confidence; guides
Concept of Aggression: regard, respect. behavior for motivation.
Description: Intent to harm; Importance: Enhances decision-making, well-being; Depends On: Motivation level, self-esteem,
aggressiveness is the predisposition. Part Maslow: Needs appreciation and self-respect for skill/competition level, sport type/culture,
of contemporary sports; can be positive growth/self-actualization. experience, audience, venue.
(competitive spirit) or negative (harmful Affecting Factors: Age, disability, genetics, illness, Importance: Improves/maintains performance;
actions). abilities, socio-economic status, thought patterns, boosts enjoyment/confidence/competence;
Types of Aggression: racism, discrimination. reduces anxiety (positive most effective, negative
Assertion Aggression: Indirect harm via For Healthy Self-Esteem: Avoid negative past; feel for some via motivation differences).
gossip, rumors, murmuring; connected; be expressive; stay confident/positive; Goal Setting:
confident/forceful but non-physical. believe in strengths; say no when needed. Description: Objectives/targets to achieve; should
Instrumental Aggression: Positive; aims to Mental Imagery: be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic,
achieve goals via high- Description: Visualizing performance (sight, hearing, Time-based (SMART).
intensity/competitive spirit (e.g., football feeling, smell) before/during/after events; also Concept: Mental training technique increasing
tackle to win ball); no harm intent; visualization rehearsal. commitment to personal goals; divided into
experienced players exhibit self-control. Need and Importance: short/medium/long-term.
Hostile Aggression: Negative; aims to Optimizes training outcomes. Theories: Locke's (1960s): Linked to task
harm/injure (e.g., bowler's bouncer to Reduces anxiety, maintains confidence in performance/feedback; Picasso: Needs
injure batsman); unplanned/impulsive or competitions. plan/belief/action; Locke (2019): Life depends on
planned; arises from threats; seen in new Maintains form without training. pursuing goals.
players; extreme cases involve Aids adaptation to conditions. Categories:
hitting/obstructing. Motivates via past success/future goals. Outcome Goals: Specific competition results.
Removes negative thoughts. Performance Goals: Improvements over time.
Plans strategies/tactics. Process Goals: Focus on skill execution.
Learns skills in sequence. Importance:
Sets stage for performance. Optimizes performance.
Re-focuses during events. Focuses on essentials.
Self-Talk Provides control/positive direction.
Description: Inner thoughts/dialogue (in mind/out Builds confidence if SMART.
loud); regulates thoughts/emotions, reduces Improves overall performance.
stress/anxiety. Influences motivation time-based.
Helps reach potential.

88
 CHAPTER-10: TRAINING IN SPORTS

Talent Development in 2. Talent Development in Sports

Concept of Talent
Sports Builds on identification; in India, supported by government schemes for nurturing. Research
Identification and Talent shows talented Indian children have higher starting weight and physiological capacity. Key
Development in Sports schemes include:
Sports Talent Search Scholarship Scheme (1970-71): Provides facilities for talented
Strength secondary-level students proficient in sports to develop skills.
SAI National Sports Talent Contest Scheme (SAI NSTC): Offers school environment for 8-14-
Introduction to Sports Endurance year-olds for advanced training in competitive sports.
National Sports Talent Search Scheme (2022): Launched by Sports Authority of India for
Training Cycle - Micro, identifying and nurturing talent.
Meso, Macro Cycle Khelo India Program (2018): Includes 'Talent Identification and Development' vertical;
Flexibility organizes Khelo India School/University Games annually.

Speed Co-ordinative Ability

3. Introduction to Sports Training Cycle - Micro, Meso, Macro Cycle
Sports training cycles, or periodization, systematically plan athletic/physical training based on
principles like the 'Principle of Periodization' to achieve peak performance in key competitions. It
1. Concept of Talent Identification and Talent involves progressive cycling of training aspects over specific periods. Training programs are
Development in Sports divided into three cycles: micro (shortest), meso (medium), and macro (longest), ensuring
Talent identification involves recognizing individuals with balanced load, recovery, and progression.
potential in sports, distinct from team selection, based on Micro Cycle:
factors like physical attributes, social skills, psychological skills, Description: Simplest/shortest cycle; a single week (7 days) training plan.
physiological functions, technical abilities, and cognitive skills. Focus: Varies workouts daily; targets specific sports performance aspects.
The process requires a clear aim and purpose. Talent is an Planning: Based on position within overall macro cycle.
inherent natural ability that must be nurtured through training; Meso Cycle:
without it, potential remains unfulfilled. Identification occurs in Description: 2 weeks to a few months (typically a month); contains 3-6 micro cycles.
stages: below 10-12 years (early), 13-16 years (mid), and high- Focus: Main training target for the period (e.g., anaerobic power, muscular endurance).
level (national team). Competition is often the best identifier, Phases: Divided into preparatory, competitive, transitional.
focusing on results. Macro Cycle:
Physical Attributes: Health, posture, voice, appearance Description: Overall training period; usually a yearly plan (3-12 months).
assessed during identification. Phases:
Social Skills: Respect, empathy, communication. Preparatory Period: Prepares for competition; 4-8 weeks; includes general
Psychological Skills: Goal setting, mental imagery, conditioning (Phase I), specific training (Phase II), tactical preparation (Phase III);
relaxation, activation. incorporates strategies/tactics.
Physiological Skills: Efficient body functions. Competitive Period: Focuses on warm-up matches, strategy implementation, mental
Gender: Considered due to physiological/psychological strengthening, team work; 3-6 weeks.
differences. Transitional Period: Rehabilitation/recreation via other games/vacations; 45 days for
rest/recovery.

89
 Back to Index

4. Strength 5. Speed
Strength is the ability to overcome/act Disadvantages: Strength gains at Speed is performing motor actions in minimal time under specific
against resistance; a key motor ability exercised angle only; avoid with condition;g ovement-specific; depends on nervous system more than other
resulting from muscle contractions heart issues (raises BP); no abilities.
stimulated by the neuromuscular system. dynamic strength. Types of Speed:
Essential for posture, health, injury Isotonic Exercise: Visible movements; Reaction Ability: Respond quickly/effectively to signals
prevention; often ignored but harmful if tones muscles, improves (visual/tactile/auditory); simple/complex.
neglected. Voluntary muscle contractions length/flexibility; e.g., medicine ball Acceleration Ability: Attain high locomotion speed from stationary;
produce it; not just muscular but exercises, calisthenics, weight training, depends on technique/frequency/explosive strength; key in sprints.
neuromuscular. running/jumping. Locomotor Ability: Sustain max speed for max duration/distance; vital
Types of Strength: Advantages: Strengthens through in swimming/rowing; less in other sports.
Static Strength: Muscle contractions for full motion range; adaptable to Movement Speed: Execute single movement minimally; high in cyclic
extended periods without movement sports. sports; tied to technique/tactics.
(Isometric); e.g., shooting, horse riding, Disadvantages: Muscle soreness Speed Endurance: High-speed movements under fatigue; cyclic/non-
gymnastics. from stress; dynamic strength at cyclic forms.
Dynamic Strength: Force applied weakest point. Methods to Develop Speed:
repeatedly (Isotonic); further classified: Isokinetic Exercise: Constant speed Acceleration Runs: Build max speed from stationary; warm-up
Maximum Strength: Single maximal contractions; maximal force at specific essential; intervals prevent fatigue.
contraction against utmost range point; uses specialized Pace Runs: Uniform speed over race distance (800m+); young: 15-20m
resistance; e.g., weight lifting, machines; developed by Perrine max speed; trained: 40m.
throwing events. (1968); e.g., swimming/rowing
Explosive Strength: Overcome equipment.
resistance at high speed; combines Advantages: Develops high
strength/speed; subdivided: dynamic/explosive strength;
Start Strength: Maximal force effective for most games. 6. Co-ordinative Ability
buildup; e.g., sprint start, Disadvantages: Requires
weight lifting. equipment; needs coach Co-ordinative ability enables performing interconnected activities
Power: Strength at contraction supervision. correctly; relatively stabilized/generalized motor control/regulation
start. Precautions During Strength Training: patterns. Enhances movement quality/effect; main physical fitness
Speed Strength: Overcome Warm-up beforehand. component for smooth/accurate movements via sensory-muscle
lesser resistance at high speed; Start low intensity for musculoskeletal integration.
e.g., team games, lower-weight stability. Types of Co-ordinative Abilities:
combative sports. Use correct technique with heavy Orientation Ability: Realize body/parts position in space/time.
Strength Endurance: Work against weights. Coupling Ability: Combine body part movements for perfect sports
resistance under fatigue; Sequence exercises per program. actions.
static/dynamic forms. Gradually increase load per ability. Reaction Ability: React quickly/effectively to signals.
Methods to Develop Strength: Ensure recovery periods. Balance Ability: Maintain stable position (static/dynamic).
Isometric Exercise: No visible Breathe continuously; hold briefly if Rhythm Ability: Understand/execute movement rhythm.
movement; joint angle/muscle length needed. Adaptation Ability: Adjust/change movement based on situations.
unchanged; e.g., pushing wall. Use safety gear/equipment. Differentiation Ability: Achieve accuracy/economy in body
Advantages: Develops static movements/phases.
strength; needs less
time/equipment; perform
anywhere.

90
7. Endurance Active Flexibility: Greater range
Endurance is the ability to sustain Types: Impact: without help.
prolonged workouts or resist fatigue; Slow Continuous: Uniform Improves Muscular Strength: Static Flexibility: In
results from physical/mental systems. speed; 30 minutes, 140-160 Produces force; e.g., carrying stationary positions
Develops energy production to meet event bpm; e.g., weight/bench press. (lying/standing/sitting).
demands; aim: rapid recovery from loads. walking/running/cycling. Improves Muscular Dynamic Flexibility: In
Types of Endurance: Fast Continuous: Faster Endurance: Sustains activity; moving positions with
By Nature of Activity: uniform speed; 20 minutes, e.g., consecutive push-ups. amplitude.
Basic Endurance: Forms all 160-180 bpm. Body Composition: Burns Methods to Improve Flexibility:
endurance; moderate-pace Advantages: Increases calories, builds muscle; boosts Ballistic Method: Stretching with
movement >30 minutes involving muscle/liver glycogen; boosts resting calorie burn. swing; joint expanded steadily to
many muscles; e.g., jogging, intensity; enlarges mitochondria; High Altitude Training: Intermittent max range.
walking, swimming. improves heart/lung efficiency; hypoxia; reduced oxygen at high Slow Stretch and Hold Method:
General Endurance: Performs builds determination/confidence altitudes boosts erythropoietin/red Stretch to max, hold seconds.
various exercises without under fatigue. blood cells. Post Isometric Stretching: Based
excessive fatigue; Interval Training: Alternates Impact: Bodies produce extra red on proprioceptive neuromuscular
aerobic/anaerobic mix; high/low effort/recovery; based on "effort and blood cells; compete at lower facilitation; isometric contraction
intensity; developed via general recovery"; increases load by reducing elevations with enhanced 6-8 seconds, then stretch.
exercises; not sport-specific. recovery; e.g., 400m at 80% speed, physiology (lasts 10-20 days). Additional Information for
Specific Endurance: Equals basic walk/jog until heart rate 120-140, Improving Flexibility:
in endurance sports (slow/long- repeat. Emphasize pre-puberty (best
duration); e.g., cross- Advantages: Improves age).
country/marathon; respiratory/circulatory systems; Adolescence: Gaps deteriorate
aerobic/anaerobic/combined per measurable progress; coach flexibility.
sport. feedback during recovery;
8. Flexibility
Stretch each group multiple
By Duration of Activity: achieves peak performance Flexibility is joint action through full times.
Speed Endurance: Resist fatigue quickly; more workouts in short range of motion; reduces Aim for optimal (not max)
<45 seconds; e.g., 400m sprint; time. stiffness/injury risk; maintains flexibility.
relies on power/glycolytic energy. Fartlek Training: "Speed play" posture; enhances force/speed;
Short Time Endurance: Cyclic (Swedish); varies pace in road/cross- minimizes tension for movement
activity 45 seconds-2 minutes; country running; includes warm-up, economy.
e.g., 800m race; fast runs, walking, sprints, hill runs, Importance of Flexibility:
oxidation/glycolysis mix. cooling down. Reduces joint stiffness.
Medium Time Endurance: 2-11 Advantages: Adds Lowers injury risk (pliable
minutes; e.g., 1500m/3000m run; variety/stimulation; enhances muscles).
depends on strength/speed aerobic/anaerobic systems; Maintains posture during
endurance limitedly. customizable; efficient fat- performance.
Long Time Endurance: >11 burning; maintains racing Greater range for force/speed.
minutes; e.g., 5000m/10000m technique. Facilitates higher economy with
races. Circuit Training: 6-10 strength minimal tension.
Methods to Develop Endurance: exercises in sequence; Types of Flexibility:
Continuous Training: Prolonged low- repetitions/time-based; short rests Passive Flexibility: Greater
intensity activity without breaks; heart between, longer between circuits. amplitude with external help;
rate 140-160 bpm; duration >30 base for active.
minutes; e.g., cross-country.

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MATHEMATICS

93
 CHAPTER 1: RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

1. Relation: 3. Function:
A function f from a set A to a set B is a relation such that for every there exists
A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the a unique such that
Cartesian product A×B. The set A is called the domain, the set B is called the codomain, and b is called the image of a.
If we write a is related to b, denoted as aRb. The set of all the images is called the range of f. Note that range is always a subset of codomain.
∉
If (a,b) R, we write a is not related to b, denoted as aRb. Notation: If f is a function from A to B, we write
Example: Let f={(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}, where A={1, 2, 3} and B={2, 3, 4}. The function f assigns each
Example: Let A={1,2,3} and B={a,b}, and define the relation
R={(1,a),(2,b)}. Then 1Ra and 2Rb, but 3 is not related to any element of A a unique element of B.
element in B.

4. Types of Functions:
One-to-One Function (Injective): A function is one-to-one (or injective) if different
elements of A map to different elements of B. That is, if f(a1)=f(a2), then a1 = a2.
2. Types of Relations: Onto Function (Surjective): A function is onto (or surjective) if every element of B has
Reflexive Relation: A relation R on a set A is reflexive if at least one element of A mapping to it. That is, for every , there exists an such
that f(a) = b.
Symmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is symmetric One-to-One Correspondence (Bijective): A function is bijective if it is both one-to-one and
if onto. That is, there is a unique element in A corresponding to each element in B, and every
element of B has exactly one element in A mapped to it.
Transitive Relation: A relation R on a set A is transitive if
Example: Let f : A = {1, 2, 3}→B={a, b, c}, where f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}. This function is bijective
and
because it is both injective and surjective.
Equivalence Relation: A relation R is an equivalence
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Equivalence class: Equivalence class [a] containing a A
for an equivalence relation R in A is the subset of A
containing all elements b related to a. Not included in CBSE Not included in CBSE
Identity Relation: A relation R on a set A is called an
identity relation if each element of A is related only to 5. Composition of Functions: 6. Inverse of a Function:
itself. So, R={(a,a):a A}. The composition of functions f and g ,
denoted is defined as: The inverse of a function f, denoted by
Empty Relation: A relation R in a set A is called empty f -1 , is the function such that if f(a) = b,
relation, if no element of A is related to any element of then f -1 (b) = a.
A. So, for all x in the domain of g. A function has an inverse if and only if
Universal Relation: A relation R in a set A is called Example: If f(x) = x+1 and g(x) = 2x, then: it is bijective (one-to-one and onto)
universal relation, if each element of A is related to every such that f:A B and f -1:B A.
element of A. So, R=A×A. Example: If f(x) = 2x+1, is a bijective
function, then the inverse function
(Both the empty relation and the universal relation are f -1(x) is given by:
called trivial relations.)

94
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 2: INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Not included in CBSE
1. Definition of Inverse Trigonometric Functions: 4. Graphs of
3. Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Inverse
An inverse trigonometric function is the inverse function of
Basic identities: Trigonometric
the basic trigonometric function.
If y = sin(x), then x = sin-1( y ), where sin-1( y ) is the inverse of Functions
the sine function. The graphs of inverse
trigonometric functions
Inverse trigonometric functions allow us to find the angle are the reflections of the
when given the value of the trigonometric ratio.
graphs of the original
sin( sin-1x) = x, x [ - 1,1] and sin-1( sin x) = x, x trigonometric functions
along the line y = x
Similar results follow for the remaining trigonometric functions
also, for the suitable values of domain.
2. Domain and Range (Principal Value Branch)
of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Domain of the inverse trigonometric functions:
5. Examples of Inverse Not included in CBSE

Trigonometric Functions 6. Applications of Inverse

Example 1: Find
Trigonometric Functions
Inverse trigonometric functions are used to
find angles when given trigonometric ratios in
various real-world applications, including
navigation, Physics, and Engineering.
Example: In a right angled triangle, if the length
of the side opposite to the angle and the
Example 2: Find hypotenuse are known, then the angle can be
found using:
Range of the inverse trigonometric functions:

Example 3: Find

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CHAPTER 3: MATRICES

1. Definition of a Matrix 4. Operations on Matrices

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or 4.1 Matrix Addition:
functions arranged in rows and columns. The numbers or Matrices can be added iff they have the same order.
functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix. The sum of the two matrices A and B, where A = [aij ] m × n and
The order of a matrix is represented by where is B = [bij ] m × n is defined as a matrix C = [cij ]m × n , where cij = aij +
the number of rows and is the number of columns. bij , for all possible values of i and j.
Notation: A = [aij ]m × n, where denotes the element in the Example:
row and column.

Example: A matrix A of order 2x3 is:

4.2 Scalar Multiplication:

A matrix A can be multiplied by a scalar k to give another matrix
kA, which is obtained by multiplying each element of the matrix
A by the scalar k.
2. Types of Matrices If A = [aij ]m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar then kA = k[aij ]m × n =
Row Matrix: A matrix with a single row. Example: [k(aij )]m × n .
The (i, j)th element of kA is kaij for all possible values of i and j.
Column Matrix: A matrix with a single column. Example: Example:

Square Matrix: A matrix with an equal number of rows and columns. Example:

Zero Matrix or Null Matrix: A matrix in which all elements are zero. Example: .
Negative of a matrix: The negative of a matrix is denoted by
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all the non-diagonal elements are zero. –A = (–1) A. So If k = -1, then (-1)A = [-(aij )]m × n = -A.
Examples:

Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal. Example: 4.3 Matrix Subtraction:
Identity Matrix: A square matrix in which all diagonal Matrices can be subtracted iff they have the same order.
elements are 1 and all non-diagonal elements are 0. Example: A – B = A + (–1) B = sum of the matrix A and the matrix – B.
If A = [aij ] m × n and B = [bij ] m × n then C = A – B = [cij ]m × n ,
where cij = aij - bij , for all possible values of i and j.

Example:
3. Equality of Matrices
Two matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are said to be equal if they are of the same
order and aij = bij for all i and j, that is, each element of A is equal to the
corresponding element of B.

97
4.4 Properties of matrix addition : 5. Transpose of a Matrix
Consider matrices, A = [aij ], B = [bij ], C = [cij ] of the same order, say m × n.
The transpose of a matrix , denoted or A′, is obtained by interchanging
Commutative Law : A + B = B + A.
the rows and columns of .
Associative Law : (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Existence of additive identity : A + O = O + A = A, where O is an m × n If A = [aij ]m × n , then A′ or AT = [aji ]n × m
zero matrix. So, O is the additive identity for matrix addition.
The existence of additive inverse : A + (– A) = (– A) + A = O. So, – A is the Example:
additive inverse of A or negative of A.

4.5 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix : Properties of transpose of the matrices:

Consider matrices, A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] of the same order, say m × n, and k
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders:
and are scalars, then (i) k(A +B) = k A + kB, (ii) (k + )A = k A + A
(A′)′ = A,
4.6 Matrix Multiplication: (kA)′ = kA′ (where k is any constant)
Matrices A & B can be multiplied to give the matrix AB if f the number of (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B. (A B)′ = B′ A′
The product matrix AB is formed by taking the dot product of rows of A
with columns of B.
If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bjk ]n × p , then AB = C = [cik ]m × p , where
6. Symmetric and Skew- Symmetric Matrices
Example:
Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix that is equal to its transpose, that is
A′ = A .
Example: .
Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices: Even if AB and BA are Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix whose transpose is the negative
both defined, it is not necessary that AB = BA. of the matrix, that is A′ = - A .
Example:
4.7 Properties of multiplication of matrices:
For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A′ is a symmetric
The associative law: (AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality
matrix and A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.
are defined for the matrices A, B and C.
Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew
The distributive law: (i) A (B+C) = AB + AC (ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever
symmetric matrix.
both sides of equality are defined for the matrices A, B and C.
The existence of multiplicative identity: For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of the same order such that IA = AI = A.

7. Invertible Matrices
AB = BA = I. B is called the inverse matrix of a non - singular square matrix A
and is denoted by A– 1. If B is the inverse of A, then A is the inverse of B.
A–1 = B or B–1 = A , so, (A–1)–1 = A.
Uniqueness of inverse: Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.

