1|Page

Unit 3: Group &Team Behaviour

Groups and Work Teams

A group is defined as two or more individuals who interact with each other to achieve
common or individual objectives. Group members influence one another’s behaviour and
share certain norms and values. Groups may be formal, created by the organization (such as
departments or committees), or informal, formed naturally based on social relationships.

A work team is a special type of group in which members work interdependently to achieve
a common organizational goal and are mutually accountable for performance. Teams
emphasize collaboration, synergy, and shared responsibility.

Characteristics of a Group:

 Interaction among members

 Common objectives

 Sense of belonging

 Shared norms and values

Interaction among
members

Common
Sense of
objective
belonging
or intrest

Two or more
individual

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

2|Page

Five Stage Model of Group Development:

Stage 1- Forming Stage

The first stage of group development is the forming stage. This stage presents a time where the group
is just starting to come together and is described with anxiety and uncertainty.

Members are discreet with their behavior, which is driven by their desire to be accepted by all
members of the group. Conflict, controversy, misunderstanding and personal opinions are avoided
even though members are starting to form impressions of each other and gain an understanding of
what the group will do together.

Typical consequences of the forming stage include achieving an understanding of the group's
purpose, determining how the team is going to be organized and who will be responsible for
what, discussion of major milestones or phases of the group's goal that includes a rough
project schedule, outlining general group rules that includes when they will meet and
discovery of what resources will be available for the group to use.

At this stage, group members are learning what to do, how the group is going to operate, what
is expected, and what is acceptable.

Stage 2- Storming Stage

The second stage of group development is known as the storming stage. The storming stage is
where conflict and competition are at their greatest.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

3|Page

This is because now that group members have an understanding of the task and a general feel
for who they are as a group and who group members are, they feel confident and begin to
address some of the more important issues surrounding the group.

Such issues can relate to things like the group’s tasks, individual roles, and responsibilities or
even to the group members themselves.

The storming stage is where the more dominant of the group members emerge, while other,
less confrontational members stay in the comfort and security of suppressing their feelings
just as they did in the previous stage.

Even though these individuals stay quiet, issues may still exist. All members have an
increased need for clarification.

Questions surrounding leadership, authority, rules, responsibilities, structure, evaluation

criteria, and reward systems tend to arise during the storming stage.

Such questions must be answered so that the group can move on to the next stage.
Consequently, not all groups are able to move past the storming stage.

Stage 3- Norming Stage

Once a group receives the clarity that it so desperately needs, it can move on to the third stage
of group development, known as the norming stage.

The norming stage is the time when the group becomes a cohesive unit. Morale is high as
group members actively acknowledge the talents, skills, and experience that each member
brings to the group. A sense of community is established, and the group remains focused on
the group’s purpose and goal. Members are flexible, interdependent, and trust each other.

Leadership is shared, and members are willing to adapt to the group’s needs. Information
flows seamlessly and is uninhibited due to members’ sense of security in the norming stage.

Stage 4- Performing Stage

At its peak, the group moves into the fourth stage of group development, known as the
performing stage. The performing stage is marked by high productivity.

Group members are unified, loyal, and supportive. Competence in all members is seen,
allowing for a high level of autonomy in decision-making. Problem-solving, experimentation,

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

4|Page

and testing possible solutions are high as group members focus on task completion and
achievement.

The group’s overall objective during the performing stage is to complete its mission.

Stage 5- Adjourning Stage

For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development.

However, there is an adjourning stage for temporary committees, teams, task forces, and
similar groups that have a limited task to perform.

Even the most successful groups, committees, and project teams disband sooner or later.
Their breakup is called adjournment, which requires dissolving intense social relations and
returning to permanent assignments.

The adjournment stage is becoming even more frequent with the advent of flexible
organizations, which feature temporary groups.

GroupThink & GroupShift:

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon where group members strive for unanimity at

the cost of rational decision-making. It occurs due to pressure to conform, dominance of
leadership, and fear of criticism. Groupthink leads to poor decisions, lack of creativity, and
ignoring alternative solutions.

Group shift refers to the tendency of group decisions to be more extreme than individual
decisions. It can result in either:

 Risky shift, where groups take higher risks, or

 Cautious shift, where decisions become overly conservative.

