Unit 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

“Every student can learn, just not on the same day or the same way”. – George Evans

Each child develops the ability to think and

to discover the environment. This is called cognitive
development. Cognitive development refers to the
acquisition of knowledge, development of skills, and
enrichment of problem solving abilities which
facilitate the child’s capacity to think and understand
the world. Cognitive development explores the
changes in the mental abilities of children
throughout their growing years. Cognitive
development explores the changes in the mental
abilities of children throughout their growing years.
[Link]

In this module, the developing mind is discovered through the theories of Jean Piaget and
Lev Vygotsky. The module will provide answers on the nature of knowledge among children and
how their knowledge change at different pace and time. It is because experiences of children can
influence their cognitive development. It will also look into the diverse factors affecting
language and cognitive development and as well as the theories of intelligence.

This unit will be completed in 12 hours.

In this Unit, you are expected to:

1. Differentiate Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory;
2. Explain the crucial role of language to the development of higher-level thinking,
reasoning, and memory processes;
3. Understand the different factors affecting cognitive and language development;
4. Explore changes in human mind with emphasis on individual differences and
intelligence;
5. Draw implications of these cognitive development theories, theories of intelligence, and
theories of language development to education, child care, and parenting;
6. Critique researches on cognitive development of children and adolescents.
LET’S START

Try This!

Rebus puzzles are designed to test your IQ by showing words in a certain way and
you have to understand what these words try to say.

Watch this video in this link [Link]

Answer the following questions:

1. How many correct answers did you get? _____________
2. Was it difficult to answer? Why? _____________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. What helped you in getting the clues? _________________________________
4. How did you come up with your answers? ______________________________
________________________________________________________________

Topic 1. Cognitive Development Theories

A. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD.

Jean Piaget’s cognitive development

theory illustrates how young children think
differently compared to adults. Piaget’s
theory aims to describe how reasoning and
thinking develops in children following the
different stages of cognitive development.
According to Piaget, cognitive development
is an unceasing organization and
reorganization of mental process as a
product of biological maturation (nature) and [Link]
2795457 environmental experience (nurture). Piaget views children as constructivist wherein they
construct reality based on their available knowledge.
Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify and differentiate the major concepts in Piaget’s theory;
2. Discuss Piaget’s stages of cognitive development;
3. Discriminate behaviors and actions of children with Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development;
4. Identify educational implications of Piaget’s theory.
LET’S LEARN

Do this!

Try to analyze the following situations and determine whether the child/children involved
is/are toddlers (T), preschoolers (PS), grade school children (GSC), or adolescents (A).
1. Mother hides the toy of Cyrille but Cyrille seems not affected. She cheerfully finds
another toy from her toy basket.
2. Nisha is asked to write a story on what life would be during the Civil War.
3. Daddy and Lauren play peek-a-boo. Lauren giggles with delight.
4. Lyndzei and Linae enjoy taking turns helping their mother bake in the kitchen.
5. Mother shows Mariel a bouquet of flowers which consists of tulips and carnation. She
asked Mariel if there are more flowers or tulips. Mariel answers, “more tulips”.
6. A group of learners brainstorm about the effect of the pandemic to global economy.
7. “Someone is playing drums in the sky,” Zailon said.
8. Mikka smilingly nods on the telephone to answer her mother who is on the other side of
the phone asking if she likes the food prepared for her.
9. A child prefers 10 pieces of 10 peso coins than a 200-peso bill.
10. Teacher Laurie asks her learners to classify the things found in the classroom into living
or non-living thing.

JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Jean Piaget coined the term genetic epistemology referring to the study of the origin of
knowledge. Piaget’s background in zoology is quite apparent from his definition of intelligence
as a basic life function that helps the organism adapt to its environment. (Shaffer and Kipp,
2007)

Piaget’s Major Concepts:

Scheme

Piaget proposes that cognition develops through the enhancement and modification of
mental structures or schemes. A scheme is a pattern of thought or action and represents the real
world. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007). It is any concept or idea on how the world works. Schemes are
used by children to interpret and organize the world they live in.

Organization and Adaptation

Organization is the process by which children combine existing schemes into new and
more complex intellectual schemes. Piaget believed that children are continuously organizing
whatever schemes they have into more complex and adaptive structures.

The goal of organization is to promote adaptation, the process of adjusting to the

demands of the environment. According to Piaget, adaptation occurs through two
complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007).

Assimilation

Assimilation is the process by which children try to interpret new experiences in terms of
their existing models of the world, the schemes they already possess. The child tries to adapt to a
new stimulus by interpreting it as something familiar. Assimilation is the expansion of the
child’s knowledge.

Accommodation

Accommodation is the process of modifying existing structures in order to account for

new experiences. It is the change of cognitive structures or the existing scheme in order to
incorporate or adapt to a new experience.

Equilibration

Equilibration refers to the force which drives the learning process. A child experiences
equilibrium when his schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation.
However, a state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be incorporated into
existing schemas Equilibrium is restored through successful accommodation. (McLeod, S. A.,
2018)

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children pass through
different stages suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual
development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought. (McLeod, S. A.,
2018)
 According to Piaget, these stages of intellectual growth represent qualitatively different
levels of functioning and form called invariant developmental sequence; that is, all children
pass through the stages in the same order and these stages can never be skipped because each
successive stage builds on the accomplishments of previous stages. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

In sensorimotor stage, the sensory inputs and motor

capabilities of infants are coordinated. Infants use
their senses and motor abilities to explore the
environment. They manipulate and experiment on
their environment. One of the remarkable
achievements in this stage is the development of
object permanence. Object permanence is the
thought that objects continue to exist even when
they are no longer visible or detectable through the other senses.

[Link]
Table. 1. Summary of the Piaget’s Account of Sensorimotor Development

Substage Methods of solving problems or Imitation Object Concept

producing interesting
Outcomes

1. Reflex activity Exercising and accommodation Some reflexive Tracks moving object but
of inborn reflexes. imitation of motor ignores its disappearance.
(0–1 month)
responses

2. Primary circular Repeating interesting acts that Repetition of own Looks intently at the spot
reactions are centered on one’s own body. behavior that is where an object
disappeared
mimicked by a
(1–4 months)
companion
3. Secondary circular Repeating interesting acts that Repetition of own Searches for partly
reactions are directed toward external behavior that is concealed object
objects.
mimicked by a
(4–8 months)
companion

4. Coordination of Combining actions to solve Gradual imitation Clear signs of emerging

secondary schemes simple problems (first evidence of novel responses; object concept;
of intentionality).
(8–12 months) deferred imitation searches for and finds
of very simple concealed
motor acts after a
brief delay. object that has not been

visibly displaced.

5. Tertiary circular Experimenting to find new ways Systematic Searches for and finds
reactions to solve problems or reproduce imitation of novel object that has been visibly
interesting outcomes. responses; deferred displaced
(12–18 months) imitation of simple
motor acts after a
long delay

6. Invention of new First evidence of insight as the Deferred imitation Object concept is
means through child solves problems at an of complex complete; searches for and
internal, symbolic level. behavioral finds objects that have
mental combinations sequences. been

(18–24 months) hidden through invisible

displacements.