98
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 4: DETERMINANTS
1. Definition of a Determinant 4. Determinant of a 3 x 3 Matrix
To every square matrix A = [aij ] of order n, where aij = (i, j)th
element of A, we can associate a number (real or complex) For a matrix
called determinant of the square matrix A.
The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar value that can
be computed from the elements of the matrix and is denoted
by |A| or det A or ∆.
It is used to determine whether the matrix is invertible or not,
to find the inverse of matrices, to find the area of a triangle Example:
and to solve system of linear equations.

2. Determinant of a 1 x 1 Matrix:
Let A = [a] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is
equal to a.
5. Area of a Triangle
The area of a triangle whose vertices are is given by
3. Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix
For a matrix

Example:
6. Cofactor and Minor of a Matrix
Minor of an Element: The minor of an element in a matrix is the determinant of the
matrix formed by removing the row and column from the original matrix. It is
denoted by Mij.

where is the matrix formed by deleting the row and column.

Cofactor of an Element: The cofactor of an element aij is denoted by Aij and is defined by,
is the minor of the element aij.

The sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their corresponding
cofactors is equal to the determinant of the matrix.
If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or column),
then their sum is zero.

99
 9. Inverse of a Matrix
7. Adjoint of a Matrix
A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is
The adjoint of a square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is defined as the transpose of the nonsingular matrix , that is
matrix [Aij ]n × n , where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij .
Adjoint of the matrix A is denoted by adj A. The inverse of is given by:

If
Example:

where

The adjoint of is:

Therefore, the inverse of is:

8. Some Important Points

A(adj A) = (adj A) A = |A|I , where I is the identity matrix of order n and A
is a square matrix of order n.
A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A| = 0.
A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if |A|≠ 0. 10. Solving System of Linear Equations using Matrices
If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are
For a system of linear equations written as, where is the
also non-singular matrices of the same order. coefficient matrix such that |A|≠ 0 and is the constant matrix, the
The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their unique solution is
respective determinants, so, |AB|= |A| |B|, where A and B are square
matrices of the same order.
| kA| = kn | A |, where A is a square matrices of order n.
|Aˊ| = |A|, where Aˊ = transpose of A.
If we interchange any two rows (or any two columns), then sign of the
determinant changes.
If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then the
value of the determinant is zero.
If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by a
constant k, then the value of the determinant is multiplied by k.
If to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the
equimultiples of corresponding elements of some other row (or column)
are added, then the value of the determinant remains the same.

100
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 5: CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

1. Continuity: 2. Differentiability:
2.1 Definition of Differentiability: 2.3 Relationship between Continuity and
1.1 Definition of Continuity: A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point Differentiability:
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x=c if: x=c if the following limit exists: If a function f is differentiable at a
point c, then it is also continuous at
that point.
A function is differentiable in an interval if it is Every differentiable function is
where, f is a real function on a subset of the real differentiable at every point of the interval. continuous. But the converse of this
numbers and c is a point in the domain of f. statement is not true.
This means the function approaches a definite value f(c) as The derivative of f is denoted by f ˊ (x) or
x approaches c. 2.4 Derivatives of composite functions –
A function is continuous on an interval if it is and for y = f (x) it is denoted by . Chain rule
continuous at every point in that interval. Let f be a real valued function such
The process of finding derivative of a function is that f = v o u.
A real function f is said to be continuous if it is
called differentiation. If t =u(x) and both and
continuous at every point in the domain of f.
2.2 Algebra of derivatives:
1.2 Continuity of Common Functions: (u ± v)ˊ = uˊ ± vˊ
(uv)ˊ = uˊv + uvˊ (Leibnitz rule or product rule) exist then,
The following functions are continuous:
Polynomial functions
, wherever v ≠ 0 (Quotient rule).
Rational functions (where the denominator is non-
zero)
Exponential functions
Logarithmic functions (for x > 0)
Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o
g) is defined at c. If g is continuous at c and f is
continuous at g(c), then the function (f o g) is
continuous at c.

1.3 Algebra of continuous functions:

Suppose f and g are two real functions continuous at a real
number c. Then
f + g is continuous at x = c.
f – g is continuous at x = c.
f . g is continuous at x = c.
is continuous at x = c, (provided g(c) ≠ 0).

101
2.5 Derivatives of implicit functions:
For implicit functions the derivative is obtained by differentiating both sides of the given equation.

2.6 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

f (x) sin–1x cos–1x tan–1x cosec–1x sec–1x cot–1x

2.8 Logarithmic Differentiation

f ˊ(x)
If y = f (x) = [u(x)]v (x), such that f(x) and u(x) are
always positive then by taking logarithm to base
e, we get:
Domain of f ˊ (–1, 1) (–1, 1) R (–∞, –1) ∪ (1, ∞) (–∞, –1) ∪ (1, ∞) R loge y = v(x) loge [u(x)]

and

2.7 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is 2.9 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
given by the function y = f (x) = bx.
If x = f (t) and y = g(t) with t as a parameter.
The logarithm of a to base b is x if bx = a, where b > 1
is a real number.
Some properties of log function:

logb xn = n logb x, for any positive integer n. 2.10 Second Order Derivative
For y = f (x), if fˊ(x) is differentiable, then

is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t.

x. The second order derivative of f (x) is
denoted by

or f″(x) or D2 y or y″ or y2

102
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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 6: APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

1. Rate of Change of Quantities 3. Maxima and Minima

The derivative of a function represents the rate of change of the function with 3.1. First Derivative Test:
respect to its independent variable. Let f be a function defined on an open interval I and continuous at a
critical point c in I. Then
For y = f (x), or ˊ (x) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x. If changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through
c, then c is a point of local maxima.
If changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through
represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0. c, then c is a point of local minima.
If does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is
neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and is
called point of inflection.

2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions 3.2. Second Derivative Test:

Consider a real valued function f and an interval I contained in the domain of f . Let f be a function defined on an interval I and c I. Let f be twice
differentiable at c. Then
Then f is said to be
Increasing on x = c is a point of local maxima if
Decreasing on The value f (c) is local maximum value of f.
Constant on I where c is a constant. x = c is a point of local minima if
Strictly increasing on I
The value f (c) is local minimum value of f.
Strictly decreasing on I
The test fails if
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a,b). Then,
f is increasing in
f is decreasing in
f is a constant function in
The more generalised theorem states that
If for x in an interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in
that interval, then f is increasing.
If for x in an interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in
that interval, then f is decreasing.

Example: For the derivative is:

is increasing
is decreasing

104
 Procedure:
Find the critical points where
Compute the second derivative
If at a critical point, then the point is a point of local minima
If at a critical point, then the point is a point of local maxima.
If the test is inconclusive, and further analysis is required.

Example: For

At , so, 0 is a point of local maxima.

At , so, 2 is a point of local minima.

3.3. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval

For finding the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a
function in a closed interval [a, b] the working rule is as follows:
Find all critical points of f in [a, b], i.e., find the points x, where either
or f is not differentiable. At all these critical points and the
end points of the interval calculate the values of f. Out of these
calculated values identify the maximum and minimum values of f. The
maximum value will be the absolute maximum or the greatest value of
f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum or the least
value of f.

3.4. Applied Problems on Maxima and Minima:

Derivatives are used to solve optimization problems, such as finding the
maximum profit, minimum cost, or the largest area.
The general procedure involves setting up the objective function,
differentiating it, finding the critical points, and analyzing the second
derivative using the second derivative test or by using the first
derivative test.

105
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 7: INTEGRALS

1. Introduction to Integration 2. Some Standard Integrals 5. The standard

Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. integrals obtained
It represents accumulation, area under a curve, or anti-derivative of a function. by using substitution
Notation: where and C is constant of integration.

3. Some properties of indefinite integrals

where n is a finite number.

4. Methods of Integration
Techniques include:
Substitution:
(Integration using trigonometric identities)

Integration by Parts:
is the first function and g(x) is the second function, using the ILATE rule.

Partial fractions: Write the integrand as a sum of simpler rational functions

by the method of partial fraction decomposition.

106
6. Integrals of Some Special Functions: 7. Some commonly used partial fractions:

where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further

8. Definite Integrals
First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus : Let f be a continuous function on the
closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function. Then
Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f be a continuous
function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be a an anti derivative
of f. Then
Properties of definite integrals:

Integrals that can be transformed into the standard

forms of the special functions:

(By using perfect squaring)

(By using perfect squaring)

(By using, px + q = A(2ax + b) + B, where

A and B are real numbers. )
(By using, px + q = A(2ax + b) + B, where
A and B are real numbers.)

107
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 8: APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

1. Introduction 4. Standard Applications for Simple Curves

Integration can be used to compute area under curves and area between curves. Line:
Applicable to find area under simple curves including lines, circles, parabolas and
ellipses in standard forms.
Circle (Standard Form):

2. Area under simple curves

The area bounded by the curve Parabola (Standard Form):
Area bounded by the parabola

The area bounded by the curve

Ellipse (Standard Form):

3. Area between Two Curves Not included in CBSE

If two functions
then the area between the curves is:

108
 CHAPTER 9: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Definition 4. Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Differential Equations

A differential equation is an equation that involves derivatives of the Variables Separable:

dependent variable with respect to independent variable or variables.
A differential equation that involves derivatives of the dependent
variable with respect to only one independent variable is called an
ordinary differential equation. Integrate both sides to find the solution.

Homogeneous Equations:
A function F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n if
2. Order and Degree for any non-zero constant .
To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type:
Order: The order of the highest order derivative of the dependent
variable present in the differential equation. where, F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero.
Degree: The highest power (positive integral index) of the highest
order derivative when the differential equation is a polynomial We use the substitution y = v . x
equation in derivatives.
Degree of a differential equation is defined if it is a polynomial To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type:
equation in its derivatives. is a homogenous function of degree zero.

Example: We use the substitution x = v . y

Linear Differential Equations:

Linear differential equations of the type:
3. General and Particular Solutions
(where P, Q are constants or functions of x only)
General Solution: Contains as many arbitrary Integrating Factor
constants as the order of the differential
equation and represents a family of solutions. Solution using integrating factor:
Particular Solution: Free from arbitrary
constants. Obtained by applying initial or Linear differential equations of the type:
boundary or given conditions to the general
solution. (where P, Q are constants or functions of y only)
Example: For Integrating Factor

Solution using integrating factor:

109
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 10: VECTOR ALGEBRA

1. Definition 3. Types of Vectors

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and Zero Vector: A vector with zero magnitude.
direction. Unit Vector: A vector of magnitude 1. The unit vector in the direction of a given vector is
A scalar has only magnitude.
Position vector of a point P(x, y, z) is denoted by where,

Equal Vectors: Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
Collinear Vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same line,
and its magnitude =
irrespective of their magnitudes and directions.
A vector from point A(x1,y1,z1) to point B(x2,y2,z2) is: Coinitial Vectors: Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial vectors.
Negative of a Vector: Negative of a given vector is a vector whose magnitude is the same as that of
the given vector but its direction is opposite to that of it.

4. Operations on Vectors:
2. Direction Ratios and Cosines Consider vectors:
Consider the vector Addition of Vectors:

Where a1,a2,a3 are the scalar components of

The direction ratios are a1,a2,a3. Subtraction of Vectors:
The direction cosines are:

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar :

Triangle law of vector addition : where A,B,C are the vertices of the triangle ABC.
Properties:

110
5. Section formula:
Position vector of a point dividing a line segment joining P
and Q internally in a given ratio is

where and are position vectors of the points P and Q respectively.

Position vector of a point dividing a line segment joining P and
Q externally in a given ratio is

where and are position vectors of the points P and Q

7. Vector (or Cross) Product of two vectors
respectively. Consider two non-zero vectors:
The vector product of non-zero vectors

6. Scalar (or Dot) Product of two vectors

Consider two non-zero vectors:

and θ is the angle between them, where, θ is the angle between, is a unit vector perpendicular to both .
The scalar product of non-zero vectors Properties:
is a vector.
Let be two nonzero vectors. Then are parallel (or
Properties: collinear) to each other.

other.

The angle between two non-zero vectors

Projection of a vector another

111
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 11: THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

1. Introduction 3. Equation of a Line in Space

Three-dimensional geometry deals with points, lines, and Vector equation of a line which passes through the given point whose position vector is
planes in R3.
A point in 3D space is represented as
are x-coordinate, y-coordinate and z-coordinate Vector equation of a line which passes through two points with position vectors
respectively.
Equation of a line that passes through a point (x1, y1, z1) and has direction cosines l,m,n is given by:

2. Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a

Line
The direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles
made by the line with the positive directions of the
coordinate axes.
Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are
proportional to the direction cosines of the line.
If a line has direction cosines and the direction 4. Skew Lines and Shortest Distance between two Skew Lines
ratios are a, b, c then:
Skew Lines: Two lines in space, which lie in different planes and they do not intersect and are not
parallel.
Shortest Distance Between Skew Lines:

Direction cosines of a line joining two points A(x1, y1, z1)

and B(x2, y2, z2) are :

112
5. Angle Between Two Lines
If l1, m1, n1 and l 2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two lines where θ is the acute angle between
them, then cosθ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2|

are the equations of two lines and θ is the acute angle

between them, then cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1 n2|.

If a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are the direction ratios of two lines and θ is the acute angle between them,

then

If θ is the acute angle between the lines:

6. Distance between parallel lines:

The distance between parallel lines:

113
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 12: LINEAR PROGRAMMING

1. Introduction 2. Terminology
A Linear Programming Problem (LPP) deals with finding the Optimal Value: The term optimal value means maximum or minimum value.
optimal value of a linear function of several variables (say x Decision Variables: Variables (say x, y) representing choices or quantities to be determined.
and y), subject to the conditions that the variables are Objective Function: The linear function to be optimised (maximised or minimised) is called the
non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities. objective function. Example:
Optimisation problem: A problem which deals with Linear constraints: The set of linear inequalities are called linear constraints.
maximising or minimising a linear function (say of two Non-negative restrictions: The conditions x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 are called non-negative restrictions.
variables x and y) subject to certain constraints defined by Feasible Region: The common region formed by the intersection of all constraints (including non-
a set of linear inequalities is called an optimisation negative constraints) is called the feasible region or the solution region. A feasible region which can
problem. be enclosed within a circle is called bounded and otherwise it is called unbounded.
Linear programming problems are special type of Infeasible Region: The region other than the feasible region is called the infeasible region.
optimisation problems. Corner Point: A point of the feasible region which is the intersection point of two boundary lines.
Applications include resource allocation, production Feasible Solution: Every point that belongs to the feasible region is called a feasible solution.
planning and operational optimisation. Infeasible Solution: Every point that belongs to the infeasible region is called an infeasible solution.
Optimal Solution: Every point in the feasible region that maximises or minimises the objective
function is called the optimal solution.
The optimal value must occur at a corner point of the feasible region.
3. Steps to Solve a Linear Programming For a bounded feasible region the objective function has both a maximum and a minimum value
Problem and each of these values occur at a corner point of the feasible region.
Mathematical formulation of the problem
Identify the decision variables.
Formulate the objective function in terms 4. Example
of the decision variables. For a bounded feasible region, M and Problem: Maximise Z= 3x + 2y subject to:
Write all the constraints as linear m are the maximum and minimum x + y ≤ 4, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
inequalities. values respectively of the objective
Graphical Method of Solving Linear function.
Programming problems (Two Variables) If the feasible region is unbounded
Solution:
Plot all linear inequalities on a 2D graph (for then, the maximum value of the
Plot all the
2-variable problems). objective function is M, if ax + by > M
constraints to
Identify the feasible region where all and the feasible region have no point
find the
constraints are satisfied. in common, otherwise the maximum
feasible
Identify corner points (vertices) of the value does not exist.
region.
feasible region. If the feasible region is unbounded
Compute the value of the objective function then, the minimum value of the
at each corner point. objective function is m, if ax + by < m
The optimal solution corresponds to the and the feasible region have no point Corner points of the feasible region are: (0,0), (4,0),(0,4)
corner point giving the maximum (M) or in common, otherwise the minimum Evaluate Z at each corner point:
minimum (m) value of the objective function. value does not exist. Z(0, 0) = 0, Z(4,0) = 12, Z(0,4) = 8
Maximum occurs at (4,0) with maximum value of Z = 12

114
 CHAPTER 13: PROBABILITY

1. Introduction 2. Conditional Probability

Probability is a measure of uncertainty of events 3. Multiplication Theorem
in a random experiment. Conditional Probability: The probability of event A given that
event B has already occurred: P(A ∩ B) = P(B|A) · P(A), where
Probability of an event A is denoted as P(A),
P(A) ≠ 0, A and B are the events
where 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1.
If the event A cannot occur then P(A) = 0 and A is ∣
P(A B) = , where P(B) ≠ 0, associated with the same sample
space S of a random experiment.
called an impossible event. A and B are the events associated with the same sample space S of P(A ∩ B) = P(A|B) · P(B), where
If the event A must occur then P(A) = 1 and A is a random experiment. P(B) ≠ 0, A and B are the events
called a sure or a certain event. P(S|A) = P(A|A) = 1 , where A is the event associated with the same associated with the same sample
sample space S of a random experiment and P(A) ≠ 0. space S of a random experiment.
∪
P((A B)|C) = P(A|C) + P(B|C) – P((A ∩ B)|C), where A, B and C are
the events associated with the same sample space S of a random
experiment and P(C) ≠ 0.
4. Independent Events ∪
If A and B are two disjoint events, then P((A B)|C) = P(A|C) +
P(B|C), where A, B and C are the events associated with the same
Two events A and B are said to be independent sample space S of a random experiment and P(C) ≠ 0 .
events if the probability of occurrence of one of P(A′|B) = 1 − P(A|B) , where A and B are the events associated with
the same sample space S of a random experiment and P(B) ≠ 0
them is not affected by the occurrence of the
other one.
Two events A and B are said to be independent
events if P(A|B) = P (A) provided P (B) ≠ 0 and P
(B|A) = P (B) provided P (A) ≠ 0
Two events A and B are said to be independent
events if P(A ∩ B) = P(A) . P(B)

5. Total Probability and Bayes’ Theorem

Partition of a sample space S: Theorem of Total Probability: Bayes’ Theorem:
The set of n events B1, B2, ..., Bn represents a Consider the set of n events B1, B2, ...,Bn , each having non- Consider the set of n non-empty events B1, B2, ...,Bn
partition of the sample space S if zero probability, which represents a partition of the sample which represents a partition of the sample space S
Bi ∩ Bj = φ, i ≠ j, i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n (i.e. B1, B2, ..., Bn space S of a random experiment. If A is an event associated of a random experiment. If A is an event such that
are pairwise disjoint) with S, then P(A) ≠ 0, then for event Bj, for any j = 1, 2, ..., n
∪ ∪ ∪
B1 B2 B3..... Bn = S (i.e. B1, B2, ..., Bn are
P(A) = P(A|Bi) P(Bi), P(Bi) ≠ 0
exhaustive)
P(Bi) > 0 for all i = 1, 2, ..., n (i.e. B1, B2, ..., Bn , each
(i.e. P(A) = P(A|B1) P(B1) + P(A|B2) P(B2) + ... + P(A|Bn) P(Bn))
has non-zero probability) P(Bi) ≠ 0 and P(A) ≠ 0

115
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APPLIED
MATHEMATICS

117
 Back to Index

UNIT 1: NUMBERS, QUANTIFICATION AND NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS

1. Modulo Arithmetic 3. Congruence Modulo

Definition: Definition: Two positive integers and are congruent modulo if
Modulo Arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers which is divisible by and a mod m = b mod m. (m≠0), written as
deals with remainder obtained when one integer is divided by Properties:
another. If (mod m) then ak bk (mod m) for any positive integer k.
Dividend = Divisor x Quotient + Remainder (where a, b and m are positive integers)
If n and d are two positive integers and , then we For m , the relation Rm defined by a Rm b if and only if a b (mod
have n = d x q + r, where, n = dividend, d = divisor, q = m) is an equivalence relation
quotient and r = remainder, Reflexive:
Symmetric:
Transitive:

Equivalence Classes for mod m are: [0], [1], [2], [3], ………, [m -1].

