 Water Demand:

 Rate of water supplied per day or Quantity of water

required per day for the population is called as demand
of water.
 Average consumption of quantity of water per day per
person is called as Rate of demand or per capita
demand. It is expressed in liter per capita per day (Lpcd).
 Following are the various type of water demands:
1. Domestic demand
2. Public demand
3. Commercial and institutional demand
4. Fire demand
5. Losses & wastes

The addition of all above types of demand is called as TOTAL DEMAND.

1. Domestic Demand :
1. Def: Quantity of water required in residential building as well as
for drinking, bathing, washing cloths & utensil is called as
Domestic demand.
2. As per I.S. Domestic demand is 135 lpcd for small towns, cities
and for towns or cities with full flushing system (big cities) it is
200 lpcd.
3. This demand depends upon the habits, living standard of the
people
4. This demand is about 55%-60% of total demand.
2. Public Demand:
1. Def: Quantity of water required for public
parks, fountains, flushing & testing of
sewers is called as public demand.
2. Average public demand is 10 lpcd
3. Public demand is about 5%-10% of total
demand
4. Eg. -Public park-2.5 lit/m2/day
-Sewer flushing-4.5 lit/hr/day
3. Commercial and Institutional
Demand :
1. Def: Quantity of water required for offices, shopping
centers, hotels, theatres, hostels, schools & colleges,
hospitals is called as commercial & institutional
demand.
2. In small residential towns or cities it may be as low
as 40 lpcd but in industrial towns and cities it may
be as high as 400 lpcd.
3. This demand is about 10%-20% of total demand
4. Eg. Paper-200-400kl/tonn
Sugar-10-100kl/tonn
Textile-80-140kl/tonn
Hotels-180 lit/bed
4. Fire Demand:
• Def: The quantity of water required for fire-fighting purpose is called
as Fire Demand.
• It is difficult to estimate fire demand, because the occurring losses
due to fire can not be predicted.
• (1/3)rd water in service reservoir is always reserved for fire demand.
• The fire hydrants are usually fitted in the water mains at distance of
not more than about 150 metres.
• Fire demand can be calculated by following empirical formulas:
 Normally by Govt. of India : Q=100 P0.5
 Kuichling’s formula: Q=3182 P0.5
 Buston’s formula: Q=5663 P0.5

 Freeman’s formula : Q = 1136 [(P/10) + 10]

5. Losses & Wastages :
1. Due to careless use of water & due to
leakage in main, valves & other fittings
causes losses and wastage of water.
2. Unauthorized water connection and theft
of water causes wastage of water.
3. During conveyance of water, major and
minor losses occur in pipelines or in
conduits.
4. Losses and wastages are about 10 % - 15 %
of total demand
 Estimation of water supply required for SMALL
Town or City (without full flushing system)

1. Domestic use = 135 lpcd

2. Commercial And Industrial use = 70 lpcd
3. Public use = 10 lpcd
4. Loss and wastage = 55 lpcd
------------------------------------------------------------------
 Total demand = 270 lpcd
Daily water demand = 270 x P lit/day
Note:- (P) is total population of the city or town.
 Estimation of water supply required for BIG
Town or City (with full flushing system)