Source: (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)
 The preoperational stage is described as a
period where children are not yet ready to
perform operations. How children think
logically is based on their own personal
knowledge of the world rather than on
conventional knowledge.

This stage occurs roughly between the

ages 2 and 7. One of the hallmarks of this
period is the development of language of the pre-operational child.

[Link]

chapter/piagets-preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development/

Table 2. Important features of preoperational stage

Preoperational feature Description Example

Symbolic function or Children develop the ability Children think of a stick as an
symbolic thinking to make an object or thing airplane and lets it fly.
stand for, or represent
something.
Pretend (or symbolic) play Preschool children frequently A boy arranges chairs, sits in
pretend to be someone else front, hold on a circular
(superheroes, mommies, object and says, “Fasten your
drivers, nurses, daddies) and seatbelts, we are set to go”.
play these roles with props He is playing the role of a
using objects or things around driver.
them. They are engaged in a
world of make-believe.
Animism Preschoolers belief that A preschool child says sorry
inanimate objects have life. to a chair when he
accidentally bumps into it.
Egocentrism Young children’s inability to A child moves near the
recognize another person’s television to watch regardless
point of view and look at the of whether other people
world in their own cannot watch.
 perspective.
Centration Children focus on one A child’s believes that the
characteristic or dimension of tallest person in class is the
a situation while disregarding oldest because he focused on
all others. height.
Inability to conserve Young children cannot follow A child prefers a 5 pieces of
mental transformation. 10 peso coin than a 500 peso
(conservation) bill.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years)

According to Piaget, concrete operational stage is considered as a major turning point in

the child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational
thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically
try thing out in the real world). (McLeod, S. A., 2018). It is in concrete operational stage where
the child employs logical thought or operations
to physical objects.

[Link]
piagets-

constructivist-theory-of-cognitive-development

The following are the characteristics of children in concrete operational stage:

a. Classification
Classification can be sorting into categories or understanding that there are sub-
classes within a group. The child classifies what is in the environment into living things
and non-living things. But the child can understand that there are sub-classes within a
group, like animals and plants or solid, liquid, and gas.

b. ConservationConservation is the concept that something can stay the same in quantity
even though it looks different. That ball of clay is the same amount whether flatten it or
rolled into ball.

c. Decentration
 Children need to understand decentration so they can figure out conservation.
Decentration is focused on several factors at the same time. A row of 10 cookies is a row of
10 cookies, no matter how far apart they are spaced. At this stage, the child realizes length
and number can be manipulated at the same time.

d. Reversibility

Reversibility involves figuring out that actions can be reversed. It is some sort of
mental gymnastics. Here, the child can understand that your pet is Nifu, Nifu is a dog, and a
dog is an animal.

e. Seriation

Seriation is about mentally sorting a group of things into some sort of order. The child
can arrange the toy cars according to color, or from smallest to biggest.

f. Sociocentricity

Sociocentricity is the ability of the child to understand that other people have their
own thoughts, feelings, and timetable.
([Link]

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 12 years and beyond)

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become
capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically
about the world around them.
 [Link]

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the
future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during
this stage. (Kendra Cherry, 2020)

The following are the characteristics of adolescents in formal operational stage:

Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning

The benchmark of formal operations is what Piaget referred to as hypothetico-

deductive reasoning (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Deductive reasoning, which entails reasoning
from the general to the specific, much as Sherlock Holmes would do in examining the clues
to a crime to catch the villain, is not, in itself, a formal operational ability. (: (Shaffer and
Kipp, 2007)

Example:

Thinking Like a Scientist

In addition to the development of deductive reasoning abilities, formal-operational

children are hypothesized to be able to think inductively, going from specific observations to
broad generalizations. Inductive reasoning is the type of thinking that scientists display,
where hypotheses are generated and then systematically tested in experiments. : (Shaffer and
Kipp, 2007)h logical deduction. :
After several days, they observe the plant’s growth. If the plant starts to grow
better, thgrowth.

Relativistic Thinking

Adolescents are more likely to engage in relativistic thinking—in other words, they are more
likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept information as absolute truth.
Through experience outside the family circle, they learn that rules they were taught as absolute
are actually relativistic. They begin to differentiate between rules crafted from common sense
(don’t touch a hot stove) and those that are based on culturally relative standards (codes of
etiquette). This can lead to a period of questioning authority in all domains.
([Link]
development-in-adolescence/)

LET’S PRACTICE

Watch and reflect

Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Piaget’s Cognitive Development

 a. Watch the video clip, Piaget's stages of cognitive development | Processing the
Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy which you can access at
[Link]
b. The video-clip provides audio-visual explanation of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
c. Provide substantial answer in not more than 200 words to the following questions:
1. What does sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory encompass?
_______________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the differences in cognitive abilities of preoperational children and concrete
operational children? ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What stage of Piaget ‘s Cognitive Development do you think you are in and why?
______
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

LET’S ASSESS

Check This!

Activity 1. What are the educational implications of Piaget’s theory?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Activity 2. Give some practical ways to teach children in each of Piaget's four stages of
Cognitive Development.
References:

David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and

Adolescence, Seventh Edition. [Link]

Kendra Cherry, (2020). Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

[Link]

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology.

[Link]

[Link]
development-in-adolescence/ on August 7, 2020

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

B. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD.

“Through others we become ourselves”- Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky’s theory proposes that (1) cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural
context that influences the form it takes, and (2) many of a child’s most noteworthy cognitive
skills evolve from social interactions with parents, teachers, and other more competent
associates. Hence, cognitive development is socially mediated process that may vary from
culture to culture. (David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, 2007)

Social and cultural context are important in individual development. The development of
higher mental processes originates from social processes.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain socio-cultural influences on cognitive development;
2. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories;
3. Identify educational implications of Vygotsky’s theory.
LET’S START

Do This! Take the Challenge!

Identify the following images. Please write the first thought that comes to your mind.

1. What images have you identified? ____________________________________________

2. Were the images familiar? Where did you see them? _____________________________
3. How did you identify the images? __________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

LET’S LEARN

” By giving our students practice in talking with others, we give them frames for thinking on
their own” – Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky believed that social interaction is crucial in cognitive development.

Vygotsky claimed that upon birth, humans are born with elementary mental functions which are
attention, sensation, perception, and memory. These elementary mental functions are developed
into higher mental functions through interaction with the environment. Vygotsky believed that
children construct knowledge actively through social interaction.

Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in
their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However,
Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas
Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through
social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal
instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The
child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or
teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she
performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or
demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces and provides a
couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does so.

As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more
independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving cooperative or
collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.

Concepts of Vygotsky’s Socio cultural theory

In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one

must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to

someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to
a particular task, process, or concept.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second
important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.