2. Modulo Operator
If n and d are two integers and , then we have n = d x q + r, where, n = dividend,
d = divisor, q = quotient and r = remainder,
This is also written as: n mod d = r, where mod (modulo) gives the remainder after n is
4. Alligation and Mixture
divided by d. Rule of Alligation: Determines the ratio in which two or more
In general a mod m gives the remainder r , when a is divided by m. ingredients are mixed to get a mixture of a given mean price.
Properties of Modulo Operator: Formula: The ratio of quantities is inversely proportional to the
a mod m = ( a + km ) mod m; where k is any integer absolute difference between their costs and the mean price.
(a + b) mod m = (a mod m + b mod m) mod m, where a, b and c are positive integers
(a - b) mod m = (a mod m - b mod m) mod m, where a, b and c are positive integers
(a x b) mod m = (a mod m x b mod m) mod m, where a, b and c are positive integers
Addition Modulo m: The addition modulo m is denoted as +m
a +m b = (a + b) mod m, if (a + b) ≥ m
a +m b = a + b, if (a + b) < m
Where, a, b and m are positive integers.
Subtraction Modulo m: The subtraction modulo m is denoted as -m
a -m b = (a - b) mod m, if (a - b) ≥ m
a -m b = a - b, if (a - b) < m
Where, a, b and m are positive integers.
Multiplication Modulo m: The addition modulo m is denoted as ʘm
a ʘm b = (ab) mod m, if (ab) ≥ m
a ʘm b = ab, if (ab) < m
Where, a, b and m are positive integers.
Example: 29 mod 3 = 2, because 29 divided by 3 leaves a remainder of 2. Ratio of liquid I & liquid II is 4:1
Applications: Used in Computer science, Music, Calendars and Clocks for time calculations.

118
5. Boats and Streams (Upstream and Downstream) 8. Numerical Inequalities
Upstream: The effective speed of the boat in the opposite direction to the Inequalities: Statements that compare two values, using symbols
stream is reduced by the speed of the stream (boat’s speed - stream’s speed). like
Downstream: The effective speed of the boat along the stream is increased by Properties: Consider three real numbers a, b and c.
the speed of the stream (boat’s speed + stream’s speed).
If a > b and b > c, then a > c (Transitivity).
Formula:
If a < c and b < c, then a < c (Transitivity).
Downstream speed = (x+y) km/hr and Upstream speed = (x-y) km/hr,
If a > b and c > 0, then a + c > b + c
where the speed of boat in still water is x km/hr and the speed of If a > b and c > 0, then a -c > b - c
stream is y km/hr If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc
Speed of boat in still water If a > b and c > 0, then a/c > b/c
If a > b and c < 0, then ac < b c
where a is the downstream speed and b is the upstream speed. If a > b and c < 0, then a/c < b/ c

6. Pipes and Cisterns

Inlet Pipe: A pipe that fills the tank.
Outlet Pipe: A pipe that drains the tank.
Time taken to fill/empty the tank:
If a pipe fills the tank in of the tank each hour.
If a pipe empties the tank in of the tank each hour.

Combined rate for filling the tank : of the tank each hour. (for
combined inlet and outlet, x<y).

7. Races and Games

Terminology:
"Gives a start": One player starts ahead by a certain distance.
A gives B a start of x metres: In a race of y metres A covers y metres
and B covers only (y - x) metres.
"Beats by x meters": One player finishes ahead by a certain distance
in the same time.
‘A beats B by x metres’: In a race of y metres A covers y metres and B
covers only (y - x) metres.
Dead Heat: When all the players finish the race at the same time.

119
 Back to Index

UNIT 2: ALGEBRA
UNIT 2A: MATRICES

1. Definition of a Matrix 4. Operations on Matrices

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or 4.1 Matrix Addition:
functions arranged in rows and columns. The numbers or Matrices can be added iff they have the same order.
functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix. The sum of the two matrices A and B, where A = [aij ] m × n and
The order of a matrix is represented by where is B = [bij ] m × n is defined as a matrix C = [cij ]m × n , where cij = aij +
the number of rows and is the number of columns. bij , for all possible values of i and j.
[Link]: A = [aij ]m × n, where denotes the element in the Example:
row and column.

Example: A matrix A of order 2x3 is:

4.2 Scalar Multiplication:

A matrix A can be multiplied by a scalar k to give another matrix
kA, which is obtained by multiplying each element of the matrix
2. Types of Matrices A by the scalar k.
Row Matrix: A matrix with a single row. Example: If A = [aij ]m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar then kA = k[aij ]m × n =
[k(aij )]m × n .
Column Matrix: A matrix with a single column. Example: The (i, j)th element of kA is kaij for all possible values of i and j.
Example:
Square Matrix: A matrix with an equal number of rows and columns. Example:

Zero Matrix or Null Matrix: A matrix in which all elements are zero. Example: .
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all the non-diagonal elements are zero.
Examples: Negative of a matrix: The negative of a matrix is denoted by
–A = (–1) A. So If k = -1, then (-1)A = [-(aij )]m × n = -A.
Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal. Example:

Identity Matrix: A square matrix in which all diagonal 4.3 Matrix Subtraction:
elements are 1 and all non-diagonal elements are 0. Example: Matrices can be subtracted iff they have the same order.
A – B = A + (–1) B = sum of the matrix A and the matrix – B.
If A = [aij ] m × n and B = [bij ] m × n then C = A – B = [cij ]m × n ,
where cij = aij - bij , for all possible values of i and j.
3. Equality of Matrices
Example:
Two matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are said to be equal if they are of the same
order and aij = bij for all i and j, that is, each element of A is equal to the
corresponding element of B.

120
4.4 Properties of matrix addition : 5. Transpose of a Matrix
Consider matrices, A = [aij ], B = [bij ], C = [cij ] of the same order, say m × n.
The transpose of a matrix , denoted or A′, is obtained by interchanging
Commutative Law : A + B = B + A.
the rows and columns of .
Associative Law : (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Existence of additive identity : A + O = O + A = A, where O is an m × n zero If A = [aij ]m × n , then A′ or AT = [aji ]n × m
matrix. So, O is the additive identity for matrix addition.
The existence of additive inverse : A + (– A) = (– A) + A = O. So, – A is the Example:
additive inverse of A or negative of A.

4.5 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix : Properties of transpose of the matrices:

Consider matrices, A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] of the same order, say m × n, and k
and are scalars, then (i) k(A +B) = k A + kB, (ii) (k + )A = k A + A For any matrices A and B of suitable orders:
(A′)′ = A,
4.6 Matrix Multiplication: (kA)′ = kA′ (where k is any constant)
Matrices A & B can be multiplied to give the matrix AB if the number of (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B. (A B)′ = B′ A′
The product matrix AB is formed by taking the dot product of rows of A
with columns of B.
If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bjk ]n × p , then AB = C = [cik ]m × p , where 6. Symmetric and Skew- Symmetric Matrices
Example: Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix that is equal to its transpose, that is
A′ = A .
Example: .

Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices: Even if AB and BA are Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix whose transpose is the negative
both defined, it is not necessary that AB = BA. of the matrix, that is A′ = - A .
Example:
4.7 Properties of multiplication of matrices: For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A′ is a symmetric
The associative law: (AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality matrix and A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.
are defined for the matrices A, B and C. Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew
The distributive law: (i) A (B+C) = AB + AC (ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever symmetric matrix.
both sides of equality are defined for the matrices A, B and C.
The existence of multiplicative identity: For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of the same order such that IA = AI = A.

7. Invertible Matrices
AB = BA = I. B is called the inverse matrix of a non - singular square matrix A
and is denoted by A– 1. If B is the inverse of A, then A is the inverse of B.
A–1 = B or B–1 = A , so, (A–1)–1 = A.
Uniqueness of inverse: Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.

121
 Back to Index

UNIT 2B: DETERMINANTS

1. Definition of a Determinant 4. Determinant of a 3 x 3 Matrix
To every square matrix A = [aij ] of order n, where aij = (i, j)th
element of A, we can associate a number (real or complex) For a matrix
called determinant of the square matrix A.
The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar value that can
be computed from the elements of the matrix and is denoted
by |A| or det A or ∆.
It is used to determine whether the matrix is invertible or not,
to find the inverse of matrices, to find the area of a triangle Example:
and to solve system of linear equations.

2. Determinant of a 1 x 1 Matrix:
Let A = [a] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is
equal to a.
5. Area of a Triangle
The area of a triangle whose vertices are is given by
3. Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix
For a matrix

Example:
6. Cofactor and Minor of a Matrix
Minor of an Element: The minor of an element in a matrix is the determinant of the
matrix formed by removing the row and column from the original matrix. It is
denoted by Mij.

where is the matrix formed by deleting the row and column.

Cofactor of an Element: The cofactor of an element aij is denoted by Aij and is defined by,
is the minor of the element aij.

The sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their corresponding
cofactors is equal to the determinant of the matrix.
If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or column),
then their sum is zero.

122
 9. Inverse of a Matrix
7. Adjoint of a Matrix A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is
The adjoint of a square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is defined as the transpose of the matrix nonsingular matrix , that is
[Aij ]n × n , where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij . The inverse of is given by:
Adjoint of the matrix A is denoted by adj A.

If Example:

where
The adjoint of is:

Therefore, the inverse of is:

8. Some Important Points

A(adj A) = (adj A) A = |A| I , where I is the identity matrix of order n and
A is a square matrix of order n.
A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A| = 0. 10. Solving System of Linear Equations using Matrices
A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if |A|≠ 0.
If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are For a system of linear equations written as,
also non-singular matrices of the same order. where is the coefficient matrix such that |A|≠ 0 and
The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their is the constant matrix, the unique solution is
respective determinants, so, |AB|= |A| |B|, where A and B are square Cramer’s Rule:
matrices of the same order. Used to solve a system of linear equations using determinants.
| kA| = kn | A |, where A is a square matrices of order n. For the system AX = B,
|Aˊ| = |A|, where Aˊ = transpose of A. If det(A) ≠ 0, then the system of equations has unique solution which is given by:
If we interchange any two rows (or any two columns), then sign of the
determinant changes.
If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then the
value of the determinant is zero.
If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by a Where Ax is obtained by replacing the first column of A by B, Ay is obtained
constant k, then the value of the determinant is multiplied by k. by replacing the second column of A by B and Az is obtained by replacing the
If to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the third column of A by B.
equimultiples of corresponding elements of some other row (or column) If det(A) = 0 and det(Ax) = det(Ay) = det(Az) = 0 then the system of equations
are added, then the value of the determinant remains the same. has infinitely many solutions.
If det(A) = 0 and at least one of det(Ax), det(Ay), det(Az) are non zero, then
the system of equations has no solution.

123
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UNIT 3: CALCULUS
UNIT 3A: DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1. Differentiability:
Not included in CBSE
Definition of Differentiability:
A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point
x=c if the following limit exists:

A function is differentiable in an interval if it is

differentiable at every point of the interval.

The derivative of f is denoted by f ˊ (x) or

and for y = f (x) it is denoted by

The process of finding derivative of a function is 4. Derivatives of implicit functions:

called differentiation.
For implicit functions the derivative is obtained by differentiating both sides of the given equation.

2. Algebra of derivatives: 5. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is given
(u ± v)ˊ = uˊ ± vˊ by the function y = f (x) = bx.
(uv)ˊ = uˊv + uvˊ (Leibnitz rule or product rule) The logarithm of a to base b is x if bx = a, where b > 1 is a
real number.
, wherever v ≠ 0 (Quotient rule). Some properties of log function:

3. Derivatives of composite functions-Chain rule logb xn = n logb x, for any positive integer n.
Let f be a real valued function such that f = v o u.

If t = u(x) and both

exist then

125
6. Logarithmic Differentiation 9. Rate of Change of Quantities
v (x)
If y = f (x) = [u(x)] , such that f(x) and u(x) are The derivative of a function represents the rate of change of the function
always positive then by taking logarithm to base with respect to its independent variable.
e, we get:
loge y = v(x) loge [u(x)]
For y = f (x), or f ˊ (x) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x.
and
represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0.

10. Increasing and Decreasing Functions

7. Derivatives of Functions in
Consider a real valued function f and an interval I contained in the domain of f .
Parametric Forms Then f is said to be
Increasing on
If x = f (t) and y = g(t) with t as a parameter.
Decreasing on
Constant on I where c is a constant.
Strictly increasing on I
Strictly decreasing on I

Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a,b). Then,

f is increasing in
f is decreasing in
f is a constant function in
The more generalised theorem states that
8. Second Order Derivative If for x in an interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in that interval, then f is
increasing.
For y = f (x), if fˊ(x) is differentiable, then If for x in an interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in that interval, then f is
decreasing.
is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t.
x. The second order derivative of f (x) is Example: For the derivative is:
denoted by
is increasing
or f″(x) or D2 y or y″ or y2 is decreasing

126
 Back to Index

11. Maxima and Minima 11.3. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval
For finding the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a function
11.1. First Derivative Test: in a closed interval [a, b] the working rule is as follows:
Let f be a function defined on an open interval I and continuous at a
Find all critical points of f in [a, b], i.e., find the points x, where either
critical point c in I. Then
or f is not differentiable. At all these critical points and the end points of
If changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through the interval calculate the values of f. Out of these calculated values identify the
c, then c is a point of local maxima. maximum and minimum values of f. The maximum value will be the absolute
If changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through maximum or the greatest value of f and the minimum value will be the absolute
c, then c is a point of local minima. minimum or the least value of f.
If does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is
11.4. Applied Problems on Maxima and Minima:
neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and is
called point of inflection. Derivatives are used to solve optimization problems, such as finding the maximum
profit, minimum cost, or the largest area.
11.2. Second Derivative Test: The general procedure involves setting up the objective function, differentiating it,
finding the critical points, and analyzing the second derivative using the second
Let f be a function defined on an interval I and c I. Let f be twice derivative test or by using the first derivative test.
differentiable at c. Then
x = c is a point of local maxima if
The value f (c) is local maximum value of f.
x = c is a point of local minima if
12. Marginal Cost and Marginal Revenue Using Derivatives
The value f (c) is local minimum value of f.
Marginal Cost (MC): The derivative of the total cost function with
The test fails if respect to the quantity or production output
Procedure:
Find the critical points where
Compute the second derivative
Marginal Revenue (MR): The derivative of the total revenue function
If at a critical point, then the point is a point of local minima with respect to the quantity or production output
If at a critical point, then the point is a point of local maxima.
If the test is inconclusive, and further analysis is required.

Example: For

At , so, 0 is a point of local maxima.

At , so, 2 is a point of local minima.

127
 UNIT 3B: INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1. Introduction to Integration 5. Integrals of Some Special Functions:

Integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
It represents accumulation, area under a curve, or anti-derivative of a function.
Notation: where and C is constant of integration.

2. Some Standard Integrals

3. Some properties of indefinite integrals

Integrals that can be transformed into the standard

forms of the special functions:
where n is a finite number.
(By using perfect squaring)

(By using perfect squaring)

4. Methods of Integration
Techniques include: (By using, px + q = A(2ax + b) + B, where
Substitution: A and B are real numbers. )
(Integration using trigonometric identities) (By using, px + q = A(2ax + b) + B, where
A and B are real numbers.)
Integration by Parts:
is the first function and g(x) is the second function, using the ILATE rule.
Partial fractions: Write the integrand as a sum of simpler rational functions
by the method of partial fraction decomposition.

128
 Back to Index

6. Some commonly used partial fractions: 8. Applications

Integration can be used to compute area under curves
and area between curves.
Applicable to finding area under simple curves including
lines, circles, parabolas and ellipses in standard forms.

9. Area under simple curves

2 The area bounded by the curve
where x + bx + c cannot be factorised further

7. Definite Integrals The area bounded by the curve

First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus : Let f be a continuous function on the

closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function. Then
Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f be a continuous
function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti derivative of
f. Then
Properties of definite integrals:

129
 12. Consumer and Producer Surplus
10. Area between Two Curves Not included in CBSE
Consumers’ Surplus = CS = The area under the demand curve p = f(x) and
If two functions above the line p = p0, where p0 is the prevailing market price.
then the area between the curves is:

Producers’ Surplus = PS = The area above the supply curve p = g(x) and
below the line p = p0, where p0 is the prevailing market price.

11. Standard Application for Simple Curve

Line:

130
 Back to Index

UNIT 3C: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND MODELING

1. Definition 4. Method of Solving First Order, First Degree Differential Equations

A differential equation is an equation that involves derivatives of the
Variables Separable:
dependent variable with respect to independent variable or variables.
A differential equation that involves derivatives of the dependent
variable with respect to only one independent variable is called an
ordinary differential equation.
Integrate both sides to find the solution.

2. Order and Degree

Order: The order of the highest order derivative of the dependent
variable present in the differential equation. 5. Formation of a differential equation:
Degree: The highest power (positive integral index) of the highest If there are n parameters, then differentiate the given equation n times with respect to
order derivative when the differential equation is a polynomial x, treating the parameters as constants and eliminate the parameters to form a nth
equation in derivatives. order differential equation.
Degree of a differential equation is defined if it is a polynomial
equation in its derivatives.

Example:

3. General and Particular Solutions

General Solution: Contains as many arbitrary constants as the
order of the differential equation and represents a family of
solutions.
Particular Solution: Free from arbitrary constants. Obtained by
applying initial or boundary or given conditions to the general
solution.

Example: For

131
 UNIT 4: PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

1. Random Variables 4. Variance and Standard Deviation

Random Variable: A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is Variance: Measures how much the values of a random variable
the sample space of the random experiment and co-domain is the set of real deviates away from the mean expectation.
numbers.
Discrete Random Variable: Variables that take on a countable number
Formula for Discrete Random Variable:
of distinct values with no number in between these values
Continuous Random Variable: Variables that take on infinite and
uncountable values within a given range

2. Probability Distribution Standard Deviation (SD): The square root of the variance is called
Definition: A probability distribution is a function that describes all the possible Standard Deviation. It is denoted by
outcomes and their respective probability for the random variable of the given
random experiment.
Discrete Probability Distribution: Deals with discrete random
variables.
Continuous Probability Distribution: Deals with continuous random
variables.

3. Mathematical Expectation (Expected Value)

Definition: The expected value of a random variable is the long-term average value of repetitions of
the same experiment.
For a Discrete Random Variable the sum of all the probabilities is equal to one and the
expected value of a discrete random variable X is the summation of product of the discrete
random variable by the probability of its occurrence, So we have:

and

where is the value of the random variable and is the probability of

132
 Back to Index

5. Binomial Distribution 7. Normal Distribution

Definition: A discrete probability distribution that describes the number of successes in a fixed Definition: A continuous probability distribution that is
number of independent Bernoulli trials. symmetric around the mean and describes many real-
Number of trials probability of success in each trial probability of failure in each world phenomena.
trial and number of successes

Parameters are n and p.

Notation: B(n,p)

Properties:
The area under the curve equals 1.
The distribution is symmetric around the mean
About 68.27 % of the data falls within one
6. Poisson Distribution standard deviation from the mean, 95.45 %
within two standard deviations from the mean,
Definition: A discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a given number of and 99.73% within three standard deviation from
events occurring over a period of time. the mean.
Parameter: the rate of occurrence (mean number of events in a given interval).

8. Standard Normal Distribution

Definition: A normal distribution with mean = 0 and
standard deviation = 1, is called as the standard normal
distribution.

Z-score describes the position of each data point

in terms of how many standard deviations it is
from the mean.

Z-Score is defined as

The Z-score is positive if the data point lies

above the mean, zero if the data point is the
mean of the data and negative if the data point
lies below the mean.

133
 UNIT 5: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

1. Population and Sample 3. Statistical Inference

Population: The entire group of individuals or items that we want Statistical Inference: The process of making judgments about a population based on
to study. information from a sample. It involves estimating population parameters, testing
Sample: A subset of the population, selected for analysis. It is often hypotheses, and making predictions.
impractical to study the entire population, so a sample is used to Estimation: Estimating the value of a population parameter based on the sample data.
make inferences about the population. Sampling Distribution: It is the distribution of all the values that a sample statistic (e.g.,
Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects or mean, proportion) takes under the repetition of the sampling process.
represents some of the characteristics of the population. Statistical Significance: It is a measure of reliability of the observations, findings and the
Non-representative Sample: A sample that does not reflect the conclusions made on the basis of the sample.
population such that the statistic does not represent the
population parameter.
Sampling: Sampling is a technique of selecting small group or
subset of the population for the purpose of estimating its
characteristics without investigating every individual of the entire
population. 4. Central Limit Theorem (CLT)
Sampling Methods are of two types: Probability Sampling and Definition: The CLT states that the distribution of the sample will be approximately
Non – Probability Sampling. normal, bell shaped curve, if the sample size is large enough, regardless of the shape of
Probability Sampling: Based on randomization such that every the original population distribution.
member of the population has an equal chance of being included
in the sample.
Non-Probability Sampling: Not based on randomization such that
every member of the population may not have an equal chance of
being included in the sample.
Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected in the sample.
Systematic Random Sampling: Selecting every kth item from a
list after a random start.

2. Parameter and Statistics

Parameter: A numerical value that describes a characteristic of the
entire population (e.g., population mean population standard
deviation
Statistic: A numerical value that describes a characteristic of a
sample (e.g., sample mean sample standard deviation s).

134
 Back to Index

5. Hypothesis Testing 6. t-test

Hypothesis testing is the method which is used to make decisions One-Sample t-test: Used to test if the sample mean is significantly different from
or inferences about the population based on the sample data by the population mean.
testing the validity of a hypothesis or assumption about the
population parameter. Hypothesis:
Hypothesis: A statement or assumption about a population which
may or may not be true. Test Statistic:
Null Hypothesis :(H0) A statement that there is no effect or
no difference between the two groups under study, used
as the default assumption.
Alternative Hypothesis :(Ha) A statement that contradicts
the null hypothesis, suggesting there is an effect or where is the sample mean, is the population mean, s is the
difference between the two groups under study. sample standard deviation and n is the sample size.

