Biology- is the centerpiece of all life sciences

Branches of Biology
1. Anatomy- the study of body parts and their location
-Zootomy- animal
-Phytotomy- plant
-Botany - study of plants
2. Physiology- the study of functions of the body parts
3. Astrobiology- the study of the effect of outer space on living organism and the search of extraterrestrial life
4. Anthropology- the study of humans, past and present
5. Biochemistry- the study of chemical processes and transformations in living organisms
6. Bioinformatics- techniques including applied mathematics, informatics, computer science, artificial intelligence,
chemistry and biochemistry to solve biological problems on molecular level
7. Biomechanics- mechanics of living organisms or the application and derivation of engineering principles to and from
biological systems
8. Biotechnology- technological application that uses biological systems (e.g. bacteria) to modify and make products
9. Biogeography- is the study of the geographical distribution of living things
10. Bioengineering- is the study of living things through the means of engineering
11. Cell biology- also known as cytology, the study of cells
12. Cryobiology- the study of the effects of low temperature on organisms
13. Ecology- also known as bioeconomics, study of interaction between an organism and its environment
14. Evolution- evolutionary biology, the study of the changes in the inherited characteristics, or traits, of a population of
organisms
15. Genetics- the study of genes and heredity
16. Gerontology- is the study of aging
17. Histology- the study of tissues
18. Immunology- the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms
19. Limnology- is the study of inland waters (fresh, e.g. lake)
20. Marine Biology- the study of plants and animals, and other organisms that live in the ocean
21. Microbiology- the study of microorganisms
22. Molecular biology- the study of molecules and chemical reactions within organisms
23. Structural biology- the study of the architecture and shape of biological macromolecules
24. Mycology- study of fungi
25. Neurobiology- the study of cells of nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits organ
26. Paleontology- the study of prehistoric life forms of Earth
27. Ichnology- deals with traces of organismal behavior
28. Paleozoology- identification of multicellular animal remains from geological contexts
29. Palynology- is the study of contemporary and fossil palynomorphs (e.g. pollen, spores)
30. Parasitology- the study of parasites and their hosts
31. Photobiology- the study of interactions of light and living organisms
32. Phycology- study of algae
33. Biological Psychology- psychobiology, biopsychology, experimental approach to the study of psychology
34. Radiobiology- studies the biological effects of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
35. Sociobiology- explains the behavior in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviors
36. Taxonomy- the practice and science of classification
37. Botany- study of plants
38. Virology- the study of viruses
39. Zoology- study of animals
- Acarology- mites, ticks
- Anthrozoology- human-animal interactions
- Cetology- whales, dolphins, porpoises
- Cryptozoology- in search of animals that rumored to exists

Francesco Redi- Disprove the spontaneous generation when he experimented by placing meat in jars
-Maggots developed in uncovered jars
-Maggots did not develop in the muslin-covered jar

Lazaro Spallanzani- Disprove spontaneous generation by performing a controlled experiment with broth
-One flask was left open
- One flask was sealed up (to protect from microorganisms floating in the air)
Swan necked-experiment (1859)
-Louis Pasteur
-Proved that living things did not come from nonliving matter

Alexander Ivanovich Oparin

- Russian Scientist
- Hypothesize that the atmosphere of primitive earth contained gases like ammonia, methane, hydrogen, and water vapor
- The energy in lightning and UV rays caused these gases to combine and form chemical compounds
- These compounds are similar to what living things are made of

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey

- performed experiment using gases suggested by Oparin
- He introduced electrical sparks into the mixture
-After a few days, molecules similar to amino acids were formed
- This experiment suggested that living cells may have risen on early earth through series of chemical combinations of
these organic compounds

The Cellular Basis of Life

Robert Hooke (1665)

-Discovered cell from a cork made from bark of an oak tree
-Coined the term cell (cellulae), meaning small room

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1647)

-A Dutch naturalist
-Observed the “animalcules” under a simple microscope
-First to see individual cells and recognized them as living units

Robert Brown (1831)

-Discovered nucleus Cell Theory as a description living systems
1. All living things are made up of cells. (Schleiden and Schwann, 1838-39)
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of organization for all organisms (Schleiden and Schwann, 1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells (Virchow, 1858)

Chemical Bases of Life

“The cell consists entirely of chemical substances”
Of the 118 known elements today, only 4 elements constitute about 98% of living matter: O, C, H, N
Oxygen is the most abundant in the cell

Differentiating Inorganic and Organic Compounds

Inorganic Compounds Organic Compounds
Do not contain C-H bond Contain C-H bond
Mineral in Nature Biological in Nature
Have higher melting and boiling point Have low melting and boiling point
More soluble in water and other polar solvents Less soluble in water and other polar solvents
Less soluble in polar solvents More soluble in nonpolar solvents
Smaller and less complex in structure

Inorganic Compounds
1. Water
2. Acids and Bases
3. Salts
Organic Compounds
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Nucleic Acids
4. Proteins