This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a
skilled partner.

Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will
then use on their own - developing higher mental functions. (Robert Slavin)

Scaffolding

Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the Zone of

Proximal Development. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a child by a More
Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to perform a task until such time that the child can
perform this task independently. According to Vygotsky’s theory, scaffolding entails changing
the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a teaching session. The
MKO adjusts the level of guidance in order to fit the student’s current level of performance.
([Link]

Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:

1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development.

This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does
not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development
varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across
cultures.

2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive

development.

Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning
within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.
In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent
explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own. For Vygotsky, the environment
in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.

3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive
development.

According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes
before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the
beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech).

For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.

4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development.

Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast,
Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers as peer interaction promotes social perspective taking.

LET’S PRACTICE

Try this! Answer me!

Answer the following questions in not more than 250 words:

1. Discuss the concepts of the zone of proximal development and apprenticeship in thinking
as they relate to cognitive development.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
 _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. How can Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory be applied to education?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. You can learn more about the theory of Lev Vygotsky by clicking on the following links:
Write your learning insights after watching the video clips.
a. [Link] (Scaffolding)
b. [Link] (Zone of proximal development)
c. [Link] (Socio-cultural theory of Vygotsky)

LET’S ASSESS

Read each statement below and determine which concept of Vygotsky is described. Write
the letter of your choice on the space provided.

A. Zone of Proximal Development

B. More Knowledgeable Other

C. Scaffolding

__________ 1. Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone
but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more skillful partner.

__________ 2. Adult-child interactions in which children’s cognitions and modes of thinking

are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally relevant activities.

__________ 3. Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds contingently to

the novice’s behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her
understanding of a problem.

__________ 4. When teachers assist students to adult-like activities, Vygotsky's theory explains
this as an example of _______________.

__________ 5. Vygotsky’s emphasizes the importance of a more experienced other who serves
as a guide to the learner. It is called ___________.
__________ 6. The teacher notices that Mariel cannot solve a problem on her own, but can when
she is given either adult or peer guidance.

__________ 7. Engaging the students in guided participation

__________ 8. Mr. Gonzaga teaches students how to perform an overhand throw by gently
guiding each student through the correct movement a few times.

__________ 9. Several parents who are making costumes for an elementary school play ask the
young cast members to assist them with such tasks as cutting fabric, pinning pieces together, and
sewing simple hems.

__________ 10. Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds contingently to
the novice’s behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her
understanding of a problem

References:

David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and

Adolescence, Seventh Edition. [Link]

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology.

[Link]

Slavin, Robert E. Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, Eighth Edition.

[Link]

[Link]
theory-of-cognitive-development/

[Link]

Topic 2. INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Jehan U. Gerardo, RGC, LPT, PsyD

INTRODUCTION
Children's cognitive abilities - their ability to perform mental operations, to pay attention,
to remember and to communicate about what they have learned - are sources of great anxiety for
many parents who may wonder whether their children are developing normally.
 Most people think of intelligence as describing "how smart" someone is. However, the
actual definition is quite a bit more complicated than that. Psychological researchers and
theorists have actively debated and argued over how to best define and measure intelligence for
over one hundred years. Individual theorists and researchers have disagreed on which mixture of
cognitive skills and mental capacities (problem solving, abstract thinking, creativity, memory,
concentration, interpersonal skills, body/movement skills, etc.) should be included within the
definition, and how to measure these important attributes in a fair, culture free manner. At
present, intelligence is best thought of not as a single ability or attribute, but rather as a global
construct encompassing many different and separate cognitive abilities.
Learning Objectives:

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

● Explain and differentiate the theories of intelligence. Create a concept map or Graphic
organizer illustrating all the theories of intelligence discussed in this unit.
● Apply concepts and theories on children and adolescents’ cognitive development in
school teaching and student care
● Take an informed stand/position on current teaching practices
ACTIVITY
Write your understanding of the following statement.
INTELLIGENCE is…..
● the ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a
culture;
● a set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve problems in life;
● the potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves
gathering new knowledge.
- HOWARD GARDNER
______________________________________________________________________________
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Binet’s Concept of Intelligence

"It seems to us that in intelligence there is a fundamental faculty, the alteration or the
lack of which, is of the utmost importance for practical life. This faculty is judgment, otherwise
called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances.
A person may be a moron or an imbecile if he is lacking in judgment; but with good judgment he
can never be either. Indeed the rest of the intellectual faculties seem of little importance in
comparison with judgment" (Binet & Simon, 1916, 1973, pp.42-43).

Binet's Intelligence Test

Binet and colleague Theodore Simon developed a series of tests designed to assess
mental abilities. Rather than focus on learned information such as math and reading, Binet
instead concentrated on other mental abilities such as attention and memory. The scale they
developed became known as the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale.

The test was later revised by psychologist Lewis Terman and became known as the
Stanford-Binet. While Binet's original intent was to use the test to identify children who needed
additional academic assistance, the test soon became a means to identify those deemed "feeble-
minded" by the eugenics movement. Eugenics was the belief that the human population could be
genetically improved by controlling who was allowed to have children. By doing this, the
eugenicists believed they could produce more desirable inherited characteristics.
 This shift in how the test was used is notable since Binet himself believed that the
intelligence test he had designed had limitations. He believed that intelligence was complex and
could not be fully captured by a single quantitative measure. He also believed that intelligence
was not fixed. Perhaps most importantly, Binet also felt that such measures of intelligence were
not always generalizable and could only apply to children with similar backgrounds and
experiences.

Today, Alfred Binet is often cited as one of the most influential psychologists in history.
While his intelligence scale serves as the basis for modern intelligence tests, Binet himself did
not believe that his test measured a permanent or inborn degree of intelligence. According to
Binet, an individual's score can vary. He also suggested that factors such as motivation and other
variables can play a role in test scores.

Spearman and the Theory of General Intelligence

“As regards the delicate matter of estimating ‘Intelligence,’ the guiding principle has
been not to make any a priori assumptions as to what kind of mental activity may be thus termed
with greatest propriety. Provisionally, at any rate, the aim was empirically to examine all the
various abilities having any prima facie claims to such title, ascertaining their relations to one
another and to other functions” (Spearman, 1904, p. 249-250).”

General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to the existence of a broad mental
capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures. Charles Spearman first
described the existence of general intelligence in 1904. According to Spearman, this g factor was
responsible for overall performance on mental ability tests.
 Spearman noted that while a child or an adolescent certainly could and often did excel in
certain areas, the ones who did well in one area tended also to do well in other areas. For
example, a child or an adolescent who does well on a verbal test would probably also do well on
other tests.

Those who hold this view believe that intelligence can be measured and expressed by a
single number, such as an IQ score. The idea is that this underlying general intelligence
influences performance on all cognitive tasks.