For critical t value or table value the degrees of freedom df = n – 1.

The null hypothesis is rejected if the measured t-value is more

extreme than the critical t value.

Not included in CBSE

Two-Sample t-Test (T- test for two independent groups): Used to test if the
means of two independent samples are significantly different.

Hypothesis:

Test Statistic:

where are the sample means, are the sample variances, and
are the sample sizes of the first and the second sample respectively.

is the pooled standard deviation,

135
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UNIT 6: TIME-BASED DATA

1. Time Series 3. Time Series Analysis for Univariate Data

Definition: A time series is a sequence of data points measured at successive Objective: The objective of time series analysis is to extract meaningful statistics
time intervals. These data points are typically taken at uniform time intervals and characteristics from the data. Univariate data refers to data where only one
(e.g., daily, monthly, yearly). Time series analysis is used to analyze trends, variable is observed over time, and time series analysis helps in forecasting and
forecast future values, and understand the data patterns over time. understanding the underlying pattern.
Meaning and Importance: Steps for Time Series Analysis:
Time series data is essential in various fields such as Economics, Finance, Identify and Understand Components: Recognizing the trends, seasonal
Environmental Science, and Social Sciences for analyzing past trends and variations, cyclical patterns, and irregular fluctuations.
making future predictions. Fitting a Trend Line: Estimating the overall direction of the data by fitting a
It helps in identifying patterns such as cyclical fluctuations, seasonal straight-line trend or curve to the data.
effects, and long-term trends, which can be useful for decision-making. Forecasting: Using the identified components and trends to predict future
values.

2. Components of Time Series

Time series data can be broken down into several components. These components help in
understanding the different variations in the data.
Secular Trend (Long-term Trend):
Refers to the long-term movement or direction in the data over a long period.
It can be upward, downward, or constant.
Example: A steadily increasing GDP over the years.
Seasonal Variation:
These are periodic fluctuations in the data that occur at regular intervals, such as
daily, monthly, or yearly.
Seasonal variations are usually predictable and related to seasonal factors like
weather, holidays, etc.
Example: Higher sales of ice cream in summer months.
Cyclical Variation:
These are long-term fluctuations that occur over periods longer than a year and are
typically associated with economic conditions or other cyclical events.
These variations do not occur at fixed intervals.
Example: Business cycles—expansion and recession phases in an economy.
Irregular (Random) Variation:
Refers to unpredictable variations caused by random events like natural disasters
or strikes.
Example: A sudden drop in sales due to an earthquake or a pandemic.

137
4. Secular Trend 6. Time Series Analysis and Estimating Values
Definition: A secular trend represents the long-term movement or tendency Fitting a Straight-Line Trend: This involves estimating the straight-line trend
of the data over an extended period. It shows the overall direction in which using the least squares method, which minimizes the squared differences
the data is moving, either increasing or decreasing. between the actual data points and the fitted line.
Importance: Estimating Values: Once a trend line is fitted, it can be used to estimate
It helps in understanding the long-term behavior of the variable. future values of the series by plugging in values of (time).
It allows for better planning, forecasting and understanding of
economic, demographic, or industrial growth patterns.
Example: The population growth of a country over the last 50 years shows a
secular trend of increase, indicating the long-term upward trend in
population.

5. Methods of Measuring Trend

The primary methods to measure the trend in time series data are:
Moving Average Method:
A method used to smooth short-term fluctuations and highlight
longer-term trends or cycles.
Formula:

Example: If we take a 3-month moving average of sales data, we

sum the sales of three consecutive months and divide by 3 to get
the moving average for that period.
Method of Least Squares:
A statistical method used to minimize the sum of squared
differences between the observed values and the estimated
values (i.e., fitting a straight-line trend).
Formula:

where is the dependent variable, is the independent variable,

is the - intercept and is the slope.

138
 Back to Index

UNIT 7: FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS

1. Perpetuity and Sinking Funds 2. Valuation of Bonds

Perpetuity: An annuity where payments continue forever. It is used in Bond Valuation: The process of determining the value of a bond. A bond is
situations where the payments do not stop, such as in government bonds a debt security where the issuer promises to pay a fixed sum of money at a
or certain types of endowments. certain future date along with periodic interest payments.
Present Value of Perpetuity: The present value of perpetuity is the sum of
money which is invested at a certain interest rate to yield a fixed payment
each period forever.
where:
= Present value of the bond
= Coupon payment
Where: = Face value of the bond
= Present value of the perpetuity = Discount rate
= Periodic payment = Time period of the payment
= Rate of interest per period = Total number of periods
Example: Calculate the value of a bond with a face value of ₹1000, a
Example: Find the present value of ₹60 paid at the end of each 6 months
coupon rate of 8%, paid annually, with 5 years to maturity, and a market
and continuing forever, with a 4% semi-annual interest rate.
rate of 6%.

Sinking Fund: A fund created to accumulate money over the years for a
future obligation, such as replacing machinery or paying off debt.

3. Calculation of EMI
where: EMI (Equated Monthly Installment): The fixed monthly installment that a
= Amount deposited each period borrower needs to pay to the lender to clear the loan within a given time
= Future value period.
= Interest rate per period
= Number of periods
where:
P = Loan amount
r = Monthly interest rate (annual rate divided by 12)
N = Number of installments (months)
Example: For a ₹1,00,000 loan at 12% annual interest rate for 3 years:

139
4. Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
Definition: The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is the rate at which
an investment grows annually to reach its ending value.

where:
A = Ending value
P = Beginning value
T = Time period in years

Example: If ₹10,000 grows to ₹15,000 in 3 years, the CAGR is:

5. Linear Method of Depreciation

Depreciation: Depreciation is the decrease in value of an asset over time
due to usage, wear and tear, or obsolescence.

Linear Method of Depreciation:

Example: If an asset costs ₹50,000, has a residual value of ₹10,000, and a

useful life of 5 years, the annual depreciation is:

140
 Back to Index

UNIT 8: LINEAR PROGRAMMING

1. Introduction
A Linear Programming Problem (LPP) deals with finding 3. Steps to Solve a Linear Programming
the optimal value of a linear function of several variables Problem
(say x and y), subject to the conditions that the variables
Mathematical formulation of the problem
are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities.
Identify the decision variables.
Optimisation problem: A problem which deals with
Formulate the objective function in terms of the
maximising or minimising a linear function (say of two
decision variables.
variables x and y) subject to certain constraints defined
Write all the constraints as linear inequalities.
by a set of linear inequalities is called an optimisation
problem.
Linear programming problems are special type of Graphical Method of Solving Linear Programming
optimisation problems. problems (Two Variables)
Applications include resource allocation, production Plot all linear inequalities on a 2D graph (for 2-
planning and operational optimisation. variable problems).
Identify the feasible region where all constraints
are satisfied.
Identify corner points (vertices) of the feasible
region.
2. Terminology Compute the value of the objective function
Optimal Value: The term optimal value means maximum or minimum value. at each corner point.
Decision Variables: Variables (say x, y) representing choices or quantities to be determined. The optimal solution corresponds to the corner
Objective Function: The linear function to be optimised (maximised or minimised) is called the point giving the maximum (M) or minimum (m)
objective function. Example: value of the objective function.
Linear constraints: The set of linear inequalities are called linear constraints. For a bounded feasible region, M and m are the
Non-negative restrictions: The conditions x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 are called non-negative restrictions. maximum and minimum values respectively of the
Feasible Region: The common region formed by the intersection of all constraints (including objective function.
non-negative constraints) is called the feasible region or the solution region. A feasible region If the feasible region is unbounded then, the
which can be enclosed within a circle is called bounded and otherwise it is called unbounded. maximum value of the objective function is M, if
Infeasible Region: The region other than the feasible region is called the infeasible region. ax + by > M and the feasible region have no point
Corner Point: A point of the feasible region which is the intersection point of two boundary in common, otherwise the maximum value does
lines. not exist.
Feasible Solution: Every point that belongs to the feasible region is called a feasible solution. If the feasible region is unbounded then, the
Infeasible Solution: Every point that belongs to the infeasible region is called an infeasible minimum value of the objective function is m, if ax
+ by < m and the feasible region have no point in
solution.
common, otherwise the minimum value does not
Optimal Solution: Every point in the feasible region that maximises or minimises the objective
exist.
function is called the optimal solution.
The optimal value must occur at a corner point of the feasible region.
For a bounded feasible region the objective function has both a maximum and a minimum
value and each of these values occur at a corner point of the feasible region.

141
4. Example 5. Applications of Linear Programming problems:
Problem: Maximise Z= 3x + 2y subject to: Linear Programming problems can be seen in many real life situations.
x + y ≤ 4, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 Different types of Linear Programming Problems are:
Solution: 1. Assignment Problems: Allocation of various tasks to people or machines for the completion of the
Plot all the constraints to find the feasible region. total assignment. The constraints are the available resources like number of people and their
availability in terms of hours, days etc. and the objective function is the assignment to be completed
Corner points of the feasible region are: (0,0), (4,0),(0,4) that minimizes the total cost or time or maximizes the efficiency.
Evaluate Z at each corner point:
Z(0, 0)=0, Z(4,0) = 12, Z(0,4) = 8 2. Diet problems: Finding the optimal combination of food ingredients to minimize the cost while
Maximum occurs at (4,0) with maximum value of Z = 12 meeting the nutritional requirements. Preparing a diet chart to minimize the cost of a diet plan which
meets all nutritional requirements by including all the necessary nutrients with the minimum
possible cost.
3. Manufacturing Problems: Optimal allocation of limited resources to maximize profit or minimize cost
while meeting the production requirements. The objective function is maximizing profit or
minimizing cost and the constraints are such that the requirement of the available resources is not
exceeded and the production meets the market demand.
4. Transportation Problems: Finding the most efficient way of transportation of goods from various
sources / suppliers to various destinations / consumers in the least possible transportation cost or
maximum efficiency under the given constraints. The objective is to minimize the total transportation
cost without exceeding the supply from the sources and meeting the demand of each destination.

142
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PHYSICS

144
 CHAPTER 1: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Electric Charges and 1. Electric Charges and Their Conservation

1
Their Conservation
1.1 Electric Charge
A fundamental property of matter responsible for electric forces.
Coulomb’s Law – Force Two types of charges:
2 Between Two-Point Positive Charge: A deficiency of electrons.
Negative Charge: An excess of electrons.
Charges SI Unit: Coulomb (C).

1.2. Law of Conservation of Charge

3 Electric Field Charge can neither be created nor destroyed.
The total charge in an isolated system remains constant.
Charge can only be transferred from one body to another.

Electric Flux and

4
Gauss’s Theorem

2. Coulomb’s Law – Force Between Two-Point Charges

2.1 Coulomb’s Law

The force between two point charges is directly 2.2 Superposition Principle
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The net force on any charge is
the vector sum of the forces
Formula: exerted by all other charges.

2.3 Continuous Charge Distribution

For charge distributed over a

where
line, surface, or volume, the
F = Force
field is obtained by integration.
ke = 9x109 Nm2/C2
q1,q2 = charges
r = separation.

145
 Back to Index

3. Electric Field
3.1 Electric Field 3.5 Electric Field of a Dipole
3.3 Electric Field Lines
Axial line:
where E is electric field, F is force, and q is test Start from positive and end at
charge. negative charges.
No two lines intersect.
3.2 Field Due to a Point Charge
Never form closed loops Equatorial line:

3.4 Electric Dipole

Direction: outward for + q, inward for - q.
Two equal and opposite
charges separated by 2d.
Dipole moment: 3.6 Torque on a Dipole in Uniform Field

p = q x 2d

4. Electric Flux and Gauss’s Theorem

4.1 Electric Flux 4.3 Applications

Infinite line charge: Thin spherical shell:
Outside: Field same as point
charge.

Infinite plane sheet:

4.2 Gauss’s Theorem
Inside: Field = 0.
On the surface of the shell
[R →Radius of Sphere]
Gauss’s Law for Infinite Sheet

146
 CHAPTER 2: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

1. Electric Potential and Potential Difference 2. Conductors, Insulators, Dielectrics, and Capacitors
2.1 Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor
1.1 Electric Potential 1.4 Electric Potential Energy

For two charges:

1.2 Potential Difference

Electric Potential due to

electric dipole at any general
point
1.3 Potential Due to Point Parallel Plate Capacitor Parallel Plate Capacitor
Charge with Dielectric

2.2 Energy Stored

2.3 Capacitors in Combination

Series: Parallel:

Energy Density =

147
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CHAPTER 3: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1. Electric Current 2. Drift Velocity and Mobility

1.1 Definition
2.1 Drift Velocity where vd = drift velocity
Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a
I = current,
conductor.
n = number of electrons per unit
Formula: volume,
A = cross-sectional area, e = charge of
where I = current, Q = charge, t = time. electron.
SI Unit: Ampere (A). 2.2 Mobility
1.2 Flow of Electric Charges
In metallic conductors, free electrons move under an electric where = mobility
field. E = electric field.
This drift of electrons constitutes current.

3. Ohm’s Law and Resistance 3.2 Electrical Resistance 4. Electrical Energy and Power
3.1 Ohm’s Law 4.1 Energy
V = IR where R = resistance, p = resistivity, L = W = VIt
where V = potential difference, length, A = cross-sectional area.
I = current, SI Unit: Ohm (Ω). 4.2 Power
R = resistance.
On stretching the wire

3.3 V-I Characteristics

5. Resistivity and Conductivity
Ohmic materials: Linear V-I graph
(straight line). 5.1 Resistivity
Non-ohmic materials: Non-linear graph
(e.g., diode, filament lamp).

[Here represents Resistivity]

5.2 Conductivity

SI Unit: S/m (Siemens per meter)

Circuit for Ohm’s Law V-i Characteristics

149
6. Temperature Dependence of Resistance 10. Wheatstone Bridge
10.1 Condition for Balance

where RT = resistance at T, R0 = resistance at reference

temperature, = temperature coefficient, ∆T = temperature
change.
For semiconductors: resistance decreases with temperature

7. Internal Resistance of a Cell

where R1,R2 = known resistances
Terminal voltage relation: R3 = unknown resistance
R4 = variable resistance.
V = E - Ir
Wheatstone Bridge
where E = emf, I = current, r = internal resistance.

8. Combination of Cells
8.1 Series

Etotal = E1+E2+ ⋯+E , r

n total ⋯+r
= r1+r2+ n

8.2 Parallel

9. Kirchhoff’s Laws
9.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

9.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

[For any closed loop]

150
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 4: MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

1. Concept of Magnetic Field 3. Ampere’s Law 4. Force on Moving Charges

1.1 Magnetic Field 4.1 In Magnetic Field
A region around a magnetic
material or moving charge where
magnetic force acts. 3.1 Applications
Created by moving charges 4.2 In Electric and Magnetic Fields
(currents). Long straight wire: (Lorentz Force)
SI Unit: Tesla (T).

Solenoid:
1.2 Oersted’s Experiment
A current-carrying conductor where n = turns per unit length. 5. Force on Current-Carrying
produces a magnetic field.
Observation: A compass needle Conductor
near the wire deflects when
current flows 5.1 General Expression

5.2 Between Two Parallel Conductors

5.3 Definition of Ampere

2. Biot-Savart Law
1 Ampere = current when two parallel
2.1 Law Statement 2.2 Circular Loop conductors 1 m apart exert a force of 2 x 10-7
N/m.

where = magnetic field, at the center of a loop of radius R

Field Inside a
carrying current I.
= current element,
r = distance,
r = unit vector,
Solenoid
µ0 = 4π x 10-7 T m/A.

151
6. Torque on a Current Loop 8. Current Loop as Magnetic Dipole
6.1 Torque Formula 8.1 Dipole Moment

8.2 Field of Magnetic Dipole

6.2 Magnetic Moment of Loop
Axial line: Equatorial line:

8.3 Torque on Dipole

7. Moving Coil Galvanometer

Device to measure small currents.
Current sensitivity:

9. Magnetic Properties of Materials

Ferromagnetic: strongly attracted (iron).
where n = number of turns, B = field, Paramagnetic: weakly attracted (aluminium).
A = area, k = restoring torque Diamagnetic: weakly repelled (copper).
constant.
Ammeter: galvanometer + shunt 9.1 Magnetization
resistor (parallel).
Voltmeter: galvanometer + high Process of aligning domains within material to
resistance (series). produce net magnetism.

152
 CHAPTER 5: MAGNETISM AND MATTER

1. Introduction 4. The Earth’s Magnetism 7. Permanent Magnets and

Magnetism: The force exerted by Earth’s Magnetic Field: Earth Electromagnets
magnets when they attract or repel behaves like a giant magnet Permanent Magnets: Materials that
each other. The magnetic field is with magnetic poles. The retain magnetism over time.
the region around a magnet where magnetic field has components Examples include Alnico.
this force is observed. of horizontal and vertical Electromagnets: Temporary magnets
components. created by passing current through a
Magnetic Declination: The coil of wire wound around a
angle between the magnetic ferromagnetic core.
2. The Bar Magnet and geographic meridians.
Bar Magnet: A magnet with two Magnetic Inclination: The
poles (north and south) where the angle between the magnetic
magnetic field lines emerge from field and the horizontal plane.
the north and enter the south.
Magnetic Dipole: A bar magnet
behaves like a dipole, having a
magnetic moment M = m . l, where 5. Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity
m is the pole strength and l is the
length. Magnetisation (M): The extent to which a material becomes
magnetized when placed in a magnetic field.

3. Magnetism and Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: The net
magnetic flux through any closed Where: Where:
surface is zero, indicating that m = Magnetic moment, B = Magnetic field strength,.
magnetic field lines do not begin or V = Volume of the material. = Permeability of the
end but form closed loops. Magnetic Intensity (H): The medium.
external magnetic field Where:
strength. B = Magnetic field strength,
n = Number of turns per unit
length,
6. Magnetic Properties of Materials I = Current passing through the
Magnetic Susceptibility: coil.
Diamagnetic Materials: Weakly repelled by magnetic fields and do not Applications: Electromagnets are
retain magnetization when the external field is removed. (e.g., Copper) used in motors, transformers, and
Paramagnetic Materials: Weakly attracted by magnetic fields and have Where: lifting magnets.
unpaired electrons. (e.g., Aluminum) M = Magnetisation,
Ferromagnetic Materials: Strongly attracted to magnetic fields and retain H = Magnetic intensity.
magnetization. (e.g., Iron)

153
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CHAPTER 6: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Electromagnetic Induction 2. Self and Mutual Inductance

4. Applications of
1.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction 2.1 Self-Inductance
Electromagnetic Induction
4.1 Transformers
L = self-inductance, SI unit = Henry (H). A transformer works on the
where E = induced emf, = magnetic flux. principle of mutual induction to
Negative sign Lenz’s Law: induced current 2.2 Mutual Inductance change the voltage of an AC supply.
opposes the change in flux.
Formula for Transformers:
1.2 Lenz’s Law
Induced current opposes the change in magnetic M = mutual inductance, SI unit = Henry (H).
flux.
Ensures conservation of energy.
1.3 Induced
1.3 InducedEMF
EMF
3. Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field Where:
The induced emf is a result of the changing magnetic
field. This can occur due to: A coil with inductance (L) stores energy when a V1 and V2 are the primary and
current flows through it. The energy stored in the secondary voltages,
A moving magnet relative to a coil, magnetic field is given by: N1 and N2 are the number of turns in
A changing magnetic field through a stationary coil.
the primary and secondary coils.
1.3.1 Faraday’s Law and Induced Current

Where: 4.2 Electric Generators

U = Energy stored, An electric generator converts
L = Inductance of the coil, mechanical energy into electrical
Where:
E = Induced emf I = Current flowing through the coil energy using the principle of
R = Resistance of the conductor. electromagnetic induction.

1.4 Eddy Currents Not included in CBSE AC Generator:

Circulating currents induced in conductors by A rotating coil in a magnetic field
changing magnetic fields. produces alternating current.
Cause heating losses; used in induction heating,
electric brakes. DC Generator:
Uses a split-ring commutator to
produce direct current.

155
 CHAPTER 7: ALTERNATING CURRENT

1. Alternating Current (AC) 3. AC in Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor

1.1 Alternating Current (AC) 3.1 AC in Resistor
An alternating current is an electric current that reverses Ohm’s Law for AC:
direction periodically. In AC, both the magnitude and
V rms = Irms R
direction of the current change with time.
Where:
1.2 Mathematical Representation of AC Vrms = RMS voltage, Irms = RMS current, R = Resistance.

3.2 AC in Inductor (L)

Where: The current lags the voltage by 90° (the voltage reaches
I0 = Maximum or peak current, its peak first).
= Angular frequency (2πf), Inductive Reactance
t = Time, XL = ωL = 2πfL
= Phase angle (determines the initial phase of
the wave). Where: L = Inductance, ω = Angular frequency (=2πf),
f = Frequency of AC.