Both phenomena significantly influence group decision-making outcomes.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

5|Page

TYPES OF GROUPS:
Sociologists and psychologists who study the social behaviour of people in organisations
identify several different types of groups.

Standing Task Frienship

Group Interest
Task Group Reference

Formal Informal

Change of
In or Out
Membership

Closed Group In group

Open Group Out Group

Formal Groups:

A formal group is one that is deliberately created to perform a specific task. Members are
usually appointed by the organisation, but it may not always be the case. A number of people
assigned to a specific task form a formal group. One example of a group is a committee and
other examples are work units, such as a small department, a research and development
laboratory, a management team or a small assembly line. A distinctive feature of formal
groups is that a hierarchy of authority exists, with specified member rules and regulations.
Rules, regulations, incentives and sanctions guide the behaviour of small groups

A standing task group, also known as command group, is permanently specified in the
organisational structure and consists of a supervisor who exercises formal authority over
subordinates. The foreman and his group of subordinates constitute a command group.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

6|Page

A task group is a temporary formal group that is created to solve specific problems. The
group comprises employees who work together to complete a particular task or project, but
who do not necessarily report to the same supervisor. The employees belong to different
departments. They stay together till the task is completed and once the work is completed, the
task group usually disbands and members return to their respective task groups.

Informal Groups:

An informal group, also called a clique, is an alliance that is neither formally structured, nor
organisationally determined. Informal groups are natural formations in the work environment
which appear in response to the need for social contact. They often develop within formal
group out of certain values or concerns which some members find they share. They may also
develop across or outside of formal groups. Whatever may be the way of formation, informal
groups obviously do not possess formal structures. Rather, member roles are loosely defined,
based on member expectations and the needs of a group at any particular moment. Interest
group, friendship group and reference group are part of informal groups.

An interest group is made up of individuals who affiliate to achieve an objective of mutual

interest that may have nothing to do with their formal task group memberships. Working
mothers who lobby together to get their organisation to facilitate their multiple roles by
providing day care facilities on the premises, flexitime and shared job assignments is an
example.

A friendship group also develops on common characteristics such as marital status, political
views, college affiliations and sports. Friendship groups are important because they satisfy
affiliation needs of their members. Enlightened managers maintain good relations with
friendship groups because these groups have tremendous influence on their members that
managers would prefer to have directed towards organisational goals.

A reference group is any group with which an individual identifies for the purpose of
forming opinions or making decisions. Reference groups are the bases for many interest and
friendship groups, but they may also exist outside of the organisation and still influence a
person's behaviour at work. Reference groups are based on such factors as race, gender,
politics, religion, social class, education level, profession and the like. Reference groups
provide values for individuals on which to base personal decisions and norms that justify

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

7|Page

social behaviour, both of which may or may not be congruent with organisational
preferences.

Open and Closed Groups:

Another basis for classifying groups is whether they are open closed. At the one extreme is
the completely open group, which is in a constant state of change at the other extreme is the
completely closed group, which is quite stable. Open groups differ from closed groups in four
respects - changing membership, frame of reference, time perspective and equilibrium.

With regard to changing group membership, in open groups, true to their nature, members
keep changing- new members joining and existing ones leaving.

A good deal of time is devoted to socialising new members A closed group maintains a
relatively stable membership, with few additions and losses in members over time. Power and
status relationships are usually well established and fixed.

With regard to frame of reference, it may be mentioned that a high rate of turnover in an open
group helps it to expand its frame of reference. New members bring new perspectives the
group's activities and problems. The expanded frame of reference in an open group can
enhance creativity. The stability of membership in closed groups, on the other hand, usually
results in a relatively narrow frame of reference. Bereft of the challenge from new members
who bring in fresh ideas, a closed group can become very unlikely to change its established
perspectives.

An open group has a relatively short time perspective. The instability and constant change of
an open group make it difficult for the group to have long time horizons. Since membership
may be brief, members' perspectives for group activities are oriented towards the present or
very near future. In contrast, the stable membership of a closed group enables it to maintain
much longer time horizon. Members, because of their long association with closed groups
able to recollect the history of the group and their expectations for continued long association
enable them to use long-term planning.

