FISIX

The following equations describe motion in one dimension with constant acceleration, often referred to
as the SUVAT equations (where S is displacement, U is initial velocity, V is final velocity, A is acceleration,
and T is time):
Acceleration
a= v-u⁄t

Time
t= v-u⁄a

Final Velocity
v=u+at

Initial Velocity
u=v-at

Basic Velocity
Velocity displacement/time

ENERGY FORMULAS
m=mass g=gravitational acceleration (9.8m/s2) h=height v=velocity

Kinetic Energy= 0.5xmv2

Gravitational Potential Energy= mxgxh
Weight= gxm
TYPES OF ENERGY: Kinetic, potential, mechanical, gravitational, Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE),
thermal, chemical, nuclear, elastic, electric, magnetic.
Displacement: the change in an object's position relative to a reference point. Unlike distance, which
measures the total path traveled, displacement only considers the shortest straight-line movement from
the starting point to the ending point.

Distance: the length of a path between two points.

Converting hours to seconds: hx3600=sec

Converting hours to minutes: hx60=min
Converting minutes to seconds: minx60=sec
KM/H TO M/S = (km/h)/3.6

Reaction distance = km/h x reaction time in seconds /3.6

Vector Quantity: A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Unlike
scalar quantities, vectors require both components to be fully described. E.g., displacement, acceleration,
momentum, force, and velocity.
Scalar Quantity: A scalar quantity in science is a physical quantity that is fully described by its magnitude
alone, without any direction. Scalars are contrasted with vector quantities, which have both magnitude
and direction. E.g., mass, temperature, speed, volume, time, and energy.
Newton’s laws

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: Newton’s first law (the law of inertia) states that an object at rest will remain at
rest unless acted upon by an external force. And that an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted
upon by an external force.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: Newton’s second law of force and acceleration claims that the force acting
upon an object is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration. (F=ma) (Heavier objects need more
force to move.)

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: Newton’s third law claims that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. For example, if you push against a surface (a wall), the surface will react and apply the same
force back to you, hence why the wall does not immediately break.

EARTH SCIENCES

Tectonic plates are massive sections of the Earth's lithosphere that float on the semi-fluid
asthenosphere (Mantle) beneath, driven by convection currents, influencing geological phenomena
like earthquakes, volcanic activity, and ocean currents.
Tectonic Plates Overview

Definition: Tectonic plates are rigid segments of the Earth's lithosphere (the crust and upper
mantle) that move relative to each other.
Movement: The plates move slowly (typically 2 to 15 centimeters per year) due to convection
currents in the mantle, which are caused by heat from the Earth's core
.
Types of Boundaries: There are three primary types of tectonic plate boundaries:
 ● Convergent Boundaries: Plates move towards each other, often resulting in subduction
zones where one plate moves under another, leading to volcanic activity and
earthquakes
● Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart, creating new crust as magma rises, such as at
mid-ocean ridges
● Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past one another, causing friction that can lead to
earthquakes (e.g., the San Andreas Fault)

Ocean Currents and Their Relationship with Tectonic Plates

Definition of Ocean Currents: Ocean currents are continuous, directed movements of seawater
generated by various forces, including wind, temperature differences, and gravity.
Impact of Tectonic Plates on Ocean Currents: The arrangement and movement of tectonic
plates can significantly affect ocean currents. For instance, the position of continents (resulting
from plate movements) can alter ocean circulation patterns, impacting climate and marine
ecosystems.

.
Geological Features: Ocean currents are influenced by underwater geological features created
by tectonic activity, such as mid-ocean ridges and oceanic trenches. These structures can modify
current paths and intensities.

.
Geological Phenomena Related to Tectonic Movements

Earthquakes: These occur primarily at plate boundaries due to the release of energy caused by
plate movements. Stress builds up as plates interact, leading to sudden seismic events when it is
released.

.
Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions are often found at convergent boundaries (subduction zones) and
divergent boundaries, where magma from the mantle reaches the surface

.
Mountain Building: Mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, are formed at convergent
boundaries where plates collide and push crust upwards
 ● Convection Currents: The driving force behind the movement of tectonic plates, where heated
material from the Earth's interior rises and cooler material sinks, creating a circular motion

● Seafloor Spreading: A process that occurs at divergent boundaries, where new oceanic crust is
formed as magma rises, leading to the expansion of ocean basins

.
● Plate Movements and Climate: The movements of tectonic plates not only reshape landforms
but also have significant implications for climate patterns and ocean circulation

EL Niño and LA Niña

El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of a natural climate pattern known as the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO), which affects global weather and ocean conditions.

● El Niño occurs when ocean temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific become warmer than
usual, disrupting normal weather patterns. It can lead to droughts in Australia and Southeast
Asia, heavy rainfall in South America, and warmer global temperatures.
● La Niña, on the other hand, is the cool phase, where ocean temperatures in the same region are
colder than usual. This often results in stronger trade winds, increased rainfall in Australia and
Southeast Asia, and drier conditions in South America.

These cycles typically last 9 to 12 months and occur every two to seven years. Right now, Earth is in a
neutral phase, meaning neither El Niño nor La Niña is active.