General intelligence can be compared to athleticism. One might be a very skilled runner,
but this does not necessarily mean that they will also be an excellent figure skater. However,
because this person is athletic and fit, they will probably perform much better on other physical
tasks than an individual who is less coordinated and more sedentary.
Charles Spearman was one of the researchers who helped develop a statistical technique
known as factor analysis. Factor analysis allows researchers to use a number of different test
items to measure common abilities. For example, researchers might find that people who score
well on questions that measure vocabulary also perform better on questions related to reading
comprehension.
Spearman believed that general intelligence represented an intelligence factor underlying
specific mental abilities. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether they related to verbal or
mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g-factor.
Many modern intelligence tests, including the Stanford-Binet, measure some of the cognitive
factors that are thought to make up general intelligence.

● Visual-spatial processing: Abilities such as putting together puzzles and copying

complex shapes
● Quantitative reasoning: The capacity to solve problems that involve numbers
● Knowledge: A person's understanding of a wide range of topics
● Fluid Reasoning: The ability to think flexibly and solve problems
● Working memory: The use of short-term memory (such as being able to repeat a list of
items)

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

“Intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the capacity to make impulses focal at their early,
unfinished stage of formation. Intelligence is therefore the capacity for abstraction, which is an
inhibitory process (Thurstone, 1924/1973 p. 159).”
 Psychologist Louis [Link] (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.
Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven
different primary mental abilities.

● Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

● Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
● Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
● Reasoning: The ability to find rules
● Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
● Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
● Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

"An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued
within one or more cultural settings ( Gardner, 1983/2003, p. x)"

This theory was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model of intelligence that
differentiates intelligence into various specific (primarily sensory) modalities rather than seeing it
as dominated by a single general ability. According to MI Theory, identifying each student’s
intelligences has strong ramifications in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can be identified,
then teachers can accommodate different children more successfully according to their orientation
to learning. Teachers in traditional classrooms primarily teach to the verbal/linguistic and
mathematical/logical intelligences. The nine intelligences are:

VISUAL/SPATIAL - children who learn best visually and organizing things spatially. They
like to see what you are talking about in order to understand. They enjoy charts, graphs, maps,
tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, costumes - anything eye catching.

▪ VERBAL/LINGUISTIC - children who demonstrate strength in the language arts:

speaking, writing, reading, listening. These students have always been successful in
traditional classrooms because their intelligence lends itself to traditional teaching.
▪ MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL - children who display an aptitude for numbers,
reasoning and problem solving. This is the other half of the children who typically
do well in traditional classrooms where teaching is logically sequenced and students
are asked to conform.
▪ BODILY/KINESTHETIC - children who experience learning best through activity:
games, movement, hands-on tasks, building. These children were often labeled
"overly active" in traditional classrooms where they were told to sit and be still!
▪ MUSICAL/RHYTHMIC - children who learn well through songs, patterns,
rhythms, instruments and musical expression. It is easy to overlook children with
this intelligence in traditional education.
▪ INTRAPERSONAL - children who are especially in touch with their own feelings,
values and ideas. They may tend to be more reserved, but they are actually quite
intuitive about what they learn and how it relates to themselves.
▪ INTERPERSONAL - children who are noticeably people oriented and outgoing,
and do their learning cooperatively in groups or with a partner. These children may
have typically been identified as "talkative" or " too concerned about being social"
in a traditional setting.
▪ NATURALIST - children who love the outdoors, animals, field trips. More than
this, though, these students love to pick up on subtle differences in meanings. The
traditional classroom has not been accommodating to these children.
▪ EXISTENTIALIST - children who learn in the context of where humankind stands
in the "big picture" of existence. They ask "Why are we here?" and "What is our
role in the world?" This intelligence is seen in the discipline of philosophy.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

 "I define [intelligence] as your skill in achieving whatever it
is you want to attain in your life within your sociocultural
[Link] capitalizing on your strengths and compensating for, or
correcting, your weaknesses" ( Sternberg, July 29, 2004)."

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as

"mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection,
and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life."

While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability,
he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which involves three
different factors:

1. Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems

Research on the components of human intelligence has shown that although children
generally become faster in information processing with age, not all components are executed
more rapidly with age. The encoding component first shows a decrease in processing time with
age, and then an increase. Apparently, older children realize that their best strategy is to spend
more time in encoding the terms of a problem so that they later will be able to spend less time in
making sense of these encodings. Similarly, better reasoners tend to spend relatively more time
than do poorer reasoners in global, up-front metacomponential planning when they solve
difficult reasoning problems. Poorer reasoners, on the other hand, tend to spend relatively more
time in detailed planning as they proceed through a problem. Presumably, the better reasoners
recognize that it is better to invest more time up front so as to be able to process a problem more
efficiently later on.
Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities might still not have what is
required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a
graduate student, the person needs to be creative. The second type of intelligence emphasizes this
quality.

2. Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas

In work with creative intelligence problems, Robert Sternberg and Todd Lubart asked sixty-
three people to create various kinds of products in the realms of writing, art, advertising, and
science. For example, in writing, they would be asked to write very short stories, for which the
investigators would give them a choice of titles, such as "Beyond the Edge" or "The Octopus's
Sneakers." In art, the participants were asked to produce art compositions with titles such as "The
Beginning of Time" or "Earth from an Insect's Point of View." Participants created two products
in each domain.
 Sternberg and Lubart found that creativity is relatively, although not wholly, domain-
specific. In other words, people are frequently creative in some domains, but not in others. They
also found that correlations with conventional ability tests were modest to moderate,
demonstrating that tests of creative intelligence measure skills that are largely different from
those measured by conventional intelligence tests.

A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still
be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good
judgment in a variety of situations. This common sense is the third type of intelligence.

3. Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved. Practical
intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to get
out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make
changes to reduce stress.

In a study in Usenge, Kenya, Sternberg and colleagues were interested in school-age

children's ability to adapt to their indigenous environment. They devised a test of practical
intelligence for adaptation to the environment that measured children's informal tacit knowledge
of natural herbal medicines that the villagers used to fight various types of infections. The
researchers found generally negative correlations between the test of practical intelligence and
tests of academic intelligence and school achievement. In other words, people in this context
often emphasize practical knowledge at the expense of academic skills in their children's
development.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Cognitive Information Processing Theory

The theory is generally referred to as the “modal model of

memory” or the “Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory”. Their 1968 article is
one of the most highly cited in the behavioral and cognitive
sciences, and the theory continues to shape research today. In
2019, the journal Memory and Cognition devoted a special issue in
recognition of five decades of research inspired by the theory.
 The model concerns how information is stored in memory and presents a sequence of
three stages, as follows:

Sensory Memory — sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This
kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to
enter sensory memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to
every piece of information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and only
sends what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s most
likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar.

Stage Model of Information Processing

One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on

short-term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you
will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color, which is called the Stroop effect.
In other words, the word “red” will be named more quickly, regardless of the color the word
appears in, than any word that is colored red. Try an experiment: name the colors of the words
you are given in the image below. Do not read the words, but say the color the word is printed in.
For example, upon seeing the word “yellow” in green print, you should say “green,” not
“yellow.” This experiment is fun, but it’s not as easy as it seems.
Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short term memory,
which is also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory
doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is
referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes.