A polymer
- a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks called a monomer
- Specific monomers make up each macromolecule
- Except for lipids
- E.g. amino acids are the monomers for proteins

Carbohydrates Dietary energy; storage; Monosaccharides: glucose,

plant structure fructose; Disaccharides:
lactose, sucrose;
Polysaccharide: starch,
cellulose

Monosaccharide
Nucleic Acids Information storage DNA, RNA

Nucleotide
Proteins Enzymes, structure, Lactase (an enzyme);
storage, contraction, hemoglobin (a transport
transport, etc. protein)

Amino acid
Lipids Long-term energy storage Fats (triglycerides); steroids
(fats); hormones (steroids) (testosterone, estrogen)

Components of triglyceride

Lipids
- Hydrophobic
-Non-polar (NO CHARGE)

Cytology- study of cells

Two types of cells make up every organism
- Prokaryotic (Bacteria and Archaebacteria)
- Eukaryotic (Protist, Fungi, Plant, Animal)
Prokaryotic cells
- Do not contain a nucleus
- Have their DNA located in region called the nucleoid
Eukaryotic cells
- Contain a true nucleus, bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
- Are generally quite a bit bigger than prokaryotic cells

Cellular parts

1. The Plasma Membrane

- Functions as a selective barrier (Semipermeable)
- Allows sufficient passage of nutrients and waste
- Boundary between cell and external boundary
- Fluid mosaic model
- Changes its shape when needed

2. The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell

- Contains most of the genes (DNA) in the eukaryotic (command center of the cell)
- Spherical organelle, but in some like in white blood cells are not
-Fungal Cell (polynucleated)
-Largest organelle in an animal cell
- Encloses by a double layer of perforated nuclear membrane
- The outer layer is continuous with the ER
- The nuclear pores allow the passage of small water-soluble molecules
The nuclear envelope
- Encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm
- It contains nucleolus inside which synthesizes ribosomes and rRNA
3. The Cytoplasm (Cytosol)
- Found inside the cell membrane
- Surrounds the nucleus
- Where most life processes occur
- Where organelles are located
- Compose of water, salts, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other chemicals
4. Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
- Carry out protein synthesis (protein factories)
-Are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
Free ribosomes
- Produce proteins needed in the cytosol
Bound ribosomes
- For proteins integrated in the membrane and for export outside the cell
5. The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthesis Factory
- Is continuous with the nuclear envelope
- Folded membranes that serves as channels through which materials are transported in the cell
6. The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
- Manufacture, process, and package of certain macromolecules
- Packaging factories of the cell
7. Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Converts food molecules into energy
- A smooth outer membrane
- An inner membrane folded into cristae
- The spaces inside are called matrix and the intermembrane space
8. Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments (Suicidal bag of the cell)
- Is a membranous sac of strong hydrolytic enzymes
- Can digest all kinds of macromolecules
- Digest bacteria and other foreign substances
- Lysosomes carry intracellular digestion by Phagocytosis
9. Chloroplast: Capture Light Energy
- Are specialized member of a family closely related plant organelles called plastids
- Contain chlorophyll
- Found in plants NOT animals
- Are the sites of photosynthesis
10. The Cell Wall
- Located outside the cell membrane, protective layer of the cell
- Plant cell wall: made up of cellulose
- Bacteria wall: made up of peptidoglycan
- Fungal cell wall: made up of chitin
11. Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
- Fluid-filled cavities
- Tonoplast-membrane
- In plant cell, it contributes to maintain the size and turgidity of the cell
- Can be a food, contractile, and central vacuole
a. Food vacuoles
- Are formed by phagocytosis
- Digest food
b. Contractile vacuoles
- Pump excess water out of protist
- Are found in plant cells
c. Central vacuole
- Hold reserves
- Can take up to 30%-90% of cell’s volume
- Contains cell sap
12. Cytoskeleton: Mechanical support, network of fibers
- Microfilament (Actin)
- Intermediate filament (Keratin)
- Microtubules (Tubulin)
* Microfilaments (Actin filaments) which are the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, are used to give shape to the
cell and support all of its internal parts.

Animal Cell Vs. Plant Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell
Has centrioles No centrioles
Has cilia No cilia
Has lysosome No lysosome
No cell wall Has cell wall
No central vacuole Has central vacuole
No chloroplasts (plastids) Has chloroplasts (plastids)

Cellular transport
There are two types of cellular transport
1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport

A. Passive Transport
- A diffusion of a substance across a membrane with NO ENERGY INVESTMENT
- CO2, H2O, O2 easily diffuse across plasma membranes
- Move from high to low concentration (concentration gradient)
- Can be diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