1. Domestic use = 200 lpcd

2. Commercial And Industrial use = 70 lpcd
3. Public use = 10 lpcd
4. Loss and wastage = 55 lpcd
------------------------------------------------------------------
 Total demand = 335 lpcd
Daily water demand = 335 x P lit/day
Note:- (P) is total population of the city or town.
 Factors affecting water demand:
1. Cost of water : Higher the cost of water lower will be the demand of water and vice-
versa.
2. Habits of peoples : High living standard demand of water will be more & for low living
standard it will be less.
3. Climatic conditions : In summer (hot and dry ) climate water consumption will be more
as compared to winter and cold weather. So demand will be more in summer than
winter or monsoon.
4. Size of city : Big cities will have more water demand compared to small cities.
5. Industries : Big industries or more industries in area will have more water demand.
6. Quality of water : Consumption of good taste and good quality water is more than
ordinary.
7. Metering system : Metering or charged water reduces the consumption of water and so
demand of water is less.
8. Supply & distribution pressure : High distribution pressure increases losses and wastage
of water which ultimately increases the demand of water.
9. Type of supply system: Intermittent system results in wastage of water due to open,
unattended taps, tendency to store fresh water and throw away stored water. Demand
of water is more in intermittent supply than continuous supply.
10. System of sanitation : If the underground drainage is provided in the town, more
quantity of water is used in flushing water closets and urinals.
 Per Capita Supply [Per Capita Demand]
 Quantity of water supplied per person per day or Quantity of water
required per capita per day is called as per capita supply of water.
 It is expressed as Lpcd (Liter/capita/day)
 Following are the various type of water demands:
1. Domestic demand
2. Public demand
3. Commercial and institutional demand
4. Fire demand
5. Losses & wastes
• The addition of all above types of demand is called as TOTAL DEMAND.
• Daily water demand = 270 x P lit/day
• Cost of water, Habits of peoples, Climatic conditions, Size of city, Number
of Industries in city, size of industries in city, Quality of water supplied
these factors affect on per capita supply.
 Estimation of water supply required for SMALL
Town or City (without full flushing system)

1. Domestic use = 135 lpcd

2. Commercial And Industrial use = 70 lpcd
3. Public use = 10 lpcd
4. Loss and wastage = 55 lpcd
------------------------------------------------------------------
 Total demand = 270 lpcd
Daily water demand = 270 x P lit/day
Note:- (P) is total population of the city or town.
 Water Supply Systems:
1. Continuous System:
In this system of supply, water is supplied to the consumers for 24 hours of day.
This is most ideal system of water supply and it should be adopted as far as possible.
The only disadvantage of this system is that considerable wastage of water occurs if
there are some leakages and also if consumers do not realize the importance of
treated water.
However by using water meters this defect of the system can be avoided.

2. Intermittent System:
In this system of supply, water is supplied to the consumers during certain fixed
hours of the day only.
The usual period of water supply is about 1 hr. – 4 hrs. in the morning and in
evening.
The timing of water supply may be changed to suit the seasons of the year.
In this system of water supply area is divided into several zones and timing of water
supply to each zone is so adjusted that good water pressure can be maintained in each
zone.
This system of water supply is suitable at following conditions:
a) When the quantity of water available is not sufficient to meet the various
demands of water.
b) When the available pressure is poor.
 Disadvantages of Intermittent system:
• Intermittent water supply system can not meet fire demand
particularly during non-supply period.
• This system requires large number of valves for its working because
the water supply in different zones needs to be properly regulated.
• Extra staff is require to operate and maintain these valves.
• Intermittent water supply system consumers usually stores water for
non-supply hours, but without using that water is thrown off and
again fresh water is stored during supply hours. This is complete
wastage of water.
• Bigger diameter pipes are required to supply water for full day in
very short period of time.
• Consumers have to remain alert to collect water during supply
period.
• Sometimes consumers keep tap open to get alert of supply period,
this also causes wastage of water inadvertently.
 Requirements of good distribution system:
1. It should convey the treated water to the consumers with the same
degree of purity.
2. Water should reach to every consumer with required distribution
pressure.
3. Sufficient quantity of water should reach to domestic and industries
use.
4. Distribution system should be economical, easy to maintain and
operate.
5. During emergencies ample quantity water should be available.
6. During repair or breakdown supply should not interrupt.
7. During repair work it should not obstruct traffic flow.
8. It should be safe against future pollution or contamination.
9. Quality and durability of pipelines should be very good.
10. Distribution system should be water-tight and losses due to flow
through pipes should be minimum as far as possible.
Methods of Water Distribution
System :
1. Gravity System

2. Pumping System

3. Combined gravity and pumping System

1. Gravity system :
• Gravity Water distribution Method:
In this system water is conveyed through pipes under
gravity pressure.
This system is adopted when the treated water reservoir is
at higher level and distribution area is at lower level.