In-groups and Out-groups:

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

8|Page

A distinction is also made between in-groups and out-groups. The groups to which we belong
are in-groups and groups to which we do not belong are out-groups, especially if we look
upon them with a certain amount of antagonism. The in-group versus out-group concept is
applicable to friendly rivalries between schools, clubs and associations, but is also applicable
to much more hostile groups. On a small-scale, it is descriptive of violent neighbourhood
gangs; on a larger-scale it is descriptive of wars between nations.

Indian Perspective on Group Norms:

Group norms are the shared rules, expectations, and standards that guide the behavior of
members within a group. In the Indian context, group norms are strongly influenced by
cultural values, social structure, traditions, and collective living.

1. Collectivism and Group Orientation

Indian society is largely collectivist, where group interests are given priority over individual
interests. People tend to value harmony, cooperation, and group loyalty. Decisions are often
made keeping the welfare of the family, organization, or community in mind rather than
personal gain.

2. Respect for Authority and Hierarchy

Indian groups generally follow a hierarchical structure. Age, experience, designation, and
social status command respect. Group norms emphasize obedience to seniors, managers,
teachers, and elders. Questioning authority openly is often discouraged.

3. Strong Influence of Family and Social Background

Family values, caste, religion, and regional culture strongly shape individual behavior in
groups. Norms learned in families—such as respect, discipline, and obedience—are reflected
in workplace and educational groups.

4. Emphasis on Harmony and Conflict Avoidance

Indian group norms encourage maintaining harmony and avoiding open confrontation.
Members prefer indirect communication, compromise, or silence rather than direct
disagreement. Preserving relationships is often more important than winning arguments.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

9|Page

5. Informal Relationships and Emotional Bonds

Groups in India are often characterized by personal relationships and emotional attachment.
Informal interactions, trust, and mutual support play a significant role in group functioning,
especially in family businesses and small organizations.

6. Role of Social and Moral Values

Group norms are influenced by ethical values such as dharma (duty), loyalty, respect, and
responsibility. Members are expected to act morally and consider the social consequences of
their actions.

7. Conformity and Peer Influence

There is a strong tendency toward conformity within Indian groups. Members often follow
group norms to gain acceptance and avoid social disapproval. Deviating from group
expectations may lead to exclusion or criticism.

8. Importance of Seniority and Experience

Seniority-based norms are common. Experienced members are seen as mentors and decision-
makers. Younger or junior members are expected to learn, observe, and follow instructions
rather than challenge norms.

9. Flexible and Situational Norms

While norms are strong, Indian groups also show flexibility. Adjustments are made based on
relationships, situations, festivals, and social obligations, reflecting a balance between rules
and human considerations.

10. Workplace Implications

In Indian organizations:

 Team loyalty is valued

 Informal leadership is common

 Decisions may be relationship-driven

 Group norms influence productivity, discipline, and morale

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

10 | P a g e

TEAMS VS. GROUPS:

A Team is a group of people with complimentary skills, who are committed to a common
purpose, common performance goals, and an approach for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable.

Looking at the meaning of a team, there appears hardly any difference between & and a team.
But the two are not same. The following points differentiate between the two:

Teams Groups
Leadership Shared roles Formal-established
Accountability Shared and Individual Individual
Performance Collective and synergistic Sum of individual outputs
Skills Complementary Diverse
Orientation Common commitment Common goal

First, in groups, work performance typically depends on the work of individual members The
performance of a team, however, depends on both individual contributions and collective
efforts of team-members working in concert.

Second, groups and teams differ in their accountability for jobs. Typically, members of
groups pool their resources to attain a goal, although it is individual performance that is
considered while rewarding. Members of groups usually do not take responsibility for any
results other than their own. In contrast, teams focus on both individual and mutual
accountability. Team-members work together to produce an outcome that represents their
joint contributions, and each team-member shares responsibility for that outcome. Thus, in
groups the supervisors hold individual members accountable for their work, whereas in
teams, members hold themselves accountable.