1. Diffusion
- Is the tendency for molecules of any substance to spread out evenly into the available space
- Move from high to low concentration (concentration gradient)
- Goes with the concentration gradient
2. Facilitated diffusion
- It is a type of Passive Transport aided by Transport proteins
- Transport proteins speed the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane
3. Osmosis
- Is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane (diffusion of water)
- Is affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved substances called the solution’s tonicity
a. Hypotonic solution
- The concentration of solutes outside the cell is lower than the inside of the cell
- Plant: Turgid (Turgur Pressure)
- Animal: Swell, Burst, Lysed
b. Isotonic Solution
- The concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as it is inside the cell
- There will be NO NET movement of WATER.
c. Hypertonic Solution
- The concentration of solutes outside the cell is greater than the inside of the cell
- Plant: The cell will lose water (PLASMOLYSIS)
-Animal: Shrink, Shriveled, Dehydrated

B. Active transport
- Uses energy to move solutes against their concentration gradients
- Requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
- Ion pumps, cotransport, bulk transport (exocytosis, endocytosis)

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis- the entire process of capturing light energy to produce food-energy rich organic molecules (plants,
algae, and other chlorophyll-bearing organisms) from carbon dioxide
Three vital energy conversions:
1. Conversion of light energy to electron energy
2. Conversion of electron energy to short storage (ATP)
3. Conversion of ATP to long-term energy storage (sugars)

Needed materials: Sunlight, Water, Carbon dioxide

Waste product: Oxygen
End product: Sugar

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from food
There are two types of cellular respiration:
1. Aerobic Respiration
2. Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration
- Requires oxygen
- Water and CO2 are the waste products
- 36-38 ATP in all
Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)
- In the absence of oxygen, fermentation releases energy from food molecules by producing ATP
- Happens in the cytoplasm
- In humans, for short, quick bursts of energy, the body uses ATP already in muscles as well as ATP made by lactic acid
fermentation (produces lactic acid)
- In yeast, alcoholic fermentation (produces alcohol-ethanol or ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide)
ATP- Adenosine Triphosphate: Energy Currency of the Cell

Taxonomy
Levels of Taxonomic classification (Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti)
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species

Carolus Linnaeus
- Father of Modern Taxonomy
- Proposed the binomial nomenclature

Kingdoms and Domains

Virus- Not living, inert chemicals
- Has capsid- protein shell that protects the virus genome
- Retrovirus- has RNA instead of DNA for genetic material- e.g. HIV
- DNA virus- has DNA for genetic material
A. DOMAIN ARCHEA:
1. KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
- Organisms that belong to this kingdom are all microscopic
- They live in various places, some even in the most severe environments
-Methanogens, Halophiles, and Thermophiles are examples of archeabacteria
B. DOMAIN BACTERIA
1. KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
- Members of eubacteria are unicellular and microscopic
- They referred toa s the true bacteria and are usually called the “bacteria” group
- Their cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, a carbohydrate with protein
C. DOMAIN EUKARYA
1. KINGDOM PROTISTS
- Protists differ in size, movement and method of obtaining energy
- Though most protists are microscopic, some can grow to as high as several meters
- Protozoans, diatoms, various types of algae (green, golden, brown, red algae)
2. KINGDOM FUNGI
- Fungi undergo asexual reproduction by forming buds and many spores. Actually, the black thing you see in fungi are
spores in large numbers
- All are heterotrophic
- These spores are abundant in the environment as they are carried easily by wind, water, animals, or humans
- Fungi, molds, mushroom, yeasts, mildews, microsporidia
3. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
- Animalia consists of two major groups, the invertebrates and vertebrates. Invertebrates lack backbone, which is
present in vertebrates
- All are heterotrophic
Invertebrates (no backbones)
a. PORIFERA (phylum Porifera)- pore-bearing, simplest; body of calcium carbonate; aquatic:sponges
b. CNIDARIANS (phylum Cnidaria)- hydrostatic skeleton; have stinging cells (nematocyst): jellyfish, coral, hydra
c. ARTHROPODS (phylum Arthropoda)- jointed legs; segmented bodies: insects- mosquito, crustaceans, arachnid-
spiders, butterflies, centipede, millipede
d. NEMATODES (phylum Nematoda)- worms with rough outer covering with a mouth and anus; unsegmented:
pinworm, Ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm
e. PLATYHELMINTHS- flat, worms have soft tissues; unsegmented: flatworms, flukes, tapeworms
f. ANNELIDS (phylum Annelida)- segmented worms, Leech, Earthworms, Bristle worms
g. MOLLUSK (phylum Mollusca)- with soft bodies (usu. w/ shells): squids, clams, snails, octopi
h. ECHINODERMS (phylum Echinodermata)- spiny body: sea star, sea urchin, sand dollars, sea cucumber, brittle
star

Chordates (invertebrate chordate- without backbone, vertebrate chordate- with backbone)

i. CHORDATA (phylum Chordata)
- FISH (Pisces)- scales, gills, fins: sharks, lampreys
-AMPHIBIANS (Amphibia)- part of their life cycle in water: frogs, caecilians, salamander
-REPTILES (Reptilia)- eggs, scaly bodies, ectoderm: crocodile, snake
-BIRDS (Aves)- 2 scaly legs, wings, feathers, endotherms: penguin, ostrich, duck
-MAMMALS (Mammalia)- mammary glands, hairs, milk: human, platypus, marsupials
Walrus- Marine mammals that have long ivory tusks and lives in arctic environment:
4. KINGDOM PLANTAE
- They are multicellular and because they have chlorophyll, they can make their own food.
- Plants consist of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport water and food (nonvascular) and those
that have this transport system (vascular)