3.3 AC in Capacitor (C)

The current leads the voltage by 90° (the current reaches its
2. Sinusoidal Waveform peak first).
2.1 Sinusoidal Wave Capacitive Reactance
Voltage and Current in Sinusoidal Form
Where: C = Capacitance.
V = V0sin(ωt)

Where:
V0 = Maximum or peak voltage.

2.2 Peak and RMS Values 4. Impedance and Its Relation 4.2 Impedance in an R-L-C Circuit
Peak Value (Maximum Value) to Resistance, Reactance In a series R-L-C circuit, the total impedance
The highest value the current or voltage reaches during depends on the values of R, XL, and XC.
one cycle. 4.1 Impedance (Z)
Phase Angle ()
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
Phase Relationship
and for voltage: Where: Z = Impedance, R = Resistance, If XL > XC, the current lags the voltage (inductive
XL = Inductive reactance, dominance).
XC = Capacitive reactance. If XC > XL, the current leads the voltage (capacitive
dominance).

156
 Back to Index

5. Power in AC Circuits 7. LCR Series Circuit 7.1 Definition

Series combination of L, C, and R.
5.1 Power in an AC Circuit
At resonance, XL = XC, impedance = R (minimum).

7.2 Power in AC Circuit

Where: Vrms = RMS voltage, Irms = RMS current, = P=IrmsVrmscos
Phase angle between the current and voltage.
cos = power factor. Wattless Current:
current in purely inductive/capacitive circuits
5.2 Power Factor
( =90).
The power factor (cos ) is the ratio of the real
power (active power) to the apparent power in the
circuit. It indicates how effectively the current is LCR Series Circuit
being used to do work.

8. AC Generator and Transformer

8.1 AC Generator 8.2 Transformer

6. LC Oscillations
LC circuit stores energy alternately in capacitor
(electric field) and inductor (magnetic field).

Capacitor

Energy

E = NABωsinωt

Maximum emf
E0=NBAω
Inductor
where N = number of turns
A = area Ideal case: no energy loss.
Resonance: maximum amplitude when natural
frequency matches driving frequency. B = field strength.

157
 CHAPTER 8: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Need for Displacement Current 3. Electromagnetic Spectrum 3.3 Infrared Waves

Wavelength: 10-6 - 10-3 m, Frequency: 3 x 1011 - 4 x 1014 Hz
1.1 Displacement Current
Uses: night vision, heating, remote controls.
3.4 Visible Light
Wavelength: 4 x 10-7 - 7 x 10-7 m
where = displacement current, Frequency: 4 x 1014 - 8 x 1014 Hz
= permittivity of free space, Uses: vision, photography, illumination.
= electric flux.
3.5 Ultraviolet Rays
Introduced by Maxwell to explain the Wavelength:10-8 - 4 x 10-7 m,Frequency: 8 x 1014 - 3 x 1016 Hz
continuity of current in cases like a charging 3.1 Radio Waves Uses: sterilization, fluorescence, forensics.
capacitor.
Wavelength: >102 m, 3.6 X-Rays
Frequency: 3 x 109 - 3 x 1011 Hz Wavelength: 10-12 - 10-8 m, Frequency: 3 x 1016 - 3 x 1019 Hz
1.2 Modified Ampere’s Law
Uses: communication, broadcasting, radar. Uses: medical imaging, security scanning.
3.2 Microwaves
3.7 Gamma Rays
Wavelength: 10-3 - 1 m,
where Itotal = conduction current and Wavelength: <10-12 m, Frequency: >3 x 1019 Hz
Frequency: 109 - 3 x 1011 Hz
Id = displacement current. Uses: cancer treatment, sterilization, nuclear reactions.
Uses: ovens, satellite communication, radar.

2. Electromagnetic Waves and Their Characteristics 4. General Characteristics of EM

Spectrum
2.1 Definition 2.2 Nature
Electromagnetic waves consist of Transverse waves: E⟂B⟂ direction of propagation.
Wavelength ( ): distance between
oscillating electric and magnetic fields successive crests/troughs.
propagating without a medium. Frequency ( f ): number of oscillations per
second.
2.3 Speed of EM Waves Energy:

E=hf
Can propagate in vacuum.
where h=6.626 x 10-34 /sec.

158
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 9: RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

1. Reflection of Light and Spherical Mirrors 3. Lenses and Thin Lens Formula 4. Scattering of
1.1 Reflection of Light 1.3 Mirror Formula Light
Process by which light bounces off a 3.1 Lenses
Scattering:
surface. Convex lens: converging redirection of light
Laws of Reflection: Concave lens: diverging by particles.
∠ ∠
a. i = r Blue sky: Rayleigh
[Link] ray, reflected ray, and normal 3.2 Thin Lens Formula scattering (shorter
Magnification:
lie in the same plane. wavelengths scatter
1.2 Spherical Mirrors more).
Red sunset: longer
Concave: inward-curved reflecting surface. path scatters away
Convex: outward-curved reflecting surface. blue, leaving
red/orange.
3.3 Lensmaker’s Formula
2. Refraction of Light
2.1 Refraction 2.3 Refraction at Spherical Surfaces
Bending of light when passing
between media of different 3.4 Magnification
refractive indices.
Refractive Index:

5. Optical
3.5 Power of a Lens Instruments
5.1 Microscope
2.2 Total Internal Reflection
Magnifying power:

3.6 Combination of Lenses

2.3.1 Laws of Refraction 5.2 Astronomical

Telescope
i. Incident ray, refracted ray and
Applications: Optical fibres, 3.7 Prism: Refraction and Dispersion Refracting
normal all lie in same plane.
mirage, diamond sparkle. telescope: lenses
ii. Snell’s law- Refraction: bending inside prism. Reflecting
Dispersion: splitting into colors due to
telescope: mirrors
wavelength dependence of refractive
index.

159
 CHAPTER 10: WAVE OPTICS

1. Wave Optics 3. Diffraction

1.1 Wavefront and Huygens’ Principle 3.1 Definition
Wavefront: surface of constant phase. Bending/spreading of light waves around obstacles.
Huygens: each point acts as a source of secondary
wavelets. 3.2 Single Slit Diffraction
1.2 Reflection and Refraction (Wave Theory)
Reflection: ∠i=∠r
Refraction:

2. Interference
Condition for minima:

4. Polarization
where a = slit width.

Fringe width:

Restricting vibrations of light to

where = wavelength, D = distance to screen, one plane.
d = slit separation. Plane-polarized light: electric
Coherence field oscillates in one plane.
Coherent sources: same frequency, constant phase Polarizers: filters that allow one
difference. orientation.

160
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 11: DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

1. Photoelectric Effect 2. Matter Waves and de Broglie’s Hypothesis

2.1 Wave Nature of Particles

de Broglie (1924): Particles have wave-like properties.

2.2 de Broglie Wavelength

where p = mv is momentum.
1.1 Definition
Emission of electrons from a metal surface when light (UV/visible) strikes it.
1.2 Hertz and Lenard’s Observations For microscopic particles
(electrons), is
Hertz (1887): UV light induces sparks across a spark gap. measurable.
Lenard (1902): UV light on a metal emits electrons. Intensity controls For macroscopic objects,
number of electrons; frequency controls kinetic energy. is negligibly small.
1.3 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation (1905)
Light consists of photons, each with energy:

where h = 6.626 x 10 -34 Js.

Energy balance:

where = maximum kinetic energy of electron, = work function.

1.4 Particle Nature of Light

Photoelectric effect shows light behaves as particles (photons), supporting particle
nature of radiation.

161
 CHAPTER 12: ATOMS

3.2 Energy Levels

1. Alpha-Particle Scattering Experiment 3. Bohr Model of Atom (1913)
1.1 Experiment (Rutherford, 1909)
Alpha particles bombarded on thin gold
foil.
Most passed undeflected. where n = principal quantum
Few deflected at large angles. number.
Conclusion: Atom is mostly empty; dense, 3.3 Hydrogen Spectrum
positively charged nucleus at center Rutherford’s
nuclear model. Energy difference between orbits
produces spectral lines.

3.1 Bohr’s Postulates

Electrons revolve in fixed orbits without radiating energy.

2. Rutherford’s Model of Atom Energy is emitted/absorbed only when electrons jump
between orbits. where RH = Rydberg constant,
Allowed orbits have quantized energies. n1,n2 = integers with n2 > n1.

Atom has tiny, dense nucleus with all positive

charge and most mass.
Electrons revolve around nucleus due to
electrostatic attraction.
2.1 Limitations
Could not explain stability of atom (why
electrons don’t spiral in).
Could not explain discrete hydrogen spectrum
lines.

162
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 13: NUCLEI

2. Radioactivity 3. Nuclear Fission and Fusion

1. Composition and Size of
Nucleus Spontaneous emission from unstable nuclei.

1.1 Composition Fission Fusion

Protons (+ve) and neutrons (neutral)
nucleons.
Atomic number Z= protons; Mass number A=
protons + neutrons.

Not included in CBSE

1.2 Nuclear Radius

R = R0 A1/3 , R0~~ 1.2 x 10-15 m 3.1 Fission

Splitting heavy nucleus (U-235, Pu-
1.3 Atomic Mass Concepts 239) into lighter nuclei, releasing
Alpha Radiation: nuclei; heavy, energy.
Isotopes: Same Z, different A. (e.g. 12C, 14C ).
low penetration. Z - 2, A - 4. E = Δmc2
Isobars: Same A, different Z. (e.g. 14C, 14N ).
Beta Radiation: Electrons(e-- ); medium
Isotones: Same neutrons, different Z. (e.g. 14C, 3.2 Fusion
15 penetration. Z + 1, A unchanged.
O ). Combining light nuclei (H isotopes)
Gamma Radiation: EM waves; no
change in Z or A, only lower nuclear into heavier ones. Source of solar
energy.
energy.
2.1 Mass-Energy Relation
E = Δmc2
where Δm = mass defect.

2.2 Binding Energy per Nucleon

Energy needed to separate nucleus into

nucleons.
Stability binding energy per nucleon.
Highest for iron (most stable nucleus) (8.8
MeV)

163
 CHAPTER 14: SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES, AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

1. Energy Bands in Solids 3. Semiconductor Diode

1.1 Energy Bands
In solids, overlapping atomic orbitals form continuous 3.1 Definition
energy bands that determine electrical properties. Formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors. Allows current in one direction (forward
bias).
1.2 Conduction Band and Valence Band
Valence Band: Contains bonding electrons; fully occupied 3.2 I-V Characteristics
in insulators/semiconductors at low temperature. Forward Bias: Current negligible until threshold (0.7 V for Si), then rises sharply.
Conduction Band: Higher band where electrons move Reverse Bias: Only small leakage current; sudden rise at breakdown voltage.
freely to conduct current.

1.3 Band Gap

Energy gap between conduction and valence bands:
Conductors: No/small band gap.
Insulators: Large band gap.
Semiconductors: Small band gap; conduction possible
with temperature/doping.

3.3 Diode as a Rectifier

2. Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors Full-Wave Rectifier: Two or more diodes,
Half-Wave Rectifier: Single diode, conducts conducts in both half-cycles of AC. Efficiency =
Conductors: Free electrons, good conductors. (e.g. Cu, Ag). during one half-cycle of AC. Efficiency =
Insulators: Large band gap, no free electrons. (e.g. Glass, 81.2%
40.6%
Rubber).
Semiconductors: Small band gap, conductivity depends on
T and doping. (e.g. Si, Ge).
2.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure semiconductors, insulating at 0 K, conduct at higher T.
Example: pure Si.
2.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors
Doped semiconductors:
N-type: Doped with donor atoms (extra electrons, e.g. P in
Si).
P-type: Doped with acceptor atoms (holes, e.g. B in Si).

164
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CHEMISTRY

166
 CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS

1. Types of Solutions 3. Solubility of Gases in Liquids

Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute 3.1 Raoult’s Law
Solutions are homogeneous that can dissolve in a given solvent at a specified Raoult’s Law describes the vapor pressure of an ideal solution:
mixtures consisting of a solvent temperature.
and one or more solutes. Raoult’s Law: The partial vapor pressure of a component in a solution
Henry’s Law: States that the solubility of a gas in a is directly proportional to the mole fraction of that component at
Types: liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure constant temperature.
of the gas above the liquid.
Gaseous Solutions: Solvent
should be gas (e.g., air).
Liquid Solutions: Solute is gas,
liquid, or solid, and the solvent
Where p is the partial pressure, x is the mole Where pA is the vapor pressure of component A in the solution, xA is its
is liquid (e.g., alcohol in water).
fraction of the gas in the solution, and kH is the mole fraction, and pA0 is the vapor pressure of pure component A.
Solid Solutions: Solvent should
be solids (e.g., alloys). Henry’s law constant.

4. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

2. Expression of Concentration of Solutions Ideal Solutions: Raoult’s Law: Obeyed over all
Concentration refers to the amount of solute present in concentrations.
a given quantity of solution. It can be expressed in Properties: Enthalpy of Mixing (ΔmixH) = 0, Volume of
various ways: Mixing (ΔmixV) = 0
Mass Percentage (w/w): Examples: n-Hexane & n-Heptane, Benzene & Toluene.
Non-Ideal Solutions: Deviation from Raoult’s Law:
Vapour pressure is higher (positive deviation) or lower
(negative deviation) than expected.
Volume Percentage (v/v): Mole Fraction: Positive Deviation: Cause: Weaker A-B interactions
than A-A or B-B, increasing vapour pressure. Examples:
Ethanol & Acetone, Carbon Disulfide & Acetone.
Negative Deviation: Cause: Stronger A-B interactions
Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v): than A-A or B-B, decreasing vapour pressure. Examples:
Used to describe the ratio of moles of one Phenol & Aniline, Chloroform & Acetone.
component to the total moles in a solution.
Azeotropes: Definition: Binary mixtures with the same
Molality (m): composition in liquid and vapour phases, boiling at a
Molarity (M): constant temperature.
Types:
Minimum Boiling Azeotrope: Shows positive
deviation (e.g., Ethanol-Water).
Maximum Boiling Azeotrope: Shows negative
deviation (e.g., Nitric Acid-Water)

167
 Back to Index

5. Colligative Properties 6. Isotonic, Hypertonic, and Hypotonic Solutions:

These properties depend on the number of solute particles in the Isotonic Solutions: Solutions with the same osmotic pressure at a given temperature.
solution and not on their nature of solute Hypertonic Solutions: Solutions with higher osmotic pressure than the cell's interior.
Relative Lowering of Vapor Pressure: Water flows out of the cell, causing it to shrink.
Hypotonic Solutions: Solutions with lower osmotic pressure than the cell's interior.
Where P0 is the vapor pressure of the pure Water flows into the cell, causing it to swell.
solvent, P is the vapor pressure of the solution,
and xB is the mole fraction of the solute.

where: w1 and w2 are the masses of the solvent and solute, respectively. M1
and M2 are the molar masses of the solvent and solute, respectively.

Elevation of Boiling Point:

Where Kb is the ebullioscopic constant and m is the molality of the solution.

where: Tb is the change in boiling point. Kb is the ebullioscopic constant. w1

and w2 are the masses of the solvent and solute, respectively.M2 is the
molar mass of the solute.

Depression of Freezing Point: 7. Determination of Molecular Mass Using Colligative Properties

Colligative properties can be used to determine the molecular mass of solutes. For instance,
Where Kf is the cryoscopic constant and m is the molality of the solution. the elevation in boiling point or depression in freezing point can be measured to find the
molecular mass of a solute.
7.1 Abnormal Molecular Mass
Molar mass deviates from the expected value due to association or dissociation of
where: Tf is the change in freezing point. Kf is the cryoscopic constant. w1 molecules. Example: If all ethanoic acid molecules associate in benzene, the observed
is the mass of the solvent. w2 is the mass of the solute. M2 is the molar mass boiling point ( Tb) or freezing point ( Tf) changes, leading to a calculated molar mass twice
of the solute. the expected value.
7.2 Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
Osmotic Pressure:
Introduced by van't Hoff in 1880 to account for dissociation or association
Where is the osmotic pressure, n is the number of moles of solute, R is
the gas constant, T is the temperature, and V is the volume of the
[Link]
For a non-electrolyte, i=1. For an electrolyte, i is greater than 1, depending on the number
of ions produced in solution.
where: is the osmotic pressure, V is the volume of the solution, w2 is the
mass of the solute, R is the ideal gas constant, T is the temperature,M2 is
the molar mass of the solute.

168
 CHAPTER 2: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1. Redox Reactions
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between two species. It consists of two half-reactions:
Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
Reduction: Gain of electrons.
A reducing agent donates electrons, while an oxidizing agent accepts electrons.

2. EMF of a Cell
Electromotive Force (EMF) of a cell is the potential difference between the two electrodes of an
electrochemical cell when no current is flowing. The EMF of a cell is determined by the difference in the
reduction potentials of the two electrodes.

2.2 Nernst Equation and its Application to Chemical Cells 2.3 Relation Between Gibbs Energy Change and EMF
The Nernst equation relates the reduction potential of an of a Cell
electrochemical cell to the concentration of ions involved in the The Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) is related to
2.1 Standard Electrode Potential reaction: the EMF of the cell by the equation:
The standard electrode potential is ΔG∘=−nFE∘
Where:
the potential of a half-cell measured Where:
against the standard hydrogen E is the cell potential.
E0 is the standard electrode potential. ΔG∘ is the standard Gibbs free energy
electrode (SHE) under standard R is the universal gas constant. change.
conditions (1 M concentration, 1 atm T is the temperature in Kelvin. n is the number of moles of electrons.
pressure, 25°C). Reduction potential n is the number of electrons involved. F is the Faraday constant.
indicates the tendency of a substance F is the Faraday constant.
E∘ is the standard cell potential
to gain electrons (reduction). Q is the reaction quotient (ratio of the concentrations of products to
reactants).

169
 Back to Index

3. Conductance in Electrolytic Solutions

Conductance is the ability of a solution to conduct electricity. It depends on the
6. Batteries
concentration of ions and their mobility. 6.1 Primary Cells: These are non-rechargeable. Example: Dry cell (Leclanché cell).
Specific conductance is the conductance of a unit volume of solution. 6.2 Secondary Cells: Rechargeable cells, such as lead storage batteries.
Molar conductance is the conductance of a solution containing 1 mole Lead Storage Battery:
of electrolyte in 1 liter of solution. Discharge Reaction:
Molar conductivity increases with dilution for strong electrolytes and decreases for Anode:
weak electrolytes.
3.1 Specific and Molar Conductivity Cathode:
Specific conductivity is the conductance of a solution of unit length and unit cross-
sectional area. Molar conductivity is the conductance of the solution when 1 mole
of electrolyte is dissolved in a unit volume of solution.
Molar conductivity increases with dilution for strong electrolytes and decreases for
weak electrolytes.
7. Corrosion
Corrosion as an
3.2 Variations of Conductivity with Concentration Electrochemical
Strong electrolytes: Their conductivity decreases with dilution as the number of ions per Process: The gradual
unit volume decreases. oxidation of metals,
Weak electrolytes: Their conductivity increases with dilution due greater ionization especially iron, caused
3.2.2 Kohlrausch’s Law: by exposure to oxygen
and moisture. Effects:
Kohlrausch’s Law states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte can be
Rusting of iron,
obtained by adding the limiting molar conductivities of its ions: tarnishing of silver,
and damage to
structures.
Where is the limiting molar conductivity, is the limiting molar conductivity of Anode (Oxidation):
the cation, and is the limiting molar conductivity of the anion.

Cathode (Reduction):
4. Electrolysis and Law of Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of using electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous reaction.
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis: Prevention: Coating
The mass of a substance deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to the with paint, galvanizing
quantity of charge passed through the solution. with zinc, or using
The amount of different substances deposited or liberated by the same quantity of sacrificial anodes.
charge is proportional to their equivalent weights.

5. Galvanic Cells, Dry Cell and Electrolytic Cells

Galvanic Cell: A cell that generates electrical energy from spontaneous chemical reactions, e.g., Daniell cell.
Dry Cell: A type of galvanic cell, commonly used in portable devices, where the electrolyte is in paste form.
Electrolytic Cell: A cell that uses electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
Lead Storage Battery

170
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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL KINETICS

1. Rate of a Reaction 2. Rate Law and Specific Rate Constant

The rate of a reaction is the change in the concentration of reactants or products The rate law expresses the relationship between the rate of the reaction
per unit time. and the concentration of the reactants.
Average rate: The change in concentration over a specified time interval.
Instantaneous rate: The rate at any given moment in time, determined by the slope
of the concentration vs. time curve.
The average rate of reaction is given by: Where k is the rate constant, and m and n are the orders with respect to
reactants A and B.

As or The instantaneous rate of reaction is given by: 2.1 Integrated Rate Equations
1.1 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction For a zero-order reaction:

Several factors affect the rate of a reaction:

Concentration of reactants: The rate generally increases with an increase in the For a first-order reaction:
concentration of reactants.
Temperature: Rate usually increases with temperature due to more collisions with Where:
higher energy. [A]0 is the initial concentration of reactant A.
Catalyst: A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy k is the rate constant
without being consumed in the reaction. t is the time.
[A] is the concentration of reactant A at time t.