Third, group members may share a common goal, but team-members share a common
commitment to purpose. The commitment to goal attainment is what separates teams from
groups. For example, a work team in a financially troubled company may be highly
committed to making the plant the top one in its industry. Such commitment may be lacking
in a group, though members too share a common interest.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

11 | P a g e

Fourth, both groups as well as teams differ in their respective connections with management.
Groups are required to be responsive to demands regularly placed on them by management.
In contrast, once management established the mission for a team, and sets goals for it to
achieve, it gives the team enough freedom and flexibility to do its job without any further
interference. In other words, teams are free to set their own goals, timing, and the approach
they wish to adopt without interference from management. The teams are self-managing and
are autonomous.

Finally, members in a group possess diverse skills but the skills of team-members are
complementary.

TYPES OF TEAMS:

In view of their widespread popularity, various types of teams have come to stay. One y way
to classify teams is by what functions do they discharge; for example, some teams make or do
things, some teams recommend things, and some teams run things. The most common type of
teams are work teams, problem-solving teams, management teams, departmental teams
advisory teams, skunk-works, QCs, self-directed teams and virtual teams.

1. Quality Circles:

Quality circles (QCs) are small teams of employees (usually 7 to 10) who meet for a few
hours each week to identify quality and productive problems, propose solutions to
management and monitor the implementation and consequences of these solutions in their
work area. Usually, the employees are members of a work unit from the same department.
Often, their supervisor serves as the circle leader, while a staff member is a facilitator who
helps guide the circle through the problem-solving process. The primary topics of discussion
of most circles is issues related to quality, but they do consider other topics such as cost,
safety and efficiency.

Managements facilitate QC programme through skills training and listening to periodic

presentations and recommendations. Monetary rewards for suggestions are often awarded but

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

12 | P a g e

not always. In fact, intrinsic motivation, derived from learning new skills and meaningful
participation are the primary pay-offs for QC volunteers. Quality circles are credited with

Empowerd
Team
Departmental
Quality Circle
Teams

Self Directed

Teams
Work Teams
Teams

Management Advisory
Teams Teams

Problem
Virtual Team
Solving Teams

producing quick, concrete and impressive results when correctly implemented. Their
advantages include the following:

(1) Employees are involved in decision making. This privilege makes them acquire
communication and analytical skills and improve efficiency at workplace.

(ii) Saving cost ratios are generally higher than those achieved with other productivity
improvement programmes.

(iii) Because the programme is voluntary, employees and unions generally do not view them
as another cost-saving effort.

(iv) Circle members enhance their chances of promotion to supervisory positions.

2. Self-managed Teams:

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

13 | P a g e

Also called empowered teams, autonomous work groups, self-managed teams are catching on
everywhere, These are employee groups given a high degree of decision-making
responsibility and behaviour control for completing their work. Usually, the team is
empowered or given the responsibility for producing the entire product or service. A team
essentially replaces the boss by taking over responsibilities for scheduling, hiring, ordering,
and firing.

Empowered teams have some similarities to QCs because they are based on employee
participation, but they also have differences. For example, autonomous work groups usually
elect an internal leader who also serves as full-time member. Management may appoint an
external leader or co-ordinator. The external leader serves primarily as a facilitator rather than
as a supervisor. He or she may assist the team-members in receiving feedback on the quality
and quantity of their performance as well as make any structural changes in the work design.
The co-ordinator is also responsible for helping the team acquire the needed resources and
technical assistance.

3. Work Teams:

These are primarily concerned with the work done by the organisation, such as developing
and manufacturing new products, providing services for customers, and so on. Their principal
focus is on using the organisation's resources effectively. Towards this end, work teams are
highly empowered.

4. Problem-solving Teams:

These are temporary teams established to attack specific problems in the workplace as
illustrated in the opening case to this chapter. After solving the problems, the team is usually
disbanded, allowing members to return to their normal work. Problem-solving teams are
often cross-functional, meaning that team-members come from different functional areas.
These teams generally offer recommendations for others to implement.

5. Management Teams:

These consist of managers from various areas and co-ordinate work teams. They are
relatively permanent because their work does not end with the completion of a particular
project or the resolution of a problem. Management teams must concentrate on the teams that
have the most impact on overall corporate performance. The primary job of management
teams is to coach and counsel other teams to be self-managing by making decisions within

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

14 | P a g e

the teams. The second most important task of management teams is to co-ordinate work
between work teams that are interdependent in some manner.