Nonvascular Plants (Atracheophyte)

- No vascular or conducting tissues
- They have root-like structure called rhizoid
- First colonized dry lands
- Found in moist places
- Phylum Bryophyta (moss)
- Phylum Hepaticophyta (liverworts)
- Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

Vascular Plants
Vascular plants can be:
A. Seedless
B. Seed plants
1. Angiosperms
I. Monocot
II. Dicot
2. Gymnosperms
Vascular plants have xylem and phloem
a. Xylem
- Conducts most of the water and minerals
- Includes dead cells called tracheids and vessel elements
b. Phloem
- Distribute sugars, amino acids and other organic products
- Consists of living cells; sieve cells (horizontal), companion cell (vertical)
Seedless Vascular Plants
Seedless vascular plants
- Including club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts
- Including ferns
- Including whisk ferns
- Including horsetails
Angiosperms
- Most abundant and widely distributed plants
- Flowering plants
- Flowers contains reproductive cells
- Bears fruits to protect the seed
- Can be monocot, dicot

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

Flower- reproductive organ of flowering plant
- Pollination- transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower
- Cross pollination- from one plant to the other plant
- Self-pollination- pollination from same flower
Fertilization- union of sex cells (gametes)
- Pollen tube grows on the style into the ovary for sperm to fertilize egg
The Flower
-Sepals, collectively called the calyx, protect the flower bud before it opens
-Petals, collectively called the corolla
-The petals often attract a particular pollinator
-Stamen, male part
- anther, a saclike container
- filament, a slender stalk
- Pollen grains develop from microspores produced in the anther
-Carpel, female part
- the stigma, an enlarged sticky knob
- the style, a slender stalk
-the ovary, an enlarged base that encloses one or more ovules

-Ovule becomes the seed

- Ovary becomes the fruit
- Fruit is instrumental in the distribution of seeds

Seed Vascular Plants: Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms
- Greek words gymnos (naked), sperma (seed)
- Gymnosperms have “naked seeds”
- Seeds are not enclosed by fruit
- The four groups of living gymnosperms are conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

 Plant Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction- vegetative reproduction
Runners- Horizontal stems, new roots and shoots develop at the node. Also known as stolon
- strawberry, Bermuda grass
Tubers- Underground stems that store food for the plant, the “eyes” are the stem’s nodes, and each eye contains a
cluster of buds
- Potatoes, peonies, dahlias
Rhizomes- Resemble stolons because they grow as horizontal stem from plant to plant. Some rhizomes are compressed
and fleshy
- Ginger
Bulbs- which are shortened, compressed underground stem surrounded by fleshy scales (leaves) that envelop a central
bud at the tip of the stem
- Tulips, lilies, and onions
Corms- another kind of below ground stem, are shaped like bulbs, do not contain fleshy scale, solid, swollen with dry,
scale-like leaves
- Taro (Colocasia)
Underground roots- Carrots, Sweet potatoes (camote), Yam, (ube), and cassava

Animal Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction

Earthworm
- Hermaphroditic/monoecious- both male and female organs are found in the same worm
- Clitellum- contains egg
- During copulation, one worm passes its sperms into the seminal vesicle of another, at the same time receives
sperms into its own receptacle
Frog
- The eggs are fertilized in the water
- Non-amniotic
Chicken
- the rooster (male) places the opening of his reproductive organ against the opening of the hen’s (female)
- the hen drops the fertilized egg (surrounded by yolk) out of her body and incubates it

Animal Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction

Budding
- The parent organism produces offsprings by growing a replica in the form of an outgrowth called bud
- e.g. Hydra, sponges
Fragmentation
- Separated pieces of the parent organism can develop into an individual
- e.g. Sea star, flatworms

Asexual Reproduction in Other Organisms

Fission
- the individual divides into two, halves
- e.g. Paramecium

Biotechnology
Biotechnology
-Modification of biological process through human intervention
- Can be done through genetic engineering
- Genetic engineering
- The recipient becomes GMO (genetically modified organism)- transgenic organism
Bt Corn
- A variant of maize that is genetically altered to express the bacteria Bt (Bacillus thuringensis) toxin which is poisonous
to corn borer
Application of genetic engineering
1. Resistance to insecticides and to drought
2. Fruits with improve taste, texture, size, and color
3. With improve protein contents
Bioremediation- the use of biotechnology to solve environmental problems
- Oil eating bacteria- used in cleaning up oil spills.