• Advantage
a)No pumping required
b) The system is simple, reliable and economical.
c) Not depends on electricity. No electricity bill.
• Disadvantage
a)This system can not provide high pressure for fire demand.
b) It is not suitable if the source of water is not at sufficient
elevation to cause flow under gravity.
2. Pumping system :
• Pumping Water distribution Method:
This system is adopted when the treated water reservoir is at lower level
and distribution area is at higher level.
Water is pumped directly into the distribution mains.
In this system number of pumps required with varying power rates
depends on the demand of water.
• Advantage
1. With varying power rate of pumps high pressure of distribution can be
achieved.
2. Fire demand can meet due to high pressure of water.
3. Suitable for any type of topography.
• Disadvantage
Entire distribution system of locality get collapsed when there is no
electricity.
Maintenance of pump is essential otherwise it can affects the working of
pump.
More electricity bill. There are more losses and wastages.
3. Combined gravity and Pumping system :
• Pumping Water distribution Method:
In this system the treated water to be supplied is pumped
and stored in ESR from which it is supplied to the consumers
under gravity.
This system is adopted where treated water to be supplied
is available at almost the same level as the distribution area.
Hence to get available head to water it is stored in ESR.
• Advantage
a)High pressure of distribution can be achieved.
b)Fire demand can be satisfied.
c) Pumps work for uniform rate so less wearing and tearing
occurs. Hence it is economical.
• Disadvantage
a)When no electricity, it disturbs the distribution of locality.
b)Electricity bill generates for pumping.
 Layout of Distribution System :
OR
Layout of Distribution Network :

1. Dead end system (Tree system)

2. Grid iron system (Reticulation system)

3. Circular system ( Ring system)

4. Radial system
 1. Dead end system (Tree system)
1. In this system a main line is taken from the reservoir along the main road. The
sub mains are taken suitably from the main line.
2. Cut off valves are provided at the entry of sub mains. From sub mains, the
branch lines are taken from which service connections are given to the
consumers through ferrule.
3. The ends of sub mains and branch lines are stopped by scour valves which are
known as dead ends. For washing the pipe lines are opened periodically and
stagnant water is allowed to flow out. It is also called as tree system.
4. Due to dead ends there is no free circulation of water and the water remains
stagnant in the pipe line. This system is suitable for irregular developing town
or city.
 Advantages :
a) Cheap in initial cost
b) Easy determination of pipe sizes
c) Laying of pipes simple
d) Less no of Valves are required
 Disadvantages :
a) Due to stagnation, water gets polluted
b) In case of repairs, the whole locality beyond that point gets affected
c) This system cannot meet fire demand
Dead end system (Tree system)
 2. Grid Iron system
• This is also called interspaced or reticulation system. In this system, the water
mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
• The mains, sub-mains and branches are interconnected with each other.
• Main runs through the centre of the area and to the both sides on main pipe line
sub-main pipes run perpendicular to main. Branch lines interconnect to all sub-
mains.
• Such that water circulates through the entire distribution system.
Advantages:
(a) In case of repairs, a very small portion of the distribution system area will be
affected.
(b) In case of fire, water is available from all directions.
(c) As there are no dead ends, water circulates freely.
(d) Loss of head is minimum at all points in the system.
Disadvantages :
(a) The cost of laying of water pipes is more.
(b) Exact calculation of pipe sizes is difficult.
(c) Long pipes are required.
(d) More valves are required for operation.
Grid Iron system
 3. Circular system
• This system is also called as Ring system. In this system a closed ring, either
circular or rectangular of the main pipe is laid around the area to be served.
• The entire distribution area is divided into small circular or rectangular blocks and
around its periphery main pipes are laid.
• The sub-main pipes take off from main and run on the interior of the area. Thus in
this system water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.
• This system is most suitable for cities having well planned streets and roads.
Advantages:
(a) In case of repairs, a very small portion of the distribution system area will be
affected.
(b) In case of fire, water is available from all directions.
(c) As there are no dead ends, water circulates freely.
(d) In this system water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.
Disadvantages :
(a) The cost of laying of water pipes is more.
(b) Exact calculation of pipe sizes is difficult.
(c) Long pipes are required.
(d) More valves are required for operation.
Circular system
 4. Radial system
1. This system of distribution is mostly suitable for radial road pattern laid cities
or towns.
2. This system is reverse of ring system. In radial system the entire district is
divided into various zones and one distribution reservoir (DR) is provided for
each zone at centre.
3. Water obtained from main pipe is carried by sub-main towards centre
distribution reservoir of each zone and pumped into the distribution reservoir
(DR). From DR water is supplied radially through branch pipes to consumers.
4. This system gives quick and efficient water distribution with high distribution
pressure. Hence also can meet fire demand easily.
5. Calculation for design of sizes are also simple.
Radial system
I.S. codes for Quality of water
1. IS 10500 drinking water standard
2. IS 3025 physical & chemical testing on water
3. IS 1622 biological testing on water
4. IS 14543 packaged drinking water testing
5. IS 4251 water for food processing industries
6. IS 11624 water for agriculture & irrigation
7. IS 1172 water supply for drainage, sanitation
 QUALITY OF WATER
My drinking water is Potable water.
1. Pure water ?
2. Wholesome water ?
3. Potable water ?
4. Palatable water ?
5. Distilled water ?
6. Polluted water ?
7. Contaminated water ?
8. Both polluted & contaminated water ?
Pure water : Water which is formed of exactly two parts
of Hydrogen and one part of Oxygen (H2O) is called as
pure water.
• Rain water is an example of pure water but Practically
pure water doesn’t exist.
• When rain drops fall down from clouds, every droplet
absorb atmospheric air pollutant and hence doesn’t
remain pure so actually do not get pure water.
• Pure water has pH exactly 7.