6. Virtual Teams:

These are the teams that may never actually meet together in the same room their activities
take place on the computer via teleconferencing and other electronic information systems.
Engineers in the US, for example, can contact audibly and visually with counterparts all
around the globe, sharing files via Internet, electronic mail, and other communication
networks; all participants can look at the same drawing print, or specifications. Decisions are
made much faster. With electronic communication systems, team-members can move in or
out of a team or a team discussion as the issues demand.

The core features of virtual teams are goals, people, and links. Goals are important to any
team, but especially so to a virtual team. Clear, precise, and mutually agreed upon goals are
the glue that holds a virtual team together. The roles of hierarchy, including the ability to hire
and fire by a superior, and bureaucracy, including the use of rules and regulations to guide
outcomes, are minimised in virtual teams.

7. Departmental Teams:

These teams are formed department-wise in an organisation, and the members attend to the
tasks related to it. HR department teams, for example, resolve employee related conflicts.

8. Advisory Teams:

These teams provide recommendations to decision makers. They include committees, work
councils, and review panels. Teams are mostly permanent. Members rotate often.

9. Skunkworks:

Skunkworks are multi-skilled teams that are usually located away from the organisation and
are relatively free from hierarchy. Skunkworks are entrepreneurial oriented engaged in design
of a product or service.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

15 | P a g e

Individual and Group Level Conflict:

 There are four levels of conflict in organizational life. Those are Intra-Individual,
Interindividual, Intra-group and Inter-group conflict.

Individual level of Conflict:

1. Intra Personal Conflict:

This refers to conflict within an individual. Intra-individual arises from frustration, numerous
roles which demand equal attention but is not always possible to devote, goals having both
negative and positive aspects, cognitive dissonances and neurotic tendencies.

Conflict from Frustration:

 Frustration occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches a

desired goal.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

16 | P a g e

 An individual driven by an inner state of deficiency engages himself or herself in

some action to fulfil the deficiency. But his or her attempts to reach the goal are
checked by barriers which may be overt (external) or covert (internal). External
barriers include floods, power failures and break-down of transportation. These are
non-social in nature. There are external barriers which are social they are placed by
others in the way of reaching one's goals. Examples of social barriers are: parents
forcing a child to sit on the toilet, making him refrain from sex play, making him stay
in the room, or denying him the pleasure of watching television. Internal barriers are:
personal limitations and disabilities which thwart one's aspirations. Weakness,
physical deformities, lack of skill, or low intelligence may stand in the way of
achievement. Internal barriers are more lasting than external ones.

 Blocked by overt or covert barriers, the individual becomes frustrated as he or she is

unable to reach his or her goal. Frustration normally triggers defence mechanisms in
the person

 The frustrated individual adopts any of the four defense mechanisms: aggression,
withdrawal, fixation and compromise. Aggression refers to the attack of barriers
physically or symbolically. Withdrawal refers to backing away from the barrier.
Fixation refers to the continuation of efforts to break the barrier. Compromise refers to
the search for a new goal. Conflict occurs in all the defense mechanism situations.

Goal Conflict:

 It is more complex than conflict from frustration. Goal conflict occurs when the
attainment of one goal excludes the possibility of attaining another. Four major forms
of goal conflict may be distinguished:

1. Approach-approach conflict

2. Approach-avoidance conflict

3. Avoidance-avoidance conflict

4. Multiple approach-avoidance conflict

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

17 | P a g e

 Approach-approach Conflict–

In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive valence which
are equally powerful. For example, a person has two attractive job offers and he has to
choose any one of them – tension arises. Such conflicts are not so harmful, because
after selecting one, the other on automatically subsides or loses its importance to him.
But in some situation choice will be very difficult. For example, a girl has to choose
either loving parents or a boyfriend for inter-caste marriage. Such cases are like “you
can’t have the cake and eat it too”

 Approach-avoidance Conflict –

This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve. Because in this type
of conflict a person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Here the
goal object will have both positive and negative valences. The positive valence
attracts the person, but as he approaches, the negative valence repels him back.
Attraction of goal and inability to approach it leads to frustration and tension. For
example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer, because the salary is attractive
but at the same time he is repelled back as the job is very risky. A man wants to marry
to lead a family life, but does not want the responsibilities of family life.