Human Systems
Digestive System
- Physical digestion: mouth and stomach
- Peristalsis- Wave-like muscle contractions that move food
Chemical digestion: breakdown of large food molecules
- Mouth
- Pharynx
-Throat
-Esophagus
- Peristalsis occurs
-Stomach
- Chyme (mixed food and gastric juices)
-Small intestine
- Enzymes: lipase, trypsin
- Composed of duodenum- most active part, ilium, jejunum
-Large intestine
- Colon, water, absorption, production of Vitamin K, ends in rectum
-Anus
- Passageway in defecation
-Accessory Organs
- Salivary gland
- Liver- creates bile (emulsion of fats)
- Gall Bladder- stores bile
- Pancreas- secrete pancreatic amylase for final digestion of starch

Circulatory system
- Transport blood from the heart to the lungs to oxygenate blood then to other parts of the body
-Vein- blood back to the heart
-Artery- blood away to heart
-Heart- pumps blood
- Blood- contains of blood cells (RBC, WBC, Platelets), plasma

Respiratory system
- Supplies body with oxygen, and release CO2 as waste
- Inspiration- Inhale, takes oxygen in
-Expiration- Exhale, releases CO2 out
-Nose- warms and moisten air, traps dirt
-Pharynx- (throat)- passageway for both air and food
-Epiglottis- prevents the entrance of food to trachea
- Larynx- voice box
- Adam’s apple in males
-Trachea- (Windpipe) cartilaginous, traps and sweeps out dirt through cilia
- Bronchi and bronchioles- branch off to each lung
- Lungs- the main organ of respiratory system two structures that house the bronchi and alveoli, and other related
structures
- Diaphragm- dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs

Lymphatic system
- Immune system
- Defends body against pathogens and diseases
- White blood cells, lymph nodes, and skin

Endocrine system
- Regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, homeostasis through hormones
- Regulates other organs

Reproductive system
- Male: Penis, Testes, Vas deferens, Epididymis, Scrotum, Prostate glands, Seminal vesicles, Bulbourethral gland
-Female: Ovaries, Oviduct, Uterus, Cervix, Vagina, Labia

Nervous system
- Regulates behavior, maintains homeostasis, controls sensory and motor functions
- Memory and emotions
- Spinal cord, brain
- Faster than endocrine system
- Neurons -the basic unit
- Central Nervous system
- Cerebrum: voluntary activities, largest, intelligences, learning, judgment
-Cerebellum: little brain, involuntary, balance, coordination
-Brain stem- connects brain and spinal cord, involuntary, life sustaining activities: breathing, heart rate, blood
pressure, swallowing
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
- Peripheral nervous system
- the nerves

Skeletal System
- Protects and supports body parts
- Framework
- Blood cell production on bone marrow
- Calcium and phosphorous storage
- Bones
- Two division of skeletal system
- Axial: central axis includes skull, vertebrae, and rib cage
- Appendicular- arms and legs

Muscular system
- Moves limbs and trunk
- Moves substances through the body
Three types of Muscular tissues
- Smooth muscle- involuntary, non-striated
- Cardiac muscle- involuntary, striated
- Skeletal muscle- voluntary, striated

Excretory system
- Removes metabolic waste from the body
- Lungs- water vapor and carbon dioxide
- Liver- Urea
- Skin- sweat (water, salt, urea)
- Kidney- water, urea, and other metabolic wastes
- Nephron- functional unit of kidneys
- Filtration happens in glomerulus
- Reabsorption happens in the loop of henle

Integumentary system
- Body covering
- Protects loss of internal fluids and from UV rays
- Body temperature regulation
- Elimination of some wastes
- Nails, skin, hair

Death: Postmortem Changes

1. Livor Mortis
- Known as hypostasis
- the blood settles because of gravity
- Skin becomes pinkish, bluish, blotchy
- Blanching
2. Rigor Mortis
- Chemical changes cause muscle mass to become rigid
- After Rigor Mortis, chemical breakdown and muscles become flaccid
3. Algor Mortis
-Body cooling from normal internal temperature to the temperature of the environment

-Decomposition- is a process of autolysis and putrefaction

- Autolysis- or self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its enzymes
- Putrefaction- Breakdown of tissues and liquefaction of most organ

Evolution
- A population evolves because the population contains the collection of genes called gene pool
- As changes in the gene pool occurs, a population evolves (allele frequency changes)

Evidences of evolution
- Fossils
- Embryological evidence
- Homologous structure
- DNA and protein sequence

Homologous Structures and Analogous Structures

- Homologous structure are organs having similar structure, like arms of human being and forelimb of a horse
- Analogous organs are organs having similar functions but they have different structures and different origins

Mechanisms of Evolution
Mutation
- A driving force of evolution
- A random change in a population’s gene pool
-Gene flow
- it occurs during migration of individuals from one group to another
-Genetic drift
- Random changes in the gene pool (allele frequency) of a small population
-Natural Selection
- The fittest survive and contribute their genes to their offspring
- Fitness- how well an organism survives and the success in passing genes to the next generation through reproduction

Ecosystem
Ecosystem
- Refers to the interaction group of natural elements and the organisms in a given environment
- Relationship between living (biotic) things and non-living (abiotic) things