1.2 Order and 3. Half-Life

Molecularity of a
Reaction Half-life (t1/2) is the time required for half of the reactant
to be consumed in a reaction.
Order of reaction:
The sum of the For a zero-order reaction:
powers of the
concentration For a first-order reaction:
terms in the rate
law expression.
Molecularity of a
reaction: The
number of Reaction Order Units of Rate Constant
molecules or atoms
involved in an Zero order reaction 0 mol L⁻¹ · s⁻¹
elementary First order reaction 1 mol L⁻¹ · s⁻¹
reaction step.
Second order reaction 2 mol L⁻¹ · s⁻¹
Not included in CBSE

172
4. Collision Theory
5. Activation Energy
Core Concept: Reactions occur when molecules collide.
Key Factors: Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy required for reactants to form products.
Collision Frequency (Z): Number of collisions per unit volume. It is related to the rate constant by the Arrhenius equation:
Activation Energy (Ea): Energy required for reaction.
Proper Orientation: Correct alignment of molecules.

k is the rate constant.

Rate of Reaction = ZABe-Ea/ RT A is the frequency factor (pre-exponential factor).
Ea is the activation energy.
R is the gas constant.
Effective Collisions: Requires threshold energy and proper orientation.
T is the temperature in Kelvin.
Steric Factor (P): Accounts for molecular orientation.

Rate= PZABe-Ea/ RT 5.1 Arrhenius Equation

The Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant k to temperature:
Drawbacks: Assumes molecules are hard spheres, ignoring structure.

Where
k is the rate constant.
A is the pre-exponential factor.
Ea is the activation energy.
R is the gas constant.
T is the temperature in Kelvin.

173
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 4: THE d-AND f-BLOCK ELEMENTS

1. General Introduction General Properties of the Transition Elements (d-Block)

Metallic Character: Transition metals are good conductors of Magnetic moment calculated using the spin-only
The d-block elements are transition
heat and electricity due to the delocalized d-electrons. formula
metals that have partially filled d-
Ionization Enthalpy: The ionization enthalpy of transition
orbitals. The f-block elements are
metals generally increases across the period but decreases
lanthanides and actinides, which
down the group due to the increasing size of atoms.
have partially filled f-orbitals.
Oxidation States: Transition metals can exhibit multiple Interstitial compounds are formed when smaller
oxidation states, primarily due to the involvement of both s atoms (such as hydrogen, carbon, or nitrogen) occupy
1.1 Electronic Configuration and d-electrons. the interstitial spaces (voids) between larger metal
d-block elements: These elements Ionic Radii: The ionic radii of transition metals generally atoms in the lattice. These compounds exhibit unique
have their valence electrons in the d- decrease across the period due to increasing nuclear charge, properties such as high hardness and resistance to
orbitals. but remain almost constant as we move down the group. corrosion.
Their electronic configurations are of Catalytic Properties: Many transition metals act as catalysts Alloy Formation: Transition metals readily form alloys
the type [Noble gas] (n - 1)d1-10ns1-2. in industrial reactions. Their ability to change oxidation with other metals due to their similar atomic sizes
states allows them to facilitate various chemical reactions. and their ability to bond with a variety of elements.
Exceptions: Cr (3d54s1), Cu (3d104s1). Magnetic Properties: Transition metals exhibit Examples of alloys include: Steel: An alloy of iron and
f-block elements: These elements fill paramagnetism due to the presence of unpaired d-electrons. carbon. Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc.
the f-orbitals with electrons. Some transition metals exhibit ferromagnetism or
antiferromagnetism.
Their electronic configurations are of
the type [Noble gas] (n - 2)f1-14(n-1)d0-
1
ns2.

2. Occurrence & Characteristics

of Transition Metals
Transition metals are found in the
middle of the periodic table (groups 3
to 12). They exhibit unique properties
such as:
High melting and boiling points.
High density.
Form colored compounds.
Catalytic activity.
Ability to form complex
compounds.

174
2.1 Some Important Compounds of Transition
Metals
Potassium Compounds and their Colours
2.1.1 Potassium Permanganate (KMnO₄):
Preparation:
Prepared by fusion of MnO₂ with alkali metal hydroxide
and an oxidizing agent (e.g., KNO₃).
Can be synthesized by the electrolytic oxidation of
manganate ions (MnO₄²⁻).
Physical Properties:
Dark purple (almost black) crystals.
Diamagnetic in nature with weak paramagnetism at high
temperatures.
Chemical Properties:
Oxidizing Agent: Powerful oxidizer, used in organic
chemistry and as a disinfectant.
Reactions:
In acidic solutions, it oxidizes iodides, sulfides, oxalates,
iron(II), and other reducing agents.
In neutral/alkaline solutions, it can oxidize iodide to
iodate and thiosulfates to sulphate.

2.1.2 Potassium Dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇): 3. The Inner Transition Elements ( f-Block)

Preparation: 3.1 Lanthanoids (Lanthanides)
Prepared by treating sodium chromate with potassium Lanthanoids are elements from atomic number 57 to 71. Their electronic configuration is:
chloride. [Noble gas] (n-2)f 1-14 (n-1)d 0-1 ns 2
The reaction results in the crystallization of potassium They show properties such as:
dichromate (orange crystals).
Physical Properties: High melting and boiling points.
Orange crystalline solid, highly soluble in water. High density.
Strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Large magnetic susceptibility.
Chemical Properties: 3.2 Actinoids (Actinides)
Oxidizing Agent: Used for the oxidation of organic Actinoids are elements from atomic number 89 to 103. Their electronic configuration is:
compounds and in laboratory procedures.
Redox Reactions: [Noble gas] (n-2)f 1-14 (n-1)d 0-1 ns 2
In acidic solution, it reduces to Cr³⁺, acting as a strong
oxidizer. Actinides are radioactive and most of them have a high atomic number and are unstable.
Can oxidize iodides, sulfides, and iron(II) ions. Uranium, thorium, and plutonium are notable actinides.
Structure:
3.1.1 Lanthanoid Contraction
Cr₂O₇²⁻ (Dichromate ion): Consists of two tetrahedral
chromium atoms sharing an oxygen atom. The gradual decrease in the size of the lanthanoid elements as the atomic number increases
CrO₄²⁻ (Chromate ion): Tetrahedral structure, due to poor shielding of the f-electrons. This contraction leads to similarities in the properties
interconvertible with dichromate depending on pH. of lanthanoids and causes difficulty in separating them.
Lanthanides: Mainly +3, but some show +2 and +4

175
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 5: COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

1. Coordination Compounds - Introduction 3. IUPAC Nomenclature of Mononuclear 4. Bonding in Coordination Compounds

Coordination compounds are compounds in which Coordination Compounds 4.1 Werner’s Theory: It proposed that the central metal
metal atoms or ions are bonded to molecules or IUPAC nomenclature is used to name coordination ion has two types of valencies:
anions (ligands) through coordinate bonds. In these compounds systematically. Primary valency: The oxidation state of the
compounds, the metal acts as the central atom/ion, Name of the cation is written first, followed by the metal.
and the ligands form bonds with the metal. The study name of the anion. Secondary valency: The coordination number of
of these compounds is called coordination chemistry. For the metal center: the metal.
1.1 Coordination Entities and Components Neutral ligands: Water = aqua, Ammonia = 4.2 Valence Bond Theory (VBT): Describes the bonding
ammine, Carbon monoxide = carbonyl. in coordination compounds as a result of overlap
Coordination Entity: Metal ion surrounded by ligands. Anionic ligands: Chloride = chloro, Sulfate = between metal orbitals and ligand orbitals.
Central Atom/Ion: Metal ion to which ligands are sulfato, Cyanide = cyano.
Hybridization is used to explain the geometry of
bound. The oxidation state of the metal is indicated in
the complex. For example, an octahedral
Ligands: Ions/molecules that bind to the central atom Roman numerals in parentheses.
complex has d2sp3 hybridization.
(unidentate, bidentate, polydentate, chelating). 4.3 Crystal Field Theory (CFT): Describes the splitting of
Monodentate Ligands: Ligands that donate one pair degenerate d-orbitals in a coordination compound
of electrons (e.g., H2O, NH3, Cl-). Bidentate Ligands: 5. Types of Isomerism in Coordination when ligands approach the metal ion. In an
Ligands that donate two pairs of electrons (e.g., octahedral field, the d-orbitals split into two sets of
ethylenediamine (en). Polydentate Ligands: Ligands Compounds
orbitals, leading to different energy levels.
that can donate more than two pairs of electrons
5.1 Stereoisomerism:
(e.g., EDTA).
Geometrical Isomerism: Cis/trans (e.g., [MX2L2]).
Coordination Number: Number of donor atoms
Optical Isomerism: Non-superimposable mirror images (e.g., [Co(en)3]3+).
bound to the central atom. It typically ranges from 2
to 12, but is most commonly 4 or 6. 5.2 Structural Isomerism:
Coordination Sphere: Central atom + bound ligands. Linkage Isomerism: Ligand can bind through different atoms (e.g., SCN-).
Coordination Polyhedron: Shape formed by the Coordination Isomerism: Different metal-ligand combinations (e.g., [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6]).
ligand atoms around the metal center. Ionisation Isomerism: Formation of different ions in solution.
Solvate Isomerism: Different water or solvent molecules attached to the metal.

2. Colour, Magnetic Properties, and Shapes

6. Importance of Coordination Compounds
Colour: Coordination compounds often exhibit vibrant colors due to d-d transitions,
where electrons in the d-orbitals of the metal ion absorb specific wavelengths of light. Qualitative Analysis: Coordination compounds are used to test the
Magnetic Properties: Coordination compounds can be paramagnetic or diamagnetic presence of ions in solutions.
depending on the number of unpaired electrons in the metal’s d-orbitals. Extraction of Metals: Complexation is used to extract metals from their
Shapes: The shape of a coordination compound depends on its coordination number: ores.
Coordination number 4: Tetrahedral or square planar. Biological Systems: Coordination compounds are central to processes
Coordination number 6: Octahedral. like oxygen transport in hemoglobin and enzymes like vitamin B12.

176
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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 6: HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

1. Nomenclature 3. Physical and Chemical Properties 4. Mechanism of Substitution Reactions
1.1 Haloalkanes: These are organic compounds 3.1 Physical Properties SN1 Mechanism: Involves a two-step process: First,
containing carbon, hydrogen, and halogen atoms. Boiling Points: Haloalkanes have higher boiling the leaving group (halogen) departs, forming a
They are named by replacing the suffix "e" of the points than corresponding alkanes due to the carbocation intermediate. Then, the nucleophile
alkane name with "halide." dipole-dipole interactions between the attacks the carbocation.
IUPAC Naming: The halogen is named as a molecules.
substituent. For example, methyl chloride (CH3Cl) or Solubility: Haloalkanes are generally less soluble SN2 Mechanism: A one-step process where the
1-bromopropane (CH3CH2CH2Br). in water but dissolve well in organic solvents. nucleophile attacks the carbon atom
1.2 Haloarenes: These are compounds in which one or simultaneously as the halogen leaves.
more halogen atoms are directly bonded to an 3.2 Chemical Properties
aromatic ring (e.g., chlorobenzene, C6H5Cl). Reactivity: The reactivity of haloalkanes and SN1 vs SN2: The SN1 mechanism occurs more
haloarenes depends on the nature of the readily with tertiary haloalkanes, where the
IUPAC Naming: The halogen is named as a substituent
halogen and the type of bond (C–X bond). carbocation is more stable. The SN2 mechanism
attached to the benzene ring, for example, 1,4-
Substitution Reactions: Haloalkanes undergo occurs more readily with primary haloalkanes and
dichlorobenzene (C6H4Cl2).
nucleophilic substitution reactions. For example: results in an inversion of configuration.
4.1 Substitution Reactions in Haloarenes
Nature of C–X Bond in Haloarenes: The C–X bond
2. Nature of C–X Bond in haloarenes is stronger due to the resonance
The C–X bond (where X is a halogen: F, Cl, Br, or I) is stabilization of the aromatic ring. Hence,
Where Nu⁻ is a nucleophile (e.g., OH⁻, CN⁻, etc.). haloarenes do not undergo nucleophilic
polar, with the carbon atom having a partial positive
charge and the halogen having a partial negative substitution easily unless they have an electron-
Elimination Reactions: Under suitable withdrawing group (like –NO2) in the ortho or para
charge.
conditions, haloalkanes can undergo elimination position.
Bond Strength: The bond strength decreases as we reactions (e.g., dehydrohalogenation), producing Electrophilic Substitution: In haloarenes, halogens
move from fluorine to iodine alkenes. act as electron-withdrawing groups, making the
(C–F > C–Cl > C–Br > C–I). aromatic ring more reactive towards electrophilic
Bond Polarity: The electronegativity difference substitution reactions, such as halogenation,
between carbon and halogen makes the bond nitration, or sulfonation.
polar.

VS

178
5. Methods of Preparation 6. Optical Rotation
From Alcohols: Optical Activity: Haloalkanes and
Alcohols can be converted to alkyl haloarenes can exhibit optical activity if
halides by treating them with they are chiral. The presence of
halogen acids (HCl, HBr, HI) or different substituents around the
phosphorus halides (PCl3, PBr3) or carbon atom can lead to non-
thionyl chloride (SOCl2). superimposable mirror images
The reaction mechanism involves (enantiomers).
the replacement of the -OH group
of the alcohol by a halogen atom. Stereochemistry & Reaction
From Hydrocarbons: Mechanism:
Free Radical Halogenation: Chirality and Inversion of
Alkanes can undergo halogenation Configuration: SN2 reactions result in
in the presence of heat or light to the inversion of configuration at the
form a mixture of mono- and electrophilic carbon, while SN1
polyhaloalkanes. reactions lead to racemization due to
Electrophilic Substitution: Aryl the formation of a planar carbocation.
halides are typically prepared by Racemization: In SN1 reactions, when
electrophilic substitution reactions the nucleophile attacks a planar
using halogens and a catalyst (like carbocation, it can attack from either
FeCl3 for chlorination). side, resulting in a mixture of
Halogen Exchange (Swarts enantiomers (racemic mixture).
Reaction): For the preparation of
alkyl fluorides and iodides,
halogen exchange reactions can
be used, where halogen atoms in
alkyl halides are replaced by a
different halogen. DDT, the first chlorinated
organic insecticides

7. Uses and Environmental Effects

Uses of Haloalkanes: Solvents, Refrigerants, e.g., CFCs (being phased out due to
environmental impact).
Uses of Haloarenes: Pesticides, e.g., DDT, Medicinal Compounds, e.g., chloramphenicol,
halothane.
Environmental Effects: Haloalkanes and haloarenes can be toxic and persistent in the
environment. Some haloalkanes, particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), have been linked to
ozone layer depletion.

179
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 7: ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS, AND ETHERS

Alcohols Phenols Ethers

Nomenclature: Alcohols are organic compounds containing Nomenclature: Phenols are aromatic Nomenclature: Ethers are organic
one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) attached to a carbon compounds in which one or more hydroxyl compounds with an oxygen atom bonded to
atom. The general formula is Cn H2n+1OH. groups are attached to a benzene ring two alkyl or aryl groups (R–O–R’).
IUPAC Naming: Replace the suffix “-e” in the alkane name (C6H5OH). IUPAC Naming: Name the two alkyl groups or
with “-ol” (e.g., Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol). IUPAC Naming: The suffix “-ol” is used aryl groups attached to the oxygen atom (e.g.,
Common Naming: Alcohols are also named by using the along with the parent name (e.g., Dimethyl ether, Ethyl methyl ether).
prefix "hydroxy-" along with the parent hydrocarbon (e.g., Hydroxybenzene). Methods of Preparation:
Hydroxyethane). Common Naming: Phenol is the simplest From Alcohols: Ethers can be synthesized by
Methods of Preparation: form (C6H5OH). the reaction of alcohols in the presence of an
From Alkenes: Alcohols can be prepared by hydration of Methods of Preparation: acid catalyst (Williamson synthesis).
alkenes using water in the presence of an acid catalyst. From Benzene: Phenol can be prepared by From Alkyl Halides: Ether can be prepared by
From Carbonyl Compounds: Reduction of aldehydes or hydroxylation of benzene using oxygen in nucleophilic substitution of an alkyl halide
ketones gives alcohols. the presence of a catalyst. with an alkoxide ion.
From Grignard Reagents: Reaction of Grignard reagents with From Haloarenes: The hydroxylation of Physical and Chemical Properties:
water leads to alcohol formation. chlorobenzene (by sodium hydroxide) gives Ethers have lower boiling points compared to
phenol. alcohols of similar molecular weight due to
Physical and Chemical Properties: the lack of hydrogen bonding.
Physical and Chemical Properties:
Alcohols have high boiling points due to hydrogen bonding. Ethers are relatively non-reactive but can
Phenols have higher boiling points than
They are soluble in water (for short-chain alcohols) and undergo cleavage in the presence of strong
alcohols due to hydrogen bonding.
exhibit both acidic and basic properties. acids.
Phenols are weak acids and react with
Alcohols undergo oxidation to form aldehydes and acids, and Uses: Ethers are widely used as solvents in
bases to form salts (phenoxide ions).
dehydration to form alkenes. organic reactions due to their ability to
Phenols undergo electrophilic substitution
reactions, such as nitration, bromination, dissolve a wide range of organic compounds.
Identification of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols:
and sulfonation.
Primary alcohols: The hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon
atom that is bonded to two hydrogens. Acidic Nature of Phenols: The hydroxyl
Secondary alcohols: The hydroxyl group is attached to a group in phenols is more acidic than
carbon atom that is bonded to one hydrogen and one alkyl alcohols due to the ability of the aromatic
group. ring to stabilize the phenoxide ion formed
Tertiary alcohols: The hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon after deprotonation.
atom that is bonded to no hydrogen atoms and three alkyl Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: In
groups. phenols, the hydroxyl group is an activating
Mechanism of Dehydration: Alcohols can undergo group, making the aromatic ring more
dehydration (elimination of water) in the presence of an acid reactive towards electrophilic substitution.
catalyst to form alkenes.

180
 CHAPTER 8: ALDEHYDES, KETONES, AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes and Ketones Nomenclature:
Orbital diagram for the formation of carbonyl group Carboxylic Acids: Organic compounds containing the carboxyl
group (-COOH), consisting of a carbonyl group bonded to a
hydroxyl group (R-COOH).
Methods of Preparation:
Oxidation of Aldehydes: Aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic
acids using oxidizing agents like KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7.
Hydrolysis of Nitriles: Nitriles are hydrolyzed under acidic
conditions to form carboxylic acids.
From Grignard Reagents: The reaction of Grignard reagents with
carbon dioxide followed by acidic work-up forms carboxylic acids.
Methods of Preparation: Physical Properties:
Nomenclature: Carboxylic acids have higher boiling points than aldehydes and
Aldehydes: Organic compounds Aldehydes: Prepared by the oxidation of
primary alcohols or by selective reduction of ketones due to the ability of the carboxyl group to form hydrogen
containing the carbonyl group (-C=O) with bonds with other molecules.
a hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl carboxylic acids.
Ketones: Prepared by the oxidation of Solubility: Lower carboxylic acids (like formic acid) are soluble in
carbon (R-CHO). water due to hydrogen bonding.
Ketones: Organic compounds where the secondary alcohols or by the Friedel-Crafts
acylation reaction.(for aromatic ketones only) Chemical Properties:
carbonyl group is bonded to two alkyl or Acidity: Carboxylic acids are weak acids, and they dissociate to
aryl groups (R-CO-R’). form carboxylate ions (R-COO⁻) in solution.
Reduction: Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols
Chemical Properties:
using reducing agents such as LiAlH4.
Reduction: Aldehydes are reduced to primary
Decarboxylation: Carboxylic acids undergo decarboxylation when
Physical Properties: alcohols, while ketones are reduced to
heated with soda lime (NaOH + CaO), leading to the formation of
Aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling secondary alcohols.
alkanes.
points than hydrocarbons of similar Oxidation: Aldehydes are easily oxidized to
Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution: Carboxylic acids react with
molecular weight due to the presence of the carboxylic acids, while ketones are resistant
alcohols to form esters through esterification.
polar carbonyl group. to oxidation.
Solubility: Lower aldehydes and ketones are Nucleophilic Addition: Aldehydes and Formation of Esters (Esterification): Carboxylic acids react with
soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding ketones undergo nucleophilic addition alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst to form esters, which
with water molecules. reactions (e.g., reaction with Grignard are commonly used in perfumes and flavorings.
reagents to form alcohols).
Uses of Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
Mechanism of Nucleophilic Addition: In this reaction, the nucleophile (such as an alkoxide or
Aldehydes: Used in the preparation of resins, disinfectants, and as
hydride) attacks the carbonyl carbon, leading to the formation of an addition product.
preservatives (e.g., formaldehyde).
Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one Ketones: Used as solvents in various industries (e.g., acetone) and
α-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form β-hydroxy in organic synthesis.
aldehydes (aldol) or β-hydroxy. Carboxylic Acids: Used in the manufacture of soaps, detergents,
Cannizzaro Reaction: Aldehydes without α -hydrogens undergo disproportionation. and in food preservation.