 Avoidance-avoidance Conflict –

This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual is
forced to choose one among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are unwanted
goals, but he cannot keep quiet without opting also. For example, woman has to work
for helping in family earning or she has to remain unemployed. Here the individual is
caught between two repelling threats, fears or situations. When she cannot choose
either of them, she may try to escape from the field itself. But the consequences of the
escape may also be harmful. For example, a married person who cannot able to
convince his mother or wife may resort to any type of addiction like alcohol, smoking,
which is otherwise dangerous or some people may even commit suicide. Sometimes,
when there is no way to escape, some people may find another way to reduce their
tension by developing ‘amnesia’ or defence mechanisms like regression or fantasy.

 Multi approach-avoidance Conflict–

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

18 | P a g e

Some of the situation in life we come across will involve both positive and negative
valences of multiple nature. Suppose a woman is engaged to be married. The marriage
to her has positive valances like providing security to life and marring a person whom
she loves very much. Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her
because she has to quit her attractive job and salary, recognition which makes her
dependent, the situation builds up tension in her. The resolution of this conflict
depends upon the sum total of both valences. If the sum total of attractive valence
takes upper hand, she will quit the job and go for marriage; otherwise, she may reject
marriage and continue the job if the sum total of negative valence is powerful.

Role Conflict:

Role conflict in organizational behavior refers to the state where an individual's various roles
carry opposing expectations, pressures, or demands, causing stress and discomfort. This
psychological conflict may arise within a single job role or between two or more different
roles that the individual occupies. Role conflict can lead to interpersonal friction, emotional
intensity, and can have significant impacts on both individuals and organizations. It is a
common issue in organizations, stemming from ambiguities in role definitions, expectations,
and responsibilities. By clearly defining roles, fostering effective communication,
encouraging role negotiation, and providing supportive leadership, organizations can mitigate
the effects of role conflicts and create a more harmonious work environment.

2. Inter personal Conflict

This conflict occurs between two individuals in an organization. It arises mainly because of
differences in perception, temperaments, personalities, values systems, socio-cultural factors
and role ambiguities. Transactional Analysis (TA), Johari window, Stroking and Life
positions seek to explain the phenomenon of interpersonal conflict.

 Transactional Analysis:
When two people interact with each other, there results a social transaction. Analysis
of the social transactional is called Transactional Analysis (TA).
A formal definition of TA is that it is “The study of moves people make in their
dealings with each other and is based on the idea that people’s interactions resemble

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

19 | P a g e

moves in games”. Basic to Transactional Analysis (TA) has two assumptions i.e Ego
state and Social Transaction.
TA was introduced by Eric Berne and popularized by Thomas Harris in the 1960s. TA
has found its acceptance everywhere because of several advantages associated with it.
The advantages are:
(i) The bases of TA are simple to learn.
(ii) The validity of TA is demonstrable.
(iii) It provides a means for reducing the amount of bad feelings experienced by an
individual.
(iv) It increases efficient use of time.
(v) Helps promote effective communication.
(vi) It is applicable at home as it is at work.
(vii) It reinforces and implements other management development activities,
including communication, leadership, brainstorming, management by objective, job
enrichment, conflict resolution, and the like.
TA has certain limitations which are not to be ignored. They are:
(i) Few scientific studies of its outcome are available.
(ii) Ego states, basic to understand and utilize TA, are difficult to define (although
easy to teach and demonstrate operationally).
(iii) If inappropriately applied, TA tends to encourage "amateur psychologising."
(iv) TA jargon may lead to more "cuteness" than insight into human encounter.
(v) It can be used as a put down, or a discount, in inter-personal relations.

Ego State – A person has three ego states, parent, adult and child.

 The Parent ego state represents the part of a person’s personality that is authoritative,
dogmatic, overprotective, controlling, nurturing, critical and righteous. The
characteristics are usually learnt from one’s parents or other adults who guided one’s
early life experiences. The parent is, therefore, the “taught” ego state.
 The Adult ego state represents the mature, rational and objective part of person’s
personality. These characteristics are acquired as one matures into adolescence and
adulthood. The individual gathers relevant information, analyses it carefully,
generates alternatives and makes logical choices. The adult is the “Thinking” ego

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

20 | P a g e

state. In the adult state, people do no act impulsively or in a domineering way. In

dealing with other people, the adult state is characterized by fairness and objectivity.
 The Child ego state represents the childish, dependent and immature part of a
person’s personality. These characteristics grow out of one’s childhood experiences.
Behaviours that are influenced by the ego state are laden with emotion,
insubordination, joy or rebellion. Child is the “Felt” ego state.