There are several factors that will impact what and how much information will be
processed in working memory. Cognitive load capacity varies from one child to another child
and from moment to moment based on the child’s cognitive abilities, the amount of information
being processed, and one's ability to focus and pay attention. Also, information that is familiar
and has often been repeated doesn’t require as much cognitive capacity and, therefore, will be
easier to process. Differences in memory span,

Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity of
long-term memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are encoded
and organized in long-term memory: declarative information, which is information that can be
discussed such as facts, concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences
(episodic memory); procedural information, which is information about how to do something
like drive a car or brush your teeth; and imagery, which are mental pictures.

Implications inside the Classroom

Information Processing Theory outlines a way of learning that can be used by teachers
inside the classroom. Some examples of classroom implications of the Information Processing
Theory include:

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE

CLASSROOM

Principle Example
1. Gain the students' ● Use cues to signal when you are ready to
attention. begin.
 ● Move around the room and use voice
inflections.

● Review previous day's lesson.

2. Bring to mind relevant ● Have a discussion about previously covered
prior learning. content.

3. Point out important ● Provide handouts.

information. ● Write on the board or use transparencies.

● Show a logical sequence to concepts and

4. Present information in skills.
an organized manner. ● Go from simple to complex when presenting
new material.

5. Show students how to ● Present information in categories.

categorize (chunk) related ● Teach inductive reasoning.
information.
● Connect new information to something
6. Provide opportunities already known.
for students to elaborate ● Look for similarities and differences among
on new information. concepts.

● Make up silly sentence with first letter of each

7. Show students how to word in the list.
use coding when ● Use mental imagery techniques such as the
memorizing lists. keyword method.

● State important principles several times in

different ways during presentation of
information (STM).
8. Provide for repetition ● Have items on each day's lesson from
of learning. previous lesson (LTM).
● Schedule periodic reviews of previously
learned concepts and skills (LTM).

9. Provide opportunities ● Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.

for overlearning of ● Play form of trivial pursuit with content
fundamental concepts and related to class.
skills.

Implementations to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Children have varying intelligence profile. These profiles may be based on
influences of learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and teachers should
be able to recognize these by:
 ● Helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses;
● Planning lessons that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional
objectives;
● Encouraging children to read more ever day to increase their vocabulary;
● Bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their
perspective about the world and people, and
● Lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and face-to-face
interactions
● Activities at home eg. Asking teenage children for suggestions on family matters –
house physical arrangements, things to buy, places to go to for family outing, etc.
● Allowing more independence eg. use of school allowance, choice on what to wear,
etc.
● Activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field trips, joint
internet research, etc., and
● Develop reading skills through magazine articles, Internet blogs

APPLICATION

1. Writing Prompts

Spearman is well-known for proposing the g factor, which refers to general mental
ability. He observed that children's school performance was essentially consistent across all
school subjects, rather than being high in some subjects and low in others. This led him to
believe that there was a predominant general ability factor of intelligence.
What is your personal opinion of intelligence? For example, you may agree with
Spearman's g factor, because you have observed consistency in abilities across domains in your
friends and family. Conversely, you may feel more aligned with Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences because you feel that you have high intellectual ability in some areas and low
intellectual ability in others. Write two to three paragraphs describing your ideas about
intelligence, citing supporting observations.
2. Create a Concept map or a Graphic Organizer to illustrate the Theories of
Intelligence discussed in this unit
3. What responses can be made by either parents or teachers for varied types of cognitive
achievement patterns?

Types of Achievement Patterns Response either by Teacher or

Parent
 1. For overachievers and further
inducement to self-value, goal-
orientation, positive
interrelations, etc.
2. Underachievers and
parental/teacher encouragement
and support
3. Aggressive underachievers who
tend to be disruptive, if not
rebellious
4. Egocentrism and over-
sensitivity to social acceptance
5. Idealism and adolescents being
possibly discouraged by painful
realities of life e.g. conflicts at
home, challenges in school
work, etc.

4. Let’s examine a kindergarten class schedule.

10:30 to 11:00 – Snack

Around this time, I usually take the children down to the restroom as a group. All of the children
wash their hands before snack. Then it’s on to snack time together.

If they’re done early, they’re allowed to choose from a few “quiet choices” (reading, writing,
drawing, puzzles, etc.).

11:00 to 11:30 – Playground

The “big” pre-k kids get to use the playground for free play during this time. We do movement
and gross motor play inside if we can’t go outside.

11:30 to 11:50 – Circle Time

This is when we get together as a whole class. We do the calendar, talk about the weather, and
say the Pledge. I usually read a book during this time.
We also do literacy and math games, songs, etc. during circle time. It’s a great time to connect
and talk about how the day’s gone.

11:50 to 12:10 – Resource

The kiddos get music or more outside time, while I get a quick break.

12:10 to 12:50 – Lunch

We all sit down for lunch, chatting and eating together. If the kids are done early, they can
choose some quiet choices. They clean up after themselves and get their backpacks ready to go
home after lunch.

12:50 to 1:00 – Story Time

We make sure everyone’s packed up and ready to go home. Then it’s time for one more read
aloud before the end of the day.

a. To what extent do you think that preschoolers are being prepared for their future
student role? What are the pros and cons of such preparation? Give bullet point
answers.

References
A. Books
Acero, Victorina D. [Link] (2008). Child and Adolescent Development (1 st Edition). Ex Book
Store, Inc.
Corpuz, Brenda B. [Link] (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

B. Internet
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Topic 3. Factors Affecting Cognitive Development
Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD

“Humans create their cognitive powers by creating the environments

in which they exercise those powers”

-Edwin Hutchins

The development of cognition is affected by different factors. As a parent, child care

provider, or educator, it is important to foster one’s child's cognitive development as soon as
he/she is born because doing so provides the foundation for your child's success in school and
later in life.

Now that you are an adolescent, you have learned a few things about how the world
works. You know, for instance, that you can’t walk through walls or leap into the tops of trees.
You know that although you cannot see your car keys they’ve got to be around here someplace.
What’s more, you know that if you want to communicate complex ideas like ordering a triple-
shot soy vanilla latte with chocolate sprinkles it’s better to use words with meanings attached to
them rather than simply gesturing and grunting. People accumulate all this useful knowledge
through the process of cognitive development, which involves a multitude of factors, both
inherent and learned. ([Link]

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the different factors affecting cognitive development;
2. Reflect on the variations in cognitive development;
3. Summarize researches on factors affecting cognitive development.

LET’S START

Try This!

Read the following result from a study titled, “Determinants of Cognitive Development in the
Early Life of Children in Bhaktapur, Nepal”.

