Definition of Language
What is Language?
Language is a system of conventional vocal signs through which human beings communicate.
Key Point: Language ≠ Communication
• Communication is any transfer of information (broad concept)
• Language is a specific, complex system with unique properties
Essential Characteristics of Human Language
1. Arbitrariness
Definition: There is no natural or logical connection between a linguistic sign (word) and what it
represents.
What this means:
• The relationship between words and their meanings is based on convention, not nature
• Different languages use completely different sounds for the same concept
Examples:
• English: "tree" | Spanish: "árbol" | Tagalog: "puno" | Mandarin: "shù" (树)
• English: "dog" | French: "chien" | Japanese: "inu" | Arabic: "kalb"
Exceptions:
• Onomatopoeia (words that imitate sounds): "buzz," "meow," "bang"
• But even these vary across languages!
o English dog: "woof woof"
o Japanese dog: "wan wan"
o Spanish dog: "guau guau"
Why it matters: Arbitrariness gives language flexibility to express abstract concepts like "justice,"
"love," "democracy," and "imagination."
2. Duality of Patterning (Double Articulation)
Definition: Language operates at TWO levels simultaneously:
1. Level 1: Meaningless sounds (phonemes)
2. Level 2: Meaningful combinations (morphemes/words)
How it works:
Level 1 - Individual sounds have NO meaning:
• /k/ = meaningless
• /æ/ = meaningless
• /t/ = meaningless
Level 2 - Combined sounds CREATE meaning:
• /k/ + /æ/ + /t/ = cat (meaning!)
• /t/ + /æ/ + /k/ = tack (different meaning!)
The Power of Duality:
• English uses only ~44 distinct sounds (phonemes)
• These 44 sounds can combine to create hundreds of thousands of words
• Same sounds, different arrangements = different meanings
More Examples:
• Sounds: /p/, /æ/, /t/
o "pat" = to touch gently
o "tap" = to strike lightly
o "apt" = appropriate
3. Displacement
Definition: The ability to communicate about things that are NOT present in the immediate here and
now.
We can talk about:
• The past: "Yesterday, I went to the mall."
• The future: "Next year, I'll graduate."
• Distant places: "My friend lives in Australia."
• Hypothetical situations: "If I were rich, I'd travel the world."
• Imaginary things: "Dragons breathe fire."
• Abstract concepts: "Freedom is important."
Why this is revolutionary:
• Allows knowledge sharing across generations
• Enables planning and learning from history
• Makes literature, science, and philosophy possible
• Fundamental to human culture and civilization
Human Language vs. Animal Communication
Examples of Animal Communication Systems
1. Honeybee Dance
• What they do: Perform a "waggle dance" to indicate flower locations
• Limitations:
o Only communicates about food location
o Tied to immediate/present information
o Cannot discuss past or hypothetical situations
o No creativity or novel messages
o Lacks: Displacement, duality, creativity
2. Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls
• What they do: Different calls for different predators (eagle, leopard, snake)
• Limitations:
o Fixed set of calls (cannot create new ones)
o Tied to immediate danger only
o Cannot combine calls to create new meanings
o Lacks: Duality, displacement, productivity
3. Bird Songs
• What they do: Complex songs, some species can learn new songs
• Limitations:
o Limited information (territory, mating)
o No arbitrary symbols
o Cannot discuss abstract ideas
o Lacks: Arbitrariness, displacement, full productivity
Key Takeaways
1. Language is uniquely human - no animal communication system has all the properties of
human language
2. Three essential properties define human language:
o Arbitrariness: No natural connection between words and meanings
o Duality of Patterning: Meaningless sounds combine to create meaning
o Displacement: Can discuss things not present in time or space
3. These properties enable:
o Infinite expression from finite elements
o Cultural transmission and knowledge sharing
o Abstract thought and complex civilization
Vocabulary to Know
• Arbitrariness: The lack of natural connection between linguistic signs and their meanings
• Duality of Patterning: Language operating at two levels (meaningless sounds and meaningful
combinations)
• Displacement: The ability to communicate about things removed in time or space
• Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning
• Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning
• Productivity/Creativity: The ability to create and understand unlimited novel sentences
• Cultural Transmission: Language must be learned from one's community (not purely
instinctive)