 According to Berne, people interact with each other from the child, adult or parent
ego state. Depending on the kinds of ego states involved, the interaction can be either
complementary, crossed or ulterior.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

21 | P a g e

 Complementary Transactions
A complementary transaction happens when the reply comes from the exact ego state
the first person was expecting, so the conversation flows smoothly without any
confusion or clash.
When this complementary transaction happens from an adult-to-adult state, it is
thought to be the best type of communication, as it is respectful and reduces conflicts.
For example, if you ask from an Adult state, “What time does the meeting start?” and
the other person answers from their Adult state, “It starts at 2 p.m.,” that’s
complementary.
In TA, Adult-to-Adult complementary transactions are considered the healthiest
because they’re respectful, balanced, and based on the present situation rather than
past conditioning.
 Crossed Transactions
Crossed transactions occur when the sender’s message is aimed at one ego state, but
the receiver replies from a different one. In other words, the communication lines
don’t match.
This mismatch creates tension or misunderstanding, which can be visualized in TA
diagrams as arrows that cross rather than run parallel.
For example, imagine a customer complaining about a recent purchase.
They speak in a Critical Parent tone, using belittling language, assuming the mistake
was intentional, and threatening to report you.
Their goal is to pull you into a Child position—apologetic, submissive, and
reinforcing their authority.
If you respond instead from your Adult state – calm, factual, and focused on solving
the problem – you break their expected pattern.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

22 | P a g e

Ulterior Transactions
Ulterior transactions occur when a sender delivers two messages at the same time –
one overt and one hidden.
On the surface, the message appears to come from the sender’s Adult state to the
receiver’s Adult state, suggesting a straightforward, rational exchange.
Beneath the surface, however, there’s a subtle message coming from the
sender’s Parent or Child state, aimed at the receiver’s corresponding Parent or Child
state.
For example, a teacher or friend might say, “You can choose to study subjects that
lead to becoming a doctor; however, it’s very hard and requires a lot of intelligence.”
Outwardly, this sounds like a respectful Adult-to-Adult statement with a cautionary
note.
But underneath, the real intent might be to trigger the listener’s Rebellious Child
– prompting them to think, “I’ll prove I’m smart enough to do it,” and work harder as
a result.
In TA, ulterior transactions are not just about words.
Tone of voice, body language, and facial expressions can all carry the hidden
message. Recognizing these subtle cues is essential for understanding the true
dynamics of an interaction.

 Johari Window
Developed by Joseph Luth and Harry Ingram, whose first names combine to produce
“Johari”, is highly useful in analyzing the causes of inter-personal conflict. The basic
premise of the Johari Window is that our personal and professional relationships can
be greatly improved (conflict eliminated) through understanding ourselves in depth
and choosing those aspects of self that can be shared with others. The Johari Window
divided into four categories.
 Open Self
The Open Self quadrant includes everything both you and others know about you
—like your skills, behaviors, experiences, and feelings. It’s the foundation of trust
and strong team relationships. The more this area grows, the easier it is to
communicate and collaborate effectively.
To expand the Open Self quadrant:

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

23 | P a g e

 Share information openly – Talk about your role, experiences, and strengths
during team interactions.
 Encourage open communication – Make it easy for everyone to express ideas
and concerns.
 Create a safe, inclusive environment – When people feel respected, they’re
more willing to share.
 Hold regular feedback sessions – Honest, constructive feedback helps uncover
shared understanding.

 The Blind Spot

The Blind Spot includes things others notice about us—but we don’t see
ourselves. This might be a habit, tone, or attitude that’s clear to your team but
invisible to you. If left unaddressed, blind spots can hurt communication and slow
down progress.
Here’s how to reduce blind spots:

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

24 | P a g e

 Encourage honest feedback – Create a space where feedback is welcomed

and seen as helpful, not critical.
 Keep it judgment-free – Make sure feedback