Mineral water : Water containing minerals with

acceptable limits specified by BIS & WHO is called as
mineral water.
 Quality of water OR characteristic of
water
Enlist various tests for potable water
1. Physical test
2. Chemical test
3. Biological test
1. Physical Characteristics

These affect the appearance and sensory perception of water:

●​ Color: Indicates presence of organic matter or industrial waste.

●​ Odor & Taste: Caused by dissolved gases (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) or microbial
activity.
●​ Temperature: Influences chemical reactions and biological activity.
●​ Turbidity: Cloudiness due to suspended particles; measured in NTU
(Nephelometric Turbidity Units).

2. Chemical Parameters

These determine water’s chemical composition and potential toxicity:

●​ pH: Measures acidity/alkalinity; ideal range is 6.5–8.5.

●​ Hardness: Caused by calcium and magnesium; affects soap usage and scaling.
●​ Alkalinity: Water’s ability to neutralize acids; linked to carbonate content.
●​ Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Essential for aquatic life; low DO indicates pollution.
●​ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Amount of oxygen needed by microbes to
decompose organic matter.
●​ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Measures total quantity of oxygen required to
oxidize pollutants.
 ●​ Nitrates & Phosphates: Excess levels cause eutrophication.
●​ Heavy Metals: Lead, arsenic, mercury—highly toxic even in small amounts.

3. Biological Indicators

Used to assess microbial contamination:

●​ Coliform Bacteria: Presence indicates fecal contamination.

●​ E. coli: Specific indicator of sewage pollution.
●​ Algae & Plankton: Overgrowth can signal nutrient pollution.
 ●​ Algae It is a single cell green plant that grows in the presence of sunlight with
photosynthesis. It imparts color bad taste to water and increases alkalinity and
hardness of water.
●​ Fungi It is single cell parasite plant grows in the absence of sunlight under
anaerobic process It causes water born diseases like gastro intestinal diseases,
diarrhea and stomach infection
●​ Plankton These are microscopic plants and animals float in water. Most of the
cases they are not injurious to health but they affect the palatability of water.
Large quantity planktons impart color to water.
●​ Protozoa These are parasite bacterias which cause diseases to the human body
like typhoid, cholera called protozoal [Link] excreta containing
protozoa mix in source of water, it contaminates the water and spreads the
infection.

What Are Waterborne Diseases?

Waterborne diseases are illnesses caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites)

that spread through contaminated water. They’re most common in areas with poor
sanitation, unsafe drinking water, and inadequate hygiene.

How They Spread

●​ Fecal contamination of drinking water

●​ Poor sanitation and open defecation
 ●​ Flooding and sewage overflow during monsoon
●​ Improper food handling using unclean water
●​ Swimming in infected lakes or pools

Diagnosis

●​ Stool tests to detect bacteria, viruses, or parasites

●​ Blood tests for antibodies or liver function
●​ Imaging in severe cases (e.g. liver damage)
●​ Endoscopy for gastrointestinal complications