181
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 9: AMINES

Nomenclature Structure Physical Properties

Boiling Points:
Amines are organic compounds derived from Amines contain a nitrogen
Primary > Secondary >
ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more atom bonded to one or
Tertiary (due to
hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. Amines more alkyl or aryl groups.
hydrogen bonding in
are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary The nitrogen has a lone pair
primary amines).
based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups of electrons, which makes
Primary amines with
attached to the nitrogen atom. amines basic in nature.
more carbons are liquid,
Primary Amines: One alkyl or aryl group is Bonding: Amines can form and higher amines are
attached to the nitrogen atom (R-NH2). hydrogen bonds with solid.
Secondary Amines: Two alkyl or aryl groups are water, but the extent of Solubility:
attached to the nitrogen atom (R2NH). hydrogen bonding Amines are soluble in
Tertiary Amines: Three alkyl or aryl groups are decreases as the size of the water due to hydrogen
attached to the nitrogen atom (R3N). alkyl group increases. bonding, but solubility
Geometry: The nitrogen decreases with
Classification atom in amines is sp³ increasing molar mass.
Aliphatic Amines: Contain alkyl groups attached hybridized, leading to a Odor: Amines often have a
to the nitrogen (e.g., methylamine, ethylamine). tetrahedral geometry characteristic fishy odor.
Aromatic Amines: Contain an aromatic ring (e.g., around the nitrogen.
aniline, C6H5NH2).

AMINES
Methods of Preparation
Reduction of Nitro Compounds: Nitro compounds can be
reduced to amines by catalytic hydrogenation or by using
reducing agents such as iron and hydrochloric acid.
Reduction of Nitriles: Nitriles can be reduced to amines
using hydrogen or lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4).
From Alkyl Halides: Amines can be prepared by the
reaction of alkyl halides with ammonia (NH3) or amines.
Gabriel Phthalimide Synthesis: A method for preparing
primary amines from alkyl halides via the use of
phthalimide as a reagent.
Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation: Degrades amides to
primary amines by removing one carbon atom.

182
Chemical Properties Diazonium Salts
Basic Nature: Amines are basic in nature due to the Preparation: Diazonium
lone pair of electrons on nitrogen. They can accept a salts are prepared by
proton to form an ammonium ion (R-NH₃⁺). reacting primary amines
Reaction with Acids: Amines react with acids to with nitrous acid in acidic
form salts. For example, aniline reacts with conditions.
hydrochloric acid to form anilinium chloride. Reactivity: Diazonium salts
are key intermediates in
R - NH₂ + HCl → R - NH₃+Cl- synthesizing aromatic
compounds. They undergo
Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: Amines are nucleophilic substitution
activating groups in aromatic rings and increase the (Sandmeyer reaction) and
reactivity of the ring towards electrophilic coupling reactions.
substitution (e.g., nitration, halogenation).
Nucleophilic Substitution: Amines react with alkyl Reactions:
halides in nucleophilic substitution reactions to form Displacement of
higher amines. Nitrogen: Replace
Diazonium Salts: Amines react with nitrous acid diazonium with halides,
(HNO2) to form diazonium salts, which are used in cyanides, or hydroxyl
the preparation of azo compounds. groups.
Coupling Reactions:
R - NH2+HNO2 → R - N2+Cl- Form azo compounds
with phenol or aniline.

Uses of Amines
Primary Amines: Used in the synthesis of
dyes, drugs, and plastics.
Secondary and Tertiary Amines: Used in
the synthesis of surfactants, solvents, and
other industrial chemicals.
Aniline: One of the most important
aromatic amines, used in the production of
azo dyes, rubber chemicals, and
pharmaceuticals.

183
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 10: BIOMOLECULES

1. Carbohydrates 2. Proteins
2.1 Elementary Idea of Amino Acids: Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are organic
1.1 Classification: Carbohydrates are classified into three main compounds containing both an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH).
categories:
Peptide Bond: A covalent bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the
Monosaccharides: Simple sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed amino group of another.
into simpler compounds. Polypeptides: Chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds form proteins.
Glucose: A hexose sugar that is an important energy
source for cells. It exists in both straight-chain and cyclic 2.2 Structure of Proteins: Proteins have four levels of structure:
forms.
Fructose: A monosaccharide that is a structural isomer Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids in the
of glucose and is commonly found in fruits. protein.
Secondary Structure: The folding of the protein into structures like
1.2 D-L Configuration: Monosaccharides are classified into D- and alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets.
L-forms based on their configuration, with D-glucose being the Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional folding of the polypeptide
most common in nature. chain.
Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide
chains in a functional protein.

Types:
Fibrous Proteins: Insoluble in water, e.g., keratin, collagen.
Globular Proteins: Soluble in water, e.g., enzymes, insulin.

2.3 Denaturation: The process in which proteins lose their three-

dimensional structure due to external factors such as heat, pH
changes, or chemicals, leading to loss of function.

α -Helix structure of proteins

Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates consisting of 2-10
monosaccharide units. Examples include sucrose (glucose +
fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose
(glucose + glucose).

Polysaccharides: Long-chain carbohydrates that serve as 3. Enzymes

energy storage (e.g., starch and glycogen) or structural
components (e.g., cellulose). Definition: Biological catalysts (mostly proteins) that speed up biochemical reactions.
Mechanism: Enzymes lower activation energy and are highly specific to substrates.
1.3 Importance: Carbohydrates are important for energy storage, Naming: Enzymes are often named after the substrate they act upon or the reaction they
providing energy to cells, and for structural functions in catalyze (e.g., sucrase, oxidoreductases).
plants and animals. Function: Facilitate digestion, metabolism, and other physiological processes.

184
4. Hormones 5. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for various metabolic
Hormones are biochemical substances produced by processes. They are classified into:
glands that regulate physiological processes. They are
classified into: Fat-Soluble Vitamins: A, D, E, K.
Water-Soluble Vitamins: B-complex group, Vitamin C.
Peptide Hormones: Insulin, growth hormone.
Functions: Vitamins play essential roles in metabolism, immune function, and
Steroid Hormones: Estrogen, testosterone, cortisol.
maintaining skin and vision health.
Amino Acid Derivatives: Thyroxine.

6. Nucleic Acids
6.1 DNA: Double-stranded helix, composed of nucleotides (base + sugar + phosphate).
Bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T).

Base Pairing: A pairs with T, G pairs with C.

Sugar: Deoxyribose (absence of an oxygen atom at the 2' carbon).
Double Helix: The two strands are complementary and held by hydrogen bonds.
DNA: Stores genetic information and guides protein synthesis.
Double strand helix structure for DNA

6.2 RNA: Single-stranded, contains Uracil (U) instead of Thymine, and Ribose as
the sugar. Types: mRNA (messenger), rRNA (ribosomal), tRNA (transfer). RNA:
Acts as a template for protein synthesis in the form of mRNA, carries amino
acids via tRNA, and forms ribosomes with rRNA.

185
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BIOLOGY

187
 CHAPTER 1: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Introduction to Sexual 1. Introduction to Sexual
1
Reproduction Reproduction 4. Female Reproductive System
Fusion of male & female gametes Ovary: Contains ovules (female gametes).
(sperm + egg) → Offspring with Style: Connects stigma to ovary.
2 Flower Structure genetic variation. Stigma: Receives pollen.
Involves seed production in flowering Ovules: Contain embryo sac for fertilization.
plants.
Male Reproductive
3
System
5. Pollination
2. Flower Structure Pollination: Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.
Female Reproductive Calyx (Sepals): Protects flower bud.
4 Autogamy: Self-pollination.
System Corolla (Petals): Attracts pollinators. Allogamy: Cross-pollination.
Androecium (Male Reproductive Agents: Wind, water, insects, birds.
Organs): Male parts (stamens: anther Outbreeding Devices: Prevent self-pollination.
+ filament). Dichogamy: Different maturation times.
5 Pollination
Gynoecium (Female Reproductive i) Protogyny: pistil matrues before anthers.
Organs): Female parts (carpels: ii) protoandry: anthers mature before pistil.
stigma, style, ovary). Herkogamy: Structural differences.
6 Pollen-Pistil Interaction Self-Incompatibility: Rejects own pollen.

7 Fertilization
3. Male Reproductive
Special Reproduction
System
8 Stamen: Anther (produces
Modes
pollen), filament (supports
anther).
Microsporogenesis: Formation of
9 Seed Dispersal pollen grains (male gametes).
Pollen Structure: Exine
(protective), Intine (inner).
10 Fruit Formation

188
 Back to Index

6. Pollen-Pistil Interaction
After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the
stigma, forming a pollen tube that grows down the
style toward the ovary, where fertilization occurs.
Germination: Pollen forms pollen tube to carry
male gametes to ovule.

7. Fertilization
Double Fertilization (Syngamy + Triple Fusion)
Syngamy: Male gamete + egg → zygote. 9. Seed Dispersal
10. Fruit Formation
Triple Fusion: Male gamete + 2 polar nuclei →
Methods: Wind, water, animals,
endosperm. Protects seeds and aids in
mechanical.
Post-Fertilization Events: their dispersal through
Significance: Reduces competition,
Embryo Development: Zygote → embryo. animal interaction.
aids in colonization, and adaptation.
Seed Development: Fertilized ovule becomes seed.
Fruit Formation: Ovary → fruit.

8. Special Reproduction Modes

Apomixis: Seed formation without fertilization.
Example: In certain species of dandelion.
Parthenocarpy: Fruit without fertilization (seedless
fruits). Example: Seedless bananas, oranges, and
grapes.
Polyembryony: Multiple embryos from one
fertilized egg. Example: Citrus fruits and mangoes.

189
 CHAPTER 2: HUMAN REPRODUCTION

1 Male Reproductive
System 1. Male Reproductive System 3. Gametogenesis
Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone, located in scrotum Spermatogenesis (sperm formation in
for temperature regulation. testes):
Female Reproductive Accessory Ducts: Multiplication: Spermatogonia
2 Rete Testis: Collects sperm.
System divide.
Vasa Efferentia: Connects rete testis to epididymis. Growth: Form primary
Epididymis: Sperm maturation. spermatocytes.
Vas Deferens: Transports sperm. Maturation: Primary
Gametogenesis Ejaculatory Duct: Joins vas deferens and seminal vesicle spermatocytes undergo meiosis.
3 Spermiogenesis: Spermatids
duct.
Accessory Glands: transform into sperm.
Seminal Vesicles: Secrete energy-rich fluid for sperm. Oogenesis (egg formation in ovaries):
Multiplication: Oogonia divide to
Prostate Gland: Activates sperm.
4 Menstrual Cycle Bulbourethral Glands: Lubricate urethra.
form primary oocytes.
Growth: Oocytes grow into
External Genitalia: Penis releases sperm during ejaculation. primary follicles.
Maturation: Primary oocyte
completes meiosis to form
5 Fertilization secondary oocyte.
Ovulation: Release of mature
ovum, fertilization leads to ovum
formation.
Pregnancy & Placenta 2. Female Reproductive System
6
Formation Ovaries: Produce eggs and hormones.
Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes): Transport eggs, capture
with fimbriae.
7 Parturition (Childbirth) Uterus: Site of embryo implantation, divided into:
Perimetrium: Outer layer.
Myometrium: Muscular layer for labor.
Endometrium: Lining for embryo implantation,
8 Lactation sheds during menstruation.
Cervix: Produces mucus to facilitate sperm entry.
Vagina: Birth canal, passage for menstrual flow.
External Genitalia: Mons Pubis, Labia
Majora/Minora, Clitoris.

190
 Back to Index

4. Menstrual Cycle 5. Fertilization 6. Pregnancy & Placenta

Process:
Phases: Insemination: Sperm deposited during Formation
Menstrual: Shedding of the endometrium. copulation. Placenta: Facilitates nutrient
Follicular: Follicles grow, estrogen Sperm Transport: Travel to fallopian tubes. & gas exchange, secretes hCG.
secreted. Fertilization: Sperm penetrates egg, forming Umbilical Cord: Connects
Ovulatory: LH triggers ovulation. zygote. fetus to placenta for
Luteal: Corpus luteum secretes Zygote Development: Zygote divides, implants nutrient/waste transport.
progesterone, prepares for pregnancy. in uterus.

7. Parturition (Childbirth) 8. Lactation

Process: Hormonal signals trigger uterine contractions, Milk Production: Mammary glands produce milk post-
oxytocin expels fetus. birth, initially colostrum rich in antibodies (IgA ).

Human Reproduction Process

Mitosis

191
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CHAPTER 3: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

1. Reproductive Health: Need & 3. Birth Control Metho

ds: Need
Definition & Types
ssisted
5. Infertility & A
Need: Control over pre
gnancy, improve ro d uct ive Te chnologies (ART)
Reproductive Health: Well-being
in
maternal health, preven R ep
l, t unwanted
all aspects of reproduction (physica pregnancies. after 1 year of
emotional, men tal, soci al). Types: fe rt ili ty : In ab ility to conceive
In
Importance: Prevents STDs, rcourse.
Natural Methods: Period unprotected inte Female
promotes safe sexual practices, and
ic abstinence, w sperm count),
withdrawal, lactational Causes: Male (lo Co m bi ned factors.
empowers individuals.
amenorrhea. ers, age),
in
Barrier Methods: Cond
oms, diaphragms, (ovulatory disord
WHO Definition: Total well-being cervical caps. ART Treatments
:
reproduction (physica l, emo tion al,
IUDs: Copper T, Hormon I (In tr au te rin e Insemination).
IU
al IUD. ilization).
social). Oral Contraceptives: Bir IVF (In Vitro Fert sfer).
th control pills. a-Fallopian Tran
Injectable Contracepti ZIFT (Zygote Intr Tr an sfer).
ves: Depo-Provera. tra-Fallopian
Implants: Implanon. GIFT (Gamete In Sp er m In je ct ion).
lasmic
Sterilization: Vasectom ICSI (Intracytop la tio n of ART
y, tubectomy. Concerns: Regu
Emergency Contracepti
on: Morning After Legal & Ethical s of ch ild ren born
ding right
2. Prevention of STDs Pill. clinics, safeguar
through ART.
STDs: Infections from sexual contact
(e.g., Gonorrhea, HIV/AIDS,
Hepatitis).
Prevention:
Safe sexual practices (condoms).
Avoiding multiple partners. rmination of
Regular screening. 4. Medical Te 6. Amniocen
TP)
Vaccines (e.g., Hepatitis B, HPV). Pregnancy (M tesis & Ethica
l
y Concerns
n of pregnanc
n): Terminatio
MTP (Abortio Amniocentesi
conditions. s: Detects ge
under certain y, health disorders by netic
anted pregnanc analyzing am
Reasons: Unw factor s. fluid. niotic
nomic
risks, socioeco Ethical Concer
ns: Misuse fo
Met ho ds : rostol). determinatio r sex
pristone, Misop C). n, leading to
Medical (Mife n, D& foeticide. female
m Aspiratio
Surgical (Vacuu t, 1971 (up to 12 PCPNDT Act,
MTP Ac 1994: Preven
Legal Aspects: 12-20 determinatio ts sex
1 doctor's opinion, n and reduce
weeks with foeticide. s female
opinions).
weeks with 2

193
 CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
1. Heredity & Variation 5. Exceptions to Mendel’s Laws 10. Chromosomal Disorders
Heredity: Transmission of genetic Incomplete Dominance: Blending of traits (e.g., red × white → pink Down’s Syndrome: Extra
traits from parents to offspring. flowers). chromosome 21.
Variation: Differences between Co-Dominance: Both alleles equally expressed (e.g., AB blood group). Turner’s Syndrome: Female with
Multiple Alleles: More than two alleles for a gene (e.g., blood groups: one X chromosome (44 + X).
individuals, providing genetic
IA, IB, i). Klinefelter’s Syndrome: Male
diversity for evolution.
Pleiotropy: One gene affects multiple traits (e.g., sickle-cell gene). with extra X chromosome (44 +
Polygenic Inheritance: Traits controlled by multiple genes (e.g., skin
XXY).
color , AABBCC x aabbcc).
2. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Not included in CBSE
Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate
during gamete formation (e.g., Tt → T
11. Genetic Variation
or t). Mutation: Change in DNA sequence
6. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Law of Independent Assortment: (e.g., sickle-cell anemia).
Genes are located on chromosomes, which
Genes for different traits assort Point Mutation: Single base
segregate during meiosis.
independently (e.g., seed color and change.
shape). Frame-Shift Mutation: Insertion or
Law of Dominance: Dominant allele deletion altering gene reading
masks the recessive allele (e.g., Tt → 7. Sex Determination frame.
tall). Humans: XY (males), XX (females). Genetic Recombination: Crossing over
Birds: ZW (females), ZZ (males). during meiosis creates new gene
Honeybees: Haploid males, diploid females. The queen can combinations.
3. Monohybrid Cross produce fertilized (female) or unfertilized (male) eggs.
Involves one trait (e.g., Tt × tt → 3:1 Gregor
phenotypic ratio, 1:2:1 genotypic ratio).
Mendel
8. Sex-Linked Inheritance The Father
4. Dihybrid Cross X-Linked Traits: Hemophilia, color blindness (more
Involves two traits (e.g., YYRR × yyrr common in males). Of Genetics
→ 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio). Y-Linked Traits: Male characteristics (e.g., SRY gene).

9. Mendelian Disorders in Humans

Autosomal Dominant: Achondroplasia, Huntington’s disease.
Autosomal Recessive: Cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease.
X-Linked & Recessive: Hemophilia, color blindness.

194
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 5: MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

1. Introduction to Genetic Material 7. Transcription 8. Genetic Code
Process: Codons: Sequences of 3
Genetic Material: Carries genetic information; DNA in most
Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the nucleotides in mRNA.
organisms.
promoter. Start Codon: AUG
DNA: Double-stranded, composed of nucleotides.
Elongation: RNA synthesized in 5’ to 3’ direction. (Methionine).
RNA: Plays a key role in protein synthesis, carries
Termination: RNA released when polymerase Stop Codons: UAA,
instructions from DNA.
reaches termination signal. UAG, UGA.
Types of RNA: Degeneracy: Multiple
mRNA: Carries genetic code from DNA to codons can code for the
ribosome. same amino acid.
2. Search for Genetic Material 5. DNA Replication tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosome.
Griffith’s Experiment (1928): Semi-Conservative rRNA: Makes up ribosomes.
Bacterial transformation suggests Replication: Each
10. Regulation of Gene
genetic material. strand of DNA serves
Avery et al. (1944): Identified DNA as a template for a Expression
as the transforming principle. new strand. Gene Regulation: Controls
Hershey & Chase (1952): Process: protein production timing
Confirmed DNA as genetic Initiation: DNA and amount.
material in bacteriophages. unwinds
(helicase). Prokaryotes: Operons (lac
Priming: RNA operon, trp operon).
primer starts Eukaryotes: Chromatin
3. Structure of DNA replication. modification, transcription
Nucleotides: Composed of Elongation: DNA 9. Translation factors, RNA processing.
phosphate group, sugar polymerase Process:
(deoxyribose in DNA), and synthesizes new Initiation: mRNA binds to ribosome, tRNA with
nitrogenous bases. strands. Methionine attaches to start codon.
DNA Double Helix: Watson and Termination: RNA Elongation: Ribosome moves along mRNA, tRNA brings
Crick (1953); base pairing: A-T, G-C; primers replaced, amino acids.
anti-parallel strands. fragments joined by Termination: Stop codon is 11. Genome Projects
DNA ligase. reached, protein is released.
Human Genome Project
(HGP): Mapped human
4. DNA Packaging genes, aiding in disease
Chromatin: DNA wrapped around 6. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 12. DNA Fingerprinting research and
histones in eukaryotic cells. Technique: Identifies personalized medicine.
Flow of Genetic Information: DNA → RNA →
Nucleosome: Basic unit of individuals based on unique Rice Genome Project:
Protein.
chromatin. DNA sequences. Improved crop yield and
Transcription: RNA is made from DNA.
Chromosomes: Condensed Applications: Forensics, disease resistance.
Translation: RNA is used to make
chromatin carrying genetic paternity testing, genetic
proteins at the ribosome.
information during cell division. research.

195
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 Back to Index

CHAPTER 6: EVOLUTION
1. Introduction to Evolution 2. Origin of Life 3. Evidence for Evolution
Evolution: Change in species over Abiogenesis: Life originates from non- Fossils: Chronological record of life; shows changes in species over
time due to variations and natural living matter (discredited by Pasteur). time.
selection. Biogenesis: Life arises from pre-existing Comparative Anatomy:
Charles Darwin: Proposed life (confirmed by Pasteur). Homologous Structures: Similar in structure, different functions
evolution by natural selection— Chemical Evolution: Life originated from (e.g., forelimbs in humans, bats, whales).
organisms with favorable traits are simple organic molecules (Miller-Urey Analogous Structures: Different structures, similar functions (e.g.,
more likely to survive and Experiment, 1953). wings of birds and insects).
reproduce. Embryology: Similar early development in vertebrates (e.g., gill slits in
human embryos).
Molecular Evidence: Genetic similarities (e.g., humans and
chimpanzees share 98% DNA).