Determinants of the Cognitive Composite Score

 The cognitive composite score was positively associated with the length-for-age
z-score. Children who were born with low birth weight (<2500 gm) had 5 points lower
cognitive composite scores compared to children with birth weight in the normal range.
Those who had been hospitalized during the first month of life had an average 4.7 points
lower scores compared to those with no such history. A history of alcohol consumption in
the father and reports of physical punishment during the past week were also predictors
for the cognitive score.

Think Pair Share: Explain the differences in the composite scores of the respondents in the study.

LET’S LEARN

Nature and Nurture

The most basic question about child development is how nature and nurture together
shape development. Nature refers to our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our
parents. Nurture refers to the environments, social as well as physical, that influence our
development, everything from the womb in which we develop before birth to the homes in which
we grow up, the schools we attend, and the many people with whom we interact.
([Link]

Why do people differ so dramatically in the scores that they make on IQ tests? In
addressing this issue, we will briefly review the evidence for hereditary and environmental
influences and then take a closer look at several important social and cultural correlates of
intellectual performance.

The Evidence for Heredity

Twin Studies

The intellectual resemblance between pairs of individuals living in the same home
increases as a function of their kinship (that is, genetic similarity). For example, the IQ
correlation for identical twins, who inherit identical genes, is substantially higher than the IQ
correlations for fraternal twins and non-twin siblings, who have only half of their genes in
common (Bower, 2003).

Adoption Studies

Adopted children’s IQs are more highly correlated with the IQs of their biological parents
than with those of their adoptive parents. This finding can be interpreted as evidence for a
genetic influence on IQ, for adoptees share genes with their biological parents but not with their
adoptive caregiver. A person’s genotype may influence the type of environment that he or she is
likely to experience. Indeed, Scarr and McCartney (1983) have proposed that people seek out
environments that are compatible with their genetic predispositions, so that identical twins (who
share identical genes) select and experience more similar environments than fraternal twins or
non-twin siblings do. This is a major reason that identical twins resemble each other
intellectually throughout life, whereas the intellectual resemblances between fraternal twins or
non-twin siblings become progressively smaller over time (McCartney, Harris, & Bernieri,
1990).

The Evidence for Environment

The evidence for environmental effects on intelligence comes from a variety of sources.
For example, there is a small to moderate intellectual resemblance between pairs of genetically
unrelated children who live in the same household— a resemblance that can only be attributable
to their common rearing environment because they share no genes. Children who remain in
impoverished rearing environments show a progressive decline (or cumulative-deficit) in IQ,
thus implying that economic disadvantage inhibits intellectual growth.

The Flynn Effect

People have been getting smarter throughout the 20th century. Average IQs in all
countries studied have increased about 3 points per decade since 1940, a phenomenon called the
Flynn effect after its discoverer, James Flynn (1987, 1996; Howard, 2005; Teasdale & Owen,
2005). An increase this large that occurs this quickly cannot be due to evolution and must
therefore have environmental causes. So what might be responsible for improving IQ scores?

Worldwide improvements in education could increase IQs in three ways: helping people
to become more test-wise, more knowledgeable in general, and more likely to rely on
sophisticated problem-solving strategies (Flieller, 1999; Flynn, 1996). Yet, improved education
is probably not the sole contributor because the Flynn effect is much clearer on measures of fluid
intelligence, even though one might expect crystallized intelligence to benefit most from
educational enrichment. Twentieth-century improvements in nutrition and health care are two
other potent environmental factors that many believe to have contributed to improved intellectual
performance by helping to optimize the development of growing brains and nervous systems.
(Shaffer and Kipp, Katherine, 2007).

LET’S PRACTICE

Try This!

Read the following findings in a research conducted and come up with your own synthesis and
analysis.

Ten Environmental Risk Factors Associated with Low IQ and Mean IQs at Age 4 of Children
Who Did or Did Not Experience Each Risk Factor

Mean IQ at age 4
 Risk factor Child Child did not
Experienced experience risk
Risk Factor factor
Child is member of minority group 90 110
Head of household is unemployed or low- 90 108
skilled worker
Mother did not complete high school 92 109
Family has four or more children 94 105
Father is absent from family 95 106
Family experienced many stressful life 97 105
events
Parents have rigid child-rearing values 92 107
Mother is highly anxious/distressed 97 107
Mother has poor mental health/diagnosed 99 107
disorder
Mother shows little positive affect toward 88 107
child

Source: Data and descriptions compiled from “Stability of intelligence from Preschool to Adolescence:
The Influence of Social and Family Risk Factors,” by A.J. Sameroff, R. Seifer, A. Bladwin, and C.
Baldwin, 1993, Child Development, 64, 80–97

LET’S ASSESS

Check This

Answer in not more than 250 words the following questions:

1. Explain what is meant by the Flynn effect and discuss some potential reasons for this
effect.________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Do socioeconomic differences explain ethnic differences in IQ? Justify your

answer________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Tutors and tutorial centers proliferate for children nowadays to assist them in their studies.
When children have tutors or are enrolled in tutorial centers, which contributes to their high
performance, nature or nurture? Justify your
answer._______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
References:

Shaffer, David and Kipp, Katherine (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and
Adolescence, Seventh Edition. [Link]

Sameroff, A.J., [Link]. (1993). “Stability of intelligence from Preschool to Adolescence: The
Influence of Social and Family Risk Factors,” Child Development, 64, 80–97

[Link]
Language Development and Factors Affecting Language Development

Topic 4. Language Development

“The child begins to perceive the world not only through his eyes

but also through his speech”.

- Lev Vygotsky

The use of language sets humans apart from the rest of the animal kingdom. Animals can
communicate through limited number of calls and signals that convey messages. In contrast,
human languages are amazingly flexible and productive. Language is also an inventive tool with
which we express our thoughts and interpretations of what we have seen, heard, or otherwise
experienced.

Although language is one of the most complex and abstract bodies of knowledge we ever
acquire, children in all cultures come to understand and use this intricate form of communication
very early in life. In fact, some infants are talking before they can walk. How is this possible?
Are infants biologically programmed to acquire language? What kinds of linguistic input must
they receive in order to become language users? Is there any relation between a child’s cooing,
gesturing, or babbling and his or her later production of meaningful words? How do infants and
toddlers come to attach meaning to words? Do all children pass through the same steps or stages
as they acquire their native language? And what practical lessons must children learn to become
truly effective communicators? These are but a few of the issues we will consider as we trace the
development of children’s linguistic skills and try to determine how youngsters become so
proficient in using language at such an early age. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the concept of language development;
2. Discuss the theories of language development;
3. Identify factors influencing language development;
4. Critique researches on language development.
LET’S START

Try This!

Walking Through

Interview your parents or any significant others in your life about how you learned to
talk. What were the word/word you uttered first? How did you communicate your needs? At
what age have you started uttering single words/phrases/sentences? Summarize your interview
by creating a story, spoken poetry, or painting about the information you gathered.