CHAPTER 6 GENERAL
THE BIOSPHERE includes all parts of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere where living things exist. It is the
sum of all the Earth’s ecosystems. The biosphere is where other spheres of the planet interact.
NITROGEN CYCLE
CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle is essential for life on Earth. Carbon is found in all living things, their dead bodies, and
their wastes. Carbon is evident in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and DNA found in cells, tissues,
and organs.
Carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis when plants combine it with hydrogen from water to form
glucose. Photosynthesis can be summarised in the following chemical equations:

RESPIRATION: In a biological sense, respiration refers to the process by which cells convert oxygen and
glucose into energy, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct. This is essential for survival and occurs in
two forms:
CARBON CYCLE:

GREENHOUSE GASES

Carbon, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs), methane

Carbon Dioxide (CO2): The most commonly produced greenhouse gas, mainly emitted from the burning
of fossil fuels. It stays in the atmosphere for centuries and significantly impacts global temperatures.
It also absorbs infrared radiation. Which is harmful to us due to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Which
keeps this radiation in and also warms up the planet.

Methane (CH4): A potent (powerful) greenhouse gas with a much stronger heat-trapping ability than
CO2, though it remains in the atmosphere for a shorter time. It comes from agriculture, livestock, and
natural gas leaks. Methane traps 100 times more heat than Carbon Dioxide within the first year of
release into the atmosphere.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O): released from agricultural activities, especially fertilizers and industrial processes. It
has a long atmospheric lifetime and contributes to the depletion of ozone. Over 100 years, Nitrous Oxide
traps 300 times more heat than Carbon Dioxide.

CFCs: A group of man-made organic compounds containing carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. CFCs are
potent greenhouse gases with a global warming potential thousands of times higher than CO₂. They are
also responsible for ozone depletion, which led to the creation of the Montreal Protocol, an international
agreement to phase them out. Although their production has significantly declined, remnants still linger
in the atmosphere. Over 100 years, CFCs have a global warming potential worth 11,000 times that of
Carbon Dioxide. These can also be called Chlorofluorocarbons. Chlorofluorocarbons eat away at the
natural ozone layer and create holes, which allow harmful UV rays to hit the Earth and affect us humans.
CFCs are broken down in the atmosphere by UV rays, which separates the particles that make up this
compound. The chlorine present in the particles of CFC breaks down ozone; a single chlorine atom can
destroy about 100,000 ozone particles before it is removed from the stratosphere.

Ozone(O3): Ozone is composed of three oxygen atoms. It is known for its “dual roles”: protecting life in
the stratosphere (the second lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere) while polluting the troposphere (the
lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere).

TROPICAL CYCLONES

Tropical cyclones develop when warm, moist air rises from the ocean surface, creating a low-pressure
system. As the air continues to rise, it cools and condenses, releasing heat that fuels the storm. The
Earth's rotation causes the system to spin, forming the characteristic cyclone shape.

These storms bring intense winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges, leading to flooding, destruction of
infrastructure, and loss of life. They can also trigger landslides and disrupt ecosystems.

Tropical cyclones play a role in redistributing heat across the planet, but they also contribute to coastal
erosion, habitat destruction, and economic damage. Rising sea levels amplify their impact, making storm
surges more dangerous.

Climate change is likely increasing the intensity of tropical cyclones. Warmer ocean temperatures provide
more energy for storms, leading to stronger winds and heavier rainfall.

There is no difference between a cyclone and a hurricane. They spin clockwise in the southern
hemisphere and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. A tornado is not the same as a cyclone,
they are two different weather phenomena.

THE CURRENT INFO ON CURRENTS

Ocean currents are the continuous movements of ocean water. Currents can be at the surface or deep
within the ocean. The main causes of currents are:
 - Wind
- Temperature
- Variations in salinity (salt levels)
- The rotation of the Earth on its axis
- The gravitational pull of the sun and the moon

SURFACE CURRENTS
The surface currents of Earth are caused by wind. Wind pushes the surface water along until it reaches
land. Then the water has to flow left or right or sometimes downwards. In major ocean basins, currents
form circular patterns known as gyres. Gyres flow in clockwise directions in the northern hemisphere and
anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Gyres are caused by the rotation of the Earth. When a current
meets land, it deflects off of it. This is called continental deflection.

DEEP CURRENTS
Deep currents begin at the poles, where extremely cold water is found. They flow through the ocean,
carrying very cold water along the bottom.

Surface currents and deep currents interact, transitioning from one to the other. This transition is known
as thermohaline circulation.

CORIOLIS EFFECT
All currents are affected by something called the Coriolis effect. This happens when the Earth interferes
with currents and their path.

AMOC (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation)

The great ocean current transports warm water from the Americas to Europe, keeping it 10 degrees
warmer than Canada and the northern USA. This is also called the AMOC (Atlantic Meridional
Overturning Circulation). Greenland is being affected by global warming, which is melting its ice. This
fresh water interferes with the AMOC, making it weaker, and will eventually have so much of an effect
that it will destroy it. This, in turn, will cause Europe to drop its average temperature by another 10
degrees, matching it with the temperature of southern Canada, which lies on the same latitude as it.