4. Darwin’s Theory of 5. Modern Synthetic Theory

Natural Selection of Evolution
Overproduction: More offspring The Modern Synthesis: Combines
than can survive. natural selection and genetics.
Variation: Traits vary, some are Genetic Variation: Arises from
advantageous. mutations, recombination, and gene
Struggle for Survival: Organisms flow.
compete for resources. Gene Pool: Total collection of genes in
Survival of the Fittest: Organisms a population.
with favorable traits survive and Hardy-Weinberg Principle: Describes
reproduce. conditions for constant allele
Adaptation: Species become better frequencies in a population: p² + 2pq + 8. Adaptive Radiation
suited to their environment over q² = 1. Adaptive Radiation: Rapid diversification of a species into
time. different forms (e.g., Darwin’s finches).

7. Speciation
Speciation: Formation of new species.
6. Mechanisms of Evolution Allopatric Speciation: Geographic 9. Human Evolution
Mutation: Random changes in genetic material. isolation (e.g., river divides Australopithecus: Early hominid species, evidence of
Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations). bipedalism.
populations. Sympatric Speciation: No Homo habilis: First Homo species, tool use.
Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies geographic isolation; divergence Homo erectus: First to use fire and migrate out of Africa.
(Bottleneck and Founder effects). due to ecological or genetic Neanderthals: Close relatives of humans, coexisted with
Natural Selection: Favors advantageous traits factors. Homo sapiens.
(Directional, Stabilizing, Disruptive Selection). Parapatric Speciation: Adjacent Homo sapiens: Modern humans with advanced
Sexual Selection: Traits that enhance mating success populations with different selective cognitive abilities.
(e.g., peacock's tail). pressures.

197
 CHAPTER 7: HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE
1. Introduction to Human Health and Disease 2. Types of Diseases 3. Pathogens and Their Role in Disease
Health: A state of physical, mental, and social well-being (WHO). Infectious Diseases: Caused Pathogens: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites.
Disease: Impairment of normal body function due to internal or external by pathogens (e.g., Malaria, Types:
factors. TB, Typhoid, Cholera). Bacteria: Tuberculosis, Typhoid.
Non-Infectious Diseases: Viruses: HIV, Hepatitis, Common cold.
Caused by genetic, Fungi: Athlete’s foot, Ringworm.
5. Common Human Diseases and Their Control environmental, or lifestyle Parasites: Malaria, Ascariasis.
factors (e.g., Diabetes,
Cancer). Chronic Diseases:
Long-lasting conditions that 4. Vector-Borne Diseases
Malaria: Caused Tuberculosis Typhoid: Cholera: may be controlled but not Vectors: Organisms transmitting pathogens (e.g.,
by Plasmodium, (TB): Caused Caused by Caused by cured. mosquitoes, houseflies).
transmitted by by Salmonella Vibrio Examples: Malaria, Dengue, Chikungunya,
mosquitoes. Mycobacteriu typhi. cholerae. Filariasis.
Prevention: m Prevention: Prevention:
Mosquito nets, tuberculosis. Sanitation, Clean water, 6. Immune System and
drugs. Treatment: Prevention: vaccination. hygiene. Immunity 8. Adolescence and Drug Abuse
Anti-malarial BCG vaccine, Treatment: Treatment:
drugs. antibiotics. Antibiotics. ORS, Immune System: Defends Adolescence: Transition from childhood to
antibiotics. the body against adulthood, with physical and emotional changes.
pathogens. Drug Abuse: Use of harmful substances (e.g.,
Innate Immunity: Non- alcohol, tobacco, narcotics).
HIV/AIDS: Caused by HIV, Common Cold: Caused by Consequences: Physical and mental health
weakens the immune Rhinovirus. Prevention: specific defenses (e.g.,
skin, macrophages). issues, addiction.
system. Prevention: Safe Hygiene, avoiding Prevention: Education, counseling,
sex, ART. Treatment: ART contact. Treatment: Acquired Immunity:
rehabilitation.
drugs. Symptomatic treatment. Specific defenses after
pathogen exposure
(e.g., B-cells, T-cells).
Cancer Development Types of Immunity: 9. Common Diseases and Their Control
Active Immunity: Strategies
Produced after
exposure to a
Amoebiasis: Caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
pathogen. Symptoms: Diarrhea, stomach pain. Prevention:
Passive Immunity: Sanitation. Treatment: Metronidazole.
Received from Ascariasis: Caused by Ascaris lumbricoides.
external sources (e.g., Symptoms: Abdominal pain. Prevention:
7. Cancer mother’s milk). Sanitation. Treatment: Albendazole.
Cancer: Abnormal cell growth that can spread. Vaccination: Stimulates Ringworm: Fungal infection. Symptoms: Itchy
Causes: Genetic mutations, carcinogens (e.g., tobacco, radiation). immune response for rashes. Prevention: Hygiene. Treatment:
Treatment: Surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy. future protection. Antifungal medications.

198
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 8: MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE

1. Introduction to Microbes and Their Role 7. Microbes as Bio-Fertilizers
Microbes: Small organisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, and Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria: Rhizobium,
protozoa. Azotobacter, and Clostridium fix
Microbial Diversity: Found in diverse environments like the nitrogen in soil.
human body, soil, water, and air. Mycorrhizae: Fungi that enhance
Beneficial Microorganisms: Essential for fermentation, nutrient absorption in plants.
nutrient recycling, and bio-control. Vermicomposting: Earthworms
convert organic waste into nutrient-
rich compost

2. Microbes in Food Processing

Fermentation: 4. Microbes in Sewage Treatment
Bread: Yeast ferments sugars to produce Wastewater Treatment: Microbes degrade organic matter in Not included in CBSE
carbon dioxide. sewage.
Alcoholic Beverages: Yeast ferments sugars to Activated Sludge: Aerobic bacteria break down organic waste. 8. Microbes in Biotechnology
produce ethanol. Anaerobic Digestion: Methanogens produce biogas. Genetic Engineering:
Dairy Products: Lactic acid bacteria ferment Bioremediation: Microbes clean polluted environments (e.g., oil Insulin Production:
milk to produce yogurt, cheese. spills). Recombinant E. coli or yeast
Pickles: Lactic acid bacteria preserve produce insulin.
vegetables. Hepatitis B Vaccine: Produced
Bacterial Fermentation: using engineered yeast.
Vinegar: Acetobacter converts alcohol into Gene Therapy: Microbes (e.g.,
acetic acid. adenoviruses) deliver therapeutic
Fermented Soy Products: Tempeh, tofu made 5. Microbes in Energy Generation genes.
from soybeans.
Biogas Production: Methanogenic bacteria produce
Brewing: Yeast ferments sugars in grains for
methane from organic waste.
alcoholic drinks.
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs): Bacteria convert organic waste Not included in CBSE
into electricity. 9. Microbial Pathogens and
Their Control
3. Microbes in Industrial Production Human Pathogens: Microbes
cause diseases like TB, HIV/AIDS,
Penicillin Production: Fungus Penicillium and malaria.
produces antibiotics.
Insulin Production: Genetically engineered E.
6. Microbes as Bio-Control Agents Antibiotics: Penicillium used
coli produces human insulin. Biological Control of Pests: to produce antibiotics.
Citric Acid Production: Aspergillus niger used Bacillus thuringiensis: Kills insects. Vaccines: Microbes used to
for citric acid production. Trichoderma: Fungal control of plant pathogens. produce vaccines (e.g., polio,
Vitamins: Bacteria and fungi produce vitamins Nematodes: Used to control soil-borne insect larvae. hepatitis).
like B12 and riboflavin. Biological Control of Plant Diseases: Use of bacteria like Plant Pathogens: Affect crops
Biofuels: Microbes used to produce ethanol and Pseudomonas fluorescens. like Fusarium wilt and potato
biogas. blight.

199
 CHAPTER 9: BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES
1. Introduction to Biotechnology Not included in CBSE Not included in CBSE Not included in CBSE

3. Techniques in Biotechnology 5. Ethical and Safety

Biotechnology: Use of living organisms or their products to
develop or modify products for specific purposes (medicine, PCR: Amplifies small DNA samples for research, Concerns
agriculture, industry, environment). forensics, and diagnostics.
Ethical Concerns:
Scope: Steps: Denaturation, annealing, extension.
GMOs: Safety and
Medical: Drug production, vaccines, gene therapy. Applications: Disease detection, genetic research.
environmental impact of
Agricultural: Improved crop yield, pest resistance. Gel Electrophoresis: Separates DNA/RNA/proteins by
genetically modified
Industrial: Use of microbes and enzymes for chemical size and charge.
organisms.
and biofuel production. Applications: DNA fingerprinting, genetic analysis.
Cloning and Stem Cell
Environmental: Waste treatment and bioremediation. DNA Sequencing: Determines nucleotide order in
Research: Ethical issues in
DNA (Sanger, Next-Gen Sequencing).
cloning animals and using
Blotting Techniques:
human embryos.
Southern Blotting: DNA detection.
Safety Concerns:
Northern Blotting: RNA detection.
2. Basic Principles of Unintended Spread of
Western Blotting: Protein detection.
GMOs: GM crops may affect
Biotechnology wild populations or non-GMO
crops.
Genetic Engineering: Altering genetic
4. Applications of Biotechnology Not included in CBSE Biosafety: Ensuring GM
material to achieve desired traits. In Medicine: organisms don't harm
Recombinant DNA Technology: Insulin Production: Recombinant E. coli for human insulin. humans, animals, or the
Inserting genes into vectors for Vaccines: Genetically engineered microorganisms for vaccines. environment.
expression in host organisms. Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic disorders by introducing a Regulatory Framework:
Steps in Genetic Engineering: corrected gene. Government regulations ensure
Isolation: Gene of interest isolated In Agriculture: safety and efficacy in genetic
using restriction enzymes. GM Crops: Pest-resistant (e.g., Bt cotton), improved nutritional engineering.
Insertion: Gene inserted into a content (e.g., Golden Rice).
vector (plasmid/virus). Transgenic Plants/Animals: Modified plants and animals for
Transformation: Introduction of enhanced traits (e.g., transgenic goats producing human proteins).
recombinant DNA into a host. In Industry:
Cloning: Host replicates the Enzyme Production: Microbial enzymes for detergents, leather,
recombinant DNA. textiles.
Expression of Genes: Host Biodegradable Plastics: Produced from renewable resources.
produces desired product (e.g., Biofuels: Microbial production of ethanol and biodiesel.
proteins). In Environmental Biotechnology:
Restriction Enzymes: Cut DNA at Bioremediation: Use of microbes to clean oil spills and pollutants.
specific sequences (e.g., EcoRI). Wastewater Treatment: Microbes degrade organic matter in sewage.
Vectors: Plasmids, viruses, cosmids, and In Forensic Science:
BACs for gene transfer. DNA Fingerprinting: Identifies individuals for criminal cases, paternity
tests.
PCR: Amplifies DNA for forensic analysis.

200
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 10: BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Not included in CBSE

1. Introduction to Biotechnology 3. Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology: Use of biological in Agriculture
organisms or processes to develop GM Crops: Crops engineered for better
products (medicine, agriculture, industry, traits (e.g., Bt cotton, Golden Rice).
environment). Biopesticides: Natural organisms used to
Applications: Medicine, agriculture, control pests (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis).
industrial processes, and environmental Gene Editing (CRISPR): Precise DNA
management. modifications for traits like disease
resistance.
Biofertilizers: Microorganisms enhancing
2. Applications of Biotechnology soil fertility (e.g., Rhizobium).
Transgenic Animals: Genetically modified
in Medicine animals for better traits (e.g., transgenic
Gene Therapy: Inserting normal genes to goats producing human proteins).
treat genetic disorders (e.g., cystic fibrosis,
hemophilia).
Recombinant DNA Technology: Inserting 6. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
foreign genes into organisms to produce 4. Applications of Biotechnology GMOs in Medicine: GM microorganisms produce insulin and
proteins (e.g., insulin, Hepatitis B vaccine). in Industry Not included in CBSE
vaccines.
Monoclonal Antibodies: Used to diagnose GMOs in Agriculture: Bt crops and Golden Rice improve yields
Industrial Enzymes: Microbial enzymes for
and treat diseases (e.g., cancer, and nutrition.
food, textiles, and biofuel production (e.g.,
autoimmune disorders).
amylase, cellulase).
Vaccines: Biological preparations providing
Biofuels: Renewable energy from biological
immunity (e.g., recombinant vaccines like
sources (e.g., ethanol, biogas).
Hepatitis B).
Biodegradable Plastics: Plastics from
Antibiotics: Chemicals to inhibit microbial
renewable sources that break down 7. Ethical and Environmental Concerns of
growth (e.g., Penicillin from Penicillium).
naturally (e.g., PHA).
Biopharmaceuticals: Therapeutic proteins
Fermentation Technology: Microbial Biotechnology
and hormones (e.g., growth hormones,
fermentation for alcohol, antibiotics, and
interferons). Ethical Concerns:
organic acids.
GMOs in Food: Ecological effects and potential allergenicity.
Gene Editing: Ethical issues in human embryo modification.
Cloning: Concerns over cloning animals and humans.
Not included in CBSE Environmental Concerns:
5. Applications of Biotechnology in Environmental Management Gene Flow: Risk of transgenes spreading to non-GMO crops.
Loss of Biodiversity: Potential ecological disruption by
Bioremediation: Use of microbes to clean pollutants (e.g., oil spills). GMOs.
Waste Treatment: Microbes degrade organic waste in sewage and industrial waste. Pesticide Resistance: Overuse of GM crops with built-in pest
Anaerobic Digestion: Microbes break down organic matter to produce biogas. resistance.

201
 CHAPTER 11: ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

1. Introduction to Ecology and 3. Population Attributes

Population Density: Number of individuals
Population per unit area.
Ecology: Study of interactions between Population Dispersion: Spatial

Size of population (N)

organisms and their environment. arrangement of individuals.
Population: A group of individuals of the Random: No specific pattern.
same species in a specific area at a given Uniform: Even spacing (e.g., territorial
time. species).
Clumped: Grouped in patches (e.g.,
elephants at water holes).
Age Structure: Distribution of individuals in
different age groups (pre-reproductive,
2. Population Interactions reproductive, post-reproductive). Logistic population growth curve or S-shaped curve
Mutualism: Both species benefit (e.g., Sex Ratio: Ratio of males to females,
lichens, pollination). influences reproduction.
Competition: Organisms compete for Mortality and Natality Rates: Birth and 6. Human Population Dynamics Not included in CBSE

resources. death rates affecting population dynamics. Population Explosion: Rapid human population growth due to
Intraspecific: Same species compete. advances in medicine and agriculture.
Interspecific: Different species Population Control: Measures like family planning, education,
compete. and government policies.
Predation: One organism (predator) Not included in CBSE India’s Family Planning Program: Started in 1952 to reduce
consumes another (prey). Example: A lion birth rates and promote contraception.
(predator) hunting a zebra (prey). 4. Population Growth
Parasitism: One organism benefits at the Exponential Growth: Rapid growth when
expense of the other (e.g., tapeworms). resources are unlimited (J-shaped curve).
Commensalism: One species benefits, Logistic Growth: Growth slows as population
other is unaffected (e.g., barnacles on approaches carrying capacity (K).
turtles). Carrying Capacity (K): Maximum population
Amensalism: One organism is harmed, the size an environment can support.
other is unaffected (e.g., black walnut Limiting Factors: Resources like food, water,
trees). and space that limit growth.

5. Population Regulation Not included in CBSE

Density-Dependent Factors: Affect population based on size/density.

Competition, Predation, Disease.
Density-Independent Factors: Affect population regardless of size.
Weather events, Natural disasters.

202
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 12: ECOSYSTEM

Not included in CBSE

1. Introduction to Ecosystem 4. Ecological Pyramids 7. Human Impact

Ecosystem: A biological community of Pyramid of Numbers: Number of individuals at each trophic level. on Ecosystems
interacting organisms and their physical Pyramid of Biomass: Total biomass at each level.
Pyramid of Energy: Energy available at each level (10% energy transfer rule). Deforestation: Leads to
environment. habitat loss and
Biotic Components: Producers, consumers, biodiversity decline.
decomposers. Pollution:
Abiotic Components: Physical factors like Air Pollution:
water, soil, air, temperature. 5. Ecosystem Stability and Succession Not included in CBSE
Global warming and
Ecosystem Stability: Ability to maintain structure and function over time. acid rain.
Influenced by biodiversity and keystone species. Water Pollution:
Ecological Succession: Change in ecosystem structure over time. Loss of aquatic
2. Structure of an Ecosystem Primary Succession: Starts in lifeless areas (e.g., after volcanic biodiversity.
eruptions). Soil Pollution:
Secondary Succession: Occurs after disturbance in areas with soil. Degradation from
Trophic Structure: Organization based on
Climax Community: Final stable community in an ecosystem (e.g., pesticides and
feeding relationships.
mature forest). fertilizers.
Producers: Autotrophs (e.g., plants,
Climate Change:
phytoplankton).
Caused by human
Consumers:
activities, leading to
Primary Consumers: Herbivores.
Secondary Consumers: Carnivores. 6. Biomes and Their Ecosystems Not included in CBSE global warming and
altered weather
Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators. Biomes: Large ecosystems with distinct climates and organisms.
patterns.
Decomposers: Break down organic matter Examples: Tropical rainforest, desert, temperate forest, tundra, grasslands.
Overexploitation:
(e.g., fungi, bacteria).
Overfishing, hunting,
Food Chain: Linear flow of energy (e.g., Grass
and mining deplete
→ Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle).
resources and
Food Web: Complex, interconnected food
biodiversity.
chains.

3. Functions of an Ecosystem
8. Conservation of Ecosystems Not included in CBSE
Energy Flow: Energy moves from producers to consumers.
Primary Productivity: Rate at which producers convert light to Biodiversity Conservation:
chemical energy. In-Situ: Conservation in natural habitats (e.g., national parks).
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total energy captured. Ex-Situ: Conservation outside natural habitats (e.g., zoos, botanical gardens).
Net Primary Productivity (NPP): Energy available to consumers. Protected Areas: National parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
Nutrient Cycling: Movement of nutrients through the ecosystem. Sustainable Practices: Sustainable agriculture, forestation, and responsible consumption.
Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Phosphorus Cycle.

203
 Back to Index

CHAPTER 13: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

1. Introduction to Biodiversity 2. Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity: Variety of life forms; species, genetic, and Ecological Services: Pollination, soil fertility, water
ecosystem diversity. purification, climate regulation.
Levels of Biodiversity: Economic Value: Agriculture, pharmaceuticals,
Species Diversity: Variety of species in an tourism, bioprospecting.
ecosystem. Cultural Significance: Sustenance, medicine, spiritual
Genetic Diversity: Variation in genes within a and cultural practices.
species.
Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of ecosystems in a
region.

4. Conservation of Biodiversity
In-Situ Conservation: Conservation within natural
3. Threats to Biodiversity habitats.
Habitat Destruction: Deforestation, urbanization, Protected Areas: National parks, wildlife
agriculture. sanctuaries, biosphere reserves.
Overexploitation: Unsustainable use of resources (e.g., Ex-Situ Conservation: Conservation outside
overfishing, hunting). natural habitats.
Pollution: Zoos, Aquariums, Botanical Gardens, Seed
Air Pollution: Contributes to global warming. Banks, Gene Banks.
Water Pollution: Affects aquatic ecosystems. Biodiversity Hotspots: Areas rich in species but
Soil Pollution: Degrades soil quality. threatened (e.g., Western Ghats, Amazon
Climate Change: Global warming impacts ecosystems Rainforest).
and species. Ecological Restoration: Reforestation,
Invasive Species: Non-native species outcompete native afforestation to restore ecosystems.
species (e.g., Cane Toad).

5. Biodiversity and Human Activities Not included in CBSE

Sustainable Development: Development that meets 6. Strategies for Biodiversity

present needs without compromising future needs.
Eco-friendly Practices: Recycling, renewable energy,
Conservation
reducing carbon footprints. Legislation and Policies: Laws like the Wildlife Not included in CBSE

Environmental Awareness: Public education on Protection Act (India), Endangered Species Act 7. Conservation Ethics
conservation (e.g., Earth Day). (USA).
Community Participation: Local communities Ethics of Conservation: Preservation
International Initiatives: of biodiversity for its intrinsic value.
CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity. manage forests, sanctuaries.
Ecotourism: Sustainable tourism that benefits Ethical Debate: Balancing human
CITES: Convention on International Trade in development with conservation.
Endangered Species. local communities and conservation.

204
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