Biotic Components of Ecosystem

Producers
- Green plants and some photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria
- Autotrophs
Consumers
- obtain food from producers, heterotrophs
- Herbivores- organisms that graze directly on producers
- Carnivores- feed on other animals
- Omnivores- animals that feed on both plants and animals
- Scavengers (detritivores)- feed on dead remains of animals
- Decomposers/ Saprophytes
- bacteria, fungi
- Break down dead organisms

Abiotic Components of Ecosystem

Sunlight
- Primary source of energy
Temperature
- Hotness or coldness
Water
- Universal solvent, basis of life
Wind
- Movement of air
Atmospheric gases

Food Chain, Food Web, Energy Pyramid

Food Chain
- A series of organisms feeding on the one preceding it
-Food Web
- Network of feeding interactions among species
- feeding connections between all life forms
-Energy Pyramid
- 10% rule

Basic Controls that govern Population size

Environment
- Physical environment (food, shelter, space, water, etc.)
- Biological environment
- Competition
- Predation
- Symbiosis
- Mutualism (+, +)
- Parasitism (+, -)
- Commensalism (+, neither harmed nor benefited)

Biomes
Tundra
- Treeless
- Very cold winters and brief growing seasons
- Permafrost- permanently frozen soil
- Flora: lichens, mosses grasses
- Fauna: insects, migratory birds, large migratory animals, polar bears, arctic fox, ox
- Location: Arctic, extends across North America
Taiga
- Boreal or coniferous forests
- Long, cold winters but longer growing seasons
- Flora: pine trees, spruce trees, fir trees
- Fauna: large diversity of small mammals
- Grey squirrel, fox, deer
- Location: Eastern half of North America and large part of Europe
Grasslands
- Less than 20 inches of rain per year
- Flora: annual plants and grasses
- Fauna: deer, antelope, small mammals, prairie dogs
- Location: interior of North America, Asia, South America, and Africa
Deserts
- Less than 10 inches of rain per year
- Too hot, too dry places
- Flora: succulents, cactus, and aloe
- Fauna: birds, reptiles, insects
Tropical Rain Forest
- Warm all year
- Receives 100-400 inches of rain per year
- Flora: many varieties of broad-leaved plants, bamboo, ferns
- Fauna: many animal species, monkeys, snakes, leopard
- Location: places around the equator
Marine Biome
- Includes oceans
- Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean (Antarctic), Arctic Ocean (PAISA)
Freshwater Biome
- Includes running water (lotic)
- Streams, rivers
- Includes standing waters (lentic)
- Lakes, ponds, bogs, swamps

General Science: Earth Science

Earth Science
- the study of Earth, its life supporting properties, materials, geologic process occurring in its layers
Geology
- the study of the materials and processes that operate beneath and upon the Earth’s surface
Oceanography
- The study of composition and movements of sea water, as well as coastal processes, seafloor topography, and
marine life
Meteorology
- Deals with the study of the atmosphere and the elements that produce weather and climate
Astronomy
- The study of the universe, our planet’s origin, and the members of the Solar System

Origin of the Universe

Big Bang Theory
- Universe started with a small singularity, then inflating over the next 13.8 billion years ago
Creationist Theory
- God created the universe
Oscillating Universe Theory
- George Gamow
- The expansion of the universe will eventually come to a halt
- It will collapse and will return to its original form
- Another big bang will occur (a cycle)
Steady-State Theory
- The universe has always been the same

Origin of Solar System

1. Encounter Hypothesis
- A rouge star passed close to the Sun
2. Nebular Hypothesis
- A large cloud of gas that contracts under self-gravity
3. Protoplanet Hypothesis
- a great cloud of gas and dust rotated slowly in space
 Solar System: Planets
General Characteristics
- All revolve around the sun in the same direction
- Revolves eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise)
- All rotate (spin on the axis) in the same direction (except Venus)
- Rotates eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise)
Solar System: Inner Planets
Mercury
- 1 revolution: 88 earth days
- Very little atmosphere because of low gravity
- 315˚ C- day
- Negative 149˚ C- night
Venus
- The brightest planet in our Solar System
- Evening star (March and April)
- Morning star (September and October)
- 243 Earth days= revolution
- Up to 480˚ C
- Twin planet of Earth
Earth
- Blue planet
- 365 days
- Tilted axis 23.5˚
- Located in the habitable zone
- The only planet with life
- Its rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge). These make the shape of the earth an oblique spheroid
Mars
- Red planet
- 2 Earth years= 1 revolution
-30˚ C- day
- -130˚ C-night
- Two small moons: Phobos and Deimos
- Closest planet of our Earth
Solar System: Asteroid Belt
Asteroid belt
- Located between Mars and Jupiter
- Failed to become a planet
- Grained sized up to hundreds of kilometers in diameter
- Ceres- Largest asteroid
- Hermes- closest asteroid to the Earth
Solar System: Jovian Planets/ Gas Planets
Jupiter
- Largest Planet
- Ringed Planet
- 67 moons
- Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto
Saturn
- The ringed planet (made of ice, rocks, dust)
- 4 major rings and hundreds of ringlets
- has 62 moons
Uranus
- has at least 27 moons
- 13 known rings
Neptune
- Has at least 8 moons
- Ringed planet
- Fourth largest planet
- Colored blue due to methane