LET’S LEARN

The Concept of Language Development

According to Bell (1981), language refers to sounds, letters, their combinations into
larger units such as words, sentences and so forth. Such a set of forms would also be expected to
have meaning and the elements and sequences, by virtue of having meaning, would naturally be
expected to be used for communication between individuals who shared the same rules. (p. 19)
Therefore, language has meaning to individuals who share the same understanding and language
helps people to communicate. ([Link]
sequence=12&isAllowed=y)

Five Components of Language

Perhaps the most basic question that psycholinguists have tried to answer is the
“what”question: What must children learn in order to master their native language? After many
years and literally thousands of studies, researchers have concluded that five kinds of knowledge
underlie the growth of linguistic proficiency: phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and
pragmatics.

Phonology

Phonology refers to the basic units of sound, or phonemes, that are used in a language
and the rules for combining these sounds. Each language uses only a subset of the sounds that
humans are capable of generating, and no two languages have precisely the same phonologies—a
fact that explains why foreign languages may sound rather strange to us. Clearly, children must
learn how to discriminate, produce, and combine the speech like sounds of their native language
in order to make sense of the speech they hear and to be understood when they try to speak
(Kelley, Jones, & Fein, 2004).

Morphology
 Rules of morphology specify how words are formed from sounds (Kelley, Jones, &
Fein,2004). In English, these rules include the rule for forming past tenses of verbs by adding –
ed and the rule for forming plurals by adding -s, as well as rules for using other prefixes and
suffixes, and rules that specify proper combinations of sounds to form meaningful words. We
learn, for example, that flow (not vlow) is how to describe what the river is doing.

Semantics

Semantics refers to the meanings expressed in words and sentences (Kelley, Jones, &
Fein, 2004). The smallest meaningful units of language are morphemes, and there are two types.
Free morphemes can stand alone as words (for example, dog), whereas bound morphemes cannot
stand alone but change meaning when attached to a free morpheme (for example, adding the
bound morpheme -s to the word dog means that the speaker is talking about more than one
pooch). Children must recognize that words and bound grammatical morphemes convey meaning
—that they symbolize particular objects, actions, and relations and can be combined to form
larger and more complex meanings (sentences)—before they can comprehend others’ speech and
be understood when they speak.

Syntax

Language also involves syntax, or the rules that specify how words are to be combined to
form meaningful phrases and sentences (Kelley, Jones, & Fein, 2004). Consider these three
sentences:

1. Garfield Odie bit.

2. Garfield bit Odie.

3. Odie bit Garfield.

Even very young speakers of English recognize that the first sentence violates the rules of
English sentence structure, although this word order would be perfectly acceptable in languages
with a different syntax, such as French. The second and third sentences are grammatical English
sentences that contain the same words but convey very different meanings. They also illustrate
how word meanings (semantics) interact with sentence structure (word order) to give the entire
sentence a meaning. Children must master rules of syntax before they can become proficient at
speaking or understanding a language.

Pragmatics

Children must also master the pragmatics of language—knowledge of how language

might be used to communicate effectively (Diesendruck & Markson, 2001; Kelley, Jones, &
Fein, 2004). Imagine a 6-year-old who is trying to explain a new game to her 2-yearold brother.
She cannot speak to the toddler as if he were an adult or an age-mate; she will have to adjust her
speech to his linguistic capabilities if she hopes to be understood.

Pragmatics also involves sociolinguistic knowledge—culturally specified rules that

dictate how language should be used in particular social contexts. A 3-year-old may not yet
realize that the best way of obtaining a cookie from Grandma is to say “Grandma, may I please
have a cookie?” rather than demanding “Gimme a cookie, Grandma!” In order to communicate
most effectively, children must become “social editors” and take into account where they are,
with whom they are speaking, and what the listener already knows, needs, and wants to hear.
(Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

Theories of Language Development

1. The Learning (or Empiricist) Perspective

B. F. Skinner argued that children learn to speak appropriately because they are
reinforced for grammatically correct speech. According to Skinner, “language is learned through
imitation and reward”. For Skinner, language development follows the following process:

• Children listen to adults speak.

• They imitate the sounds they hear.

• Adults reward them by smiling, nodding their heads or asking them to repeat the words.

This reinforcement encourages children to imitate them. So according to the learning

perspective, caregivers “teach” language by modeling and by reinforcing grammatical speech.
([Link]

2. The Nativist Perspective

According to the nativists, human beings are biologically programmed to acquire

language.

Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that we humans (and only humans) come equipped with a
language acquisition device (LAD)—an inborn linguistic processor that is activated by verbal
input which contains a universal grammar, or knowledge of rules that are common to all
languages.

The Sensitive-Period Hypothesis

Erik Lenneberg proposed that languages should be most easily acquired between birth
and puberty, the period when the lateralized human brain is becoming increasingly specialized
for linguistic functions. If language really is most easily acquired before puberty, then children
who were largely deprived of a normal linguistic environment should find it difficult to acquire
language later in life. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

4. The Interactionist Perspective

According to the interactionist viewpoint, young children the world over talk alike and display
other linguistic universals because they are all members of the same species who share many
common experiences. What is innate is not any specialized linguistic knowledge or processing
skills but a sophisticated brain that matures very slowly and predisposes children to develop
similar ideas at about the same age—ideas that they are then motivated to express in their own
speech.

From an interactionist perspective, then, language development is the product of a

complex transaction between nature and nurture. Children are born with a powerful human brain
that develops slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings, which they are then
motivated to share with others.

Jerome Bruner argues that parents provide their children a language acquisition support
system or LASS. The LASS is a collection of strategies that parents employ to facilitate their
children’s acquisition of language.

Language Development

Communication in Infancy

Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however, communicate with the
use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being
relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time with
an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or
frustration.

Intentional Vocalizations

Cooing and taking turns: Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple
of months of life. That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source of
entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride.
Cooing serves as practice for vocalization as well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own
voice and tries to repeat sounds that are entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and
pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take
their turn again when the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves
making vowel sounds like “oooo.” Later, consonants are added to vocalizations such as
“nananananana.”
Babbling and Gesturing

At about four to six months of age, infants begin making even more elaborate
vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks,
consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever
sounds are characteristic of the language heard. Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used
as the infant grow more accustomed to a particular language. Deaf babies also use gestures to
communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than
vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to
communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language is used
when deaf babies sign just as it is when hearing babies babble.

Understanding

At around ten months of age, the infant can understand more than he or she can say. You
may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second
language. You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than to contribute to it.

Holophrasic Speech

Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use
partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word expressions are referred
to as holophrasic speech. For example, the child may say “ju” for the word “juice” and use this
sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase and
when this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. They
know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby wants some milk! But, someone who has
not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who to a
friend exclaims, “Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the
parent explains, means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.”

Under-extension

A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can
be used for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a “doggie”. This is
referred to as under-extension. More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all
objects that are similar to the original object. In over-extension all animals become “doggies”,
for example.