Solar System: Dwarf Planet

Pluto
- 1960-2006
- Largest body in the Kuiper belt (Oort Cloud)
- 5 moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, Styx
- Highly elliptical orbit

Solar System: Earth’s Moon

The Moon
- 1/6 of the Earth’s gravity
- ¼ of the Earth’s size
- Formed from the bombardment and volcanic activity filled with lava to produce a surface
- Rotation: 27 1/3 days
- Revolution: 27 1/3 days
- The rotational rate matches the rate of revolution; thus, the same side of the moon is always facing the Earth
Phases of the Moon
- repeats every 29.5 days
- Has 8 phases
1. New Moon- not seen in the night sky
2. Waxing Crescent
3. First Quarter
4. Waxing Gibbous
5. Waning Gibbous
6. Last Quarter
7. Waning Gibbous
8. Waning Crescent
Lunar Eclipse
- Earth’s shadow fall on the Moon
S-E-M
Solar Eclipse
- Moon’s shadow fall on the Earth
S-M-E
Neap Tides
- Regular heights of high tide and low tide
Spring Tide
- Highest tide
- Lowest tide
Perigee- moon closest to the Earth
Apogee- moon farthest from the Earth
Lunar Missions
- Lyka- first animal sent in space
- Apollo 11, first successful manned mission to the moon
- Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin- first men on the moon (July 16, 1969, 8:18 PM)- Apollo 11 mission

Solar System: The Sun

The Sun
- Yellow Star
- Thermonuclear fusion- H+H= He+ energy
-Photosphere- visible surface of the Sun, what we see, the diameter of the sun is taken
- Chromosphere- color sphere, region of prominence seen during eclipse
- Corona- outermost region, a crown of light
- Sunspots- created by strong magnetic fields, cooler, and darker portion of the Sun’s surface

The Universe
Asteroid—Meteoroid—Meteor—Meteorite
- Meteoroid- small debris chipped off from an asteroid
- Meteor- when it enters the atmosphere
- Meteorite- when it hits the land
Comets
- means long-haired
- small body of rock, iron, ice, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide that orbit the sun elliptically
- Nucleus called coma
- the tail points away from the sun in a slightly curve manner due to solar winds
- Halley’s comet appears every 76 years
Star
- A ball of hydrogen and helium
- Constellation: group of stars forming recognizable pattern
- Proxima Centauri- nearest star
- Sirius- brightest star
- VY Canis Majoris- Largest known star
- Northern Star- Polaris of the Ursa Minor (Little Bear)

Philippine Satellite
Diwata 1 (PHL-Microsat-1)
- First Philippine microsatellite built and designed by Filipinos
- Launched date: March 23, 2016
- Mission type: Earth’s observation (non-military)

The Earth’s History

The History of the Earth is recorded in the rocks of the crust
Uniformitarianism
- states that the natural laws we know today have been constant over the geologic past
Relative Dating
- Approximate dates
- Original horizontality
- Superposition
- Cross-cutting
- Inclusion
Radiometric Dating
- The actual age of rock by measuring the radioactivity of its carbon
Eon-Era-Period-Epoch
Precambrian (Archean and Proterozoic Eon)
Phanerozoic Eon (covers 570 mya of Earth’s history)
- Paleozoic (“ancient life”)
- 7 periods
- Mesozoic (“Middle life”)
- 3 periods
- Cenozoic (“recent life”)
- 2 periods
Precambrian
- It means before Cambrian
- Beginning of Earth- 544 mya
- Before Paleozoic era
- 90% of all geologic time
-Archaean Eon
-Proterozoic Eon
Phanerozoic Eon (Paleozoic Era- Ancient Life)
1. Cambrian Period
- 544-505 mya
- The earliest period of the Paleozoic era
- Cambria (Roman name for whales) where rock of this age is first studied
- Trilobites
- Earliest primitive fish
2. Ordovician Period
- 505-440 mya
- The second earliest period of Paleozoic era
- Celtic tribe Ordovices
- Primitive Plants
- North America under shallow sea
3. Silurian Period
- 440-410 mya
- Celtic tribe Silures
- First jaw fished, centipedes, millipedes
- First vascular plants
4. Devonian Period
- 410-360 mya
- Devonshire, England where rocks of this age were first studied
- Age of Fishes
- Fishes and Land plant abundant and diverse
- First amphibians
- Sharks and bony fish
5. Carboniferous Period
- 360-286 mya
-Pennsylvanian Period (325-286 mya)
- The coal age
- Mississippian Period (360-325 mya)
- First winged insects, first reptiles, cockroaches
- Lycopods
6. Permian Period
- 286-248 mya
- Age of Amphibians
- Amphibians and reptiles dominant
- Continents merge into super continent Pangaea
- Mass Extinction (50% animals, 95% marine species)
Phanerozoic Eon (Mesozoic Era- Middle/ Medieval life)
1. Triassic Period
- 248-213 mya
- Refers to the threefold divisions of rocks of this age in Germany
- The first break up of Pangaea
- First dinosaurs and mammals
- True flies first appear
2. Jurassic Period
- 213-145 mya
- Jura mountains (between France and Switzerland) where rocks of this age were first studied
- Age of Dinosaur
- First birds (Archaeopteryx)
- First flowering plants
3. Cretaceous Period
- 145-66 mya
- Feathered dinosaurs
- Earliest butterflies
- Snakes
- Large mass extinction (due to asteroid impact)
Phanerozoic Eon (Cenozoic Era- Recent life/ New life)
1. Tertiary Period
- Paleogene
- Paleocene Epoch (65- 55.5 mya)
- First hooved mammals
- Eocene Epoch (55.5- 33.7 mya)
- First whales, rodents appear
- Oligocene Epoch (33.7- 23.8 mya)
- Early formation of European Alps
-Neogene
- Miocene Epoch (23.8- 5.3 mya)
- First dogs and bears
- Pliocene Epoch (5.3- 1.8 mya)
- First Hominid
2. Quaternary Period
- Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 mya- 8,000 ya)
- Modern Humans
- Mammoths
- Saber-toothed Cats
- Mass extinction- Ice Age
- Holocene Epoch (8,000 ya- Present)
- Sea level rise as climate warmed
- First civilization
 Earth
The Earth is divided into the following spheres: Lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
A. Lithosphere
Lithosphere: Layers of the Earth
The Earth’s Layer
1. Core- innermost, central part of the Earth
- The liquid outer core is primarily made up of iron and nickel
- The inner core is primarily made up of iron and is solid
2. Mantle- rocky, made up of Si, O, Fe, Mg, Ca, denser than crust
- Upper Part: Moho or Mohorovicic discontinuity (Andrija Mohorovicic)
- Lower Part: Gutenberg discontinuity (Beno Gutenberg)
3. Crust- Earth’s surface, outermost layer of the Earth- diatomaceous earth (alumno-silicates)
- Oceanic crust- thinner layer, the rocks are younger and denser, forms the ocean basins, made of basaltic rock
- Continental crust- thicker layer, forms the continent and shallow water close to the shores, made of granite rocks
Lithosphere: Changes in the Lithosphere
- Continental drift theory (Alfred Wegener)
- Pangaea- super continent
- Evidence by jigsaw-like shapes of South America and Africa
- Seafloor Spreading
- Seafloor spreads and goes down in some places creating trenches and ridges
- Plate Tectonics
- Convergent plate boundary: 2 tectonic plates collide
- Divergent plate boundary: 2 tectonic plates drift apart
- Transform plate boundary: 2 tectonic plates slide past with each other
- Subduction
- One plate goes the other
- Folding
- Producing fold through pressure
- Faulting
- Formation of cracks in crust layers
- Normal fault: hanging wall block moves downward relative to the footwall
-Reverse fault: hanging wall block moves upward relative to the footwall
- Strike-slip/ lateral fault: horizontal movement, causes devasting earthquake
-Diastrophism
- Refers to the movement of the earth’s crust. It involves the formation of faults and folds which are both involved in
mountain building. It also explains occurrence of earthquakes.
Earthquake- any movement of the ground due to volcanic eruption and fault
-Focus- the point of origin where the movement of fault happens
- Epicenter- the place above the focus
a. Magnitude: measurement of energy released, Richter Scale
b. Intensity: the damage produced and the reaction of people, Mercalli Intensity Scale
Lithosphere: Minerals and Rocks
Mineral- defined as a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid element or compound composed of an ordered
arrangement of atoms with specific chemical composition
Physical Properties of Minerals
- Luster
- Hardness
- Moh’s Scale of Hardness
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
- Streak
- Cleavage
- Fracture
- Color
- Specific gravity
Ore- mineral deposit
1. Pitchblende- Ore of Uranium
2. Magnetite- Ore of Iron
3. Galena- Ore of Lead
4. Chromite- Ore of Chrome
Rock is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals
Rocks can be classified based on their origin into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
1. Igneous rock is formed by the process of crystallization. It is formed from hardened magma or lava.
2. Sedimentary rock
- Formed by the process of lithification
- Involves compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to the pressure exerted by the layers of sediment
above
- Involves cementation that involves the action of chemicals that bind these sediments together
- Coal
- Peat- decayed vegetation
- Lignite- soft brown coal
- Bituminous- black coal
-Anthracite- dark- black coal, having highest-heat value among the four
3. Metamorphic rock
- Formed from previously existing rock such as igneous and sedimentary rocks
- Subjected to heat and pressure, metamorphism
- Slate, Schist, Gneiss, Marble