First Words and Cultural Influences

First words if the child is using English tend to be nouns. The child labels objects such as
cup or ball. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more
verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture. Chinese
children may be taught to notice action and relationship between objects while children from the
United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.). These
differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and
the United States.

Vocabulary Growth Spurt

One year olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words. But by the time they
become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those words
together in telegraphic speech (I think of it now as ‘text message’ speech because texting is more
common and is similar in that text messages typically only include the minimal amount of words
to convey the message).

Two Word Sentences and Telegraphic (text message?) Speech

Words are soon combined and 18 month old toddlers can express themselves further by
using expressions such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty”. Words needed to convey messages
are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not
yet used. These expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would be
that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used. “Give baby ball” is
used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Or a text message of “Send money now!” rather than
“Dear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses“ You get the idea.

Child-Directed Speech

Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use “baby talk”
or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children? This
represents a universal tendency and is known as child-directed speech or motherese or parentese.

‘Motherese’ is a word coined by Snow and Ferguson which refers to the simple language
used by mothers when talking to infants. Features of motherese (adapted from Bee, 1989: 299)
include:

• high-pitched voice, slower pace and long pauses at the end of each sentence;

• short sentences;

• simply structured sentences;

• repeated sentences or variations of the same sentence spoken several times;

• vocabulary based on tangible objects within the environment of the child; and

• slower pace as sentences become longer and more complex.

Communication in Early Childhood

Vocabulary Growth

A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over
10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making
connections between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are
learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly
languages such as Chinese and Japanese as well as those speaking English tend to learn nouns
more readily. But those learning less verb-friendly languages such as English seem to need
assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs (Imai, et als, 2008). Children are also very
creative in creating their own words to use as labels such as a “take-care-of” when referring to
John, the character on the cartoon, Garfield, who takes care of the cat.

Literal Meanings

Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But
they do not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of
expressions or figures of speech, which are taken literally. For example, two preschool aged girls
began to laugh loudly while listening to a tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when
the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost his head!” They image his head popping off and rolling
down the hill as he runs and searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher
say, “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my cake? I
want cake!”

Overregularization

Children learn rules of grammar as they learn language but may apply these rules
inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to ad “ed” to the end of a word to indicate
past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2 and
3. They will soon learn new words such as went and did to be used in those situations.

The Impact of Training

Children can be helped in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more
accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I’m goed there!” and
the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be
ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is
important for language development as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the
guide provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned.

Private Speech

Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling
with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a situation. Children
talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a practice engaged in
because of a child’s inability to seeing things from others points of views. Vygotsky, however,
believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As
children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and
engaging in private speech or inner speech. Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought
accompanied by internal speech and talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when
we are trying to learn something or remember something, etc. This inner speech is not as
elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962). (53)

Communication in Middle and Late Childhood

Vocabulary

One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a
vocabulary to do so. By 5th grade, a child’s vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words. It grows at
the rate of 20 words per day, a rate that exceeds that of preschoolers. This language explosion,
however, differs from that of preschoolers because it is facilitated by being able to associate new
words with those already known and because it is accompanied by a more sophisticated
understanding of the meanings of a word.

New Understanding

The child is also able to think of objects in less literal ways. For example, of asked for the first
word that comes to mind when one hears the word “pizza”, the preschooler is likely to say “eat”
or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the school-aged child is more
likely to place pizza in the appropriate category and say “food” or “carbohydrate.”

This sophistication of vocabulary is also evidenced in the fact that school-aged children are able
to tell jokes and delight in doing do. They may use jokes that involve play on words such as
“knock-knock” jokes or jokes with punch lines. Preschoolers do not understand play on words
and rely on telling “jokes” that are literal or slapstick such as “A man fell down in the mud! Isn’t
that funny?”

Grammar and Flexibility

School-aged children are also able to learn new rules of grammar with more flexibility. While
preschoolers are likely to be reluctant to give up saying “I goed there,” school-aged children will
learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.

While the preschool years might be a good time to learn a second language (being able to
understand and speak the language), the school years may be the best time to be taught a second
language (the rules of grammar). (54)
Topic 5. FACTORS AFFECTİNG LİNGUİSTİC AND LİTERACY DEVELOPMENT

A. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

1. Child’s Age

2. Cognitive Processing or Intelligence

3. Delayed general development (‘global developmental delay’), physical development (‘motor

skills’), cognitive development etc.

4. Neurological Disorders or medical problems

5. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties

6. Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc.

B. PSYCHOSOCİAL FACTORS

1. Early Stimulation

2. Family Structure or Literate Environment

3. Child’s Attitude (i.e. not very interested in language, prefers other modalities like physical
activities.)

4. Economic Status

5. Changes in child’s environment (e.g. moving.)

6. Short attention span.

7. Exposure to too many languages for the child.

8. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks “communication intent”.

LET’S PRACTICE

Try This!

Answer in not more than 200 words the following questions:

1. If a child uses a word incorrectly, how can you help him or her to use it correctly?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. How would you help learners in your class who have difficulty in constructing correct
sentences?

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

3. List points from your study of the concepts and theories of language development that you
consider to have been of greatest help. How will these make you a better teacher?

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

4. Discuss how you should apply the theories in language development to obtain the best results
from your teaching and students.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

5. Draw a figure to represent the interactionist view of language acquisition. Explain how this
model incorporates nature and nurture influences, and explain the bidirectional aspect of the
model.

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

LET’S ASSESS

Check This

Matching: Demonstrate your understanding of the five basic components of language by

matching the names of these components with their definitions below.
 A. morphology

B. phonology

C. pragmatics

D. semantics

E. syntax

_____ 1. The sound system of a language and the rules for combining these sounds to produce
meaningful units of speech.

_____ 2. Rules governing the formation of meaningful words from sounds.

_____ 3. The expressed meaning of words and sentences.

_____ 4. The structure of a language; the rules specifying how words and grammatical markers
are to be combined to produce meaningful sentences.

_____ 5. Principles that underlie the effective and appropriate use of language in social contexts.

Read the following cases and apply the different theories in this unit justifying your answer.

Two excellent case studies reflect nicely on this idea. One is the case of Genie, a child
who was locked away in a back room as an infant and was not discovered by the authorities until
she was nearly 14 years old. While confined, Genie heard very little language; no one was
permitted to talk to her, and she was beaten by an abusive father if she made any noise (Curtiss,
1977). Then there is Chelsea, a deaf woman who—because of her deafness and her family’s
isolation—was 32 years old before she was ever exposed to a formal language system. Extensive
efforts were undertaken to teach these women language, and each made remarkable progress,
learning the meaning of many words and even producing lengthy sentences that were rich in
their semantic content. Yet neither woman has mastered the rules of syntax that virtually all
children acquire without formal instruction (Curtiss, 1977, 1988), thus suggesting that learning a
first language is easier early in life.

References:
Shaffer, David and Kipp, Katherine (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and
Adolescence, Seventh Edition. [Link]

Module 9: Child Development. The Commonwealth of Learning retrieved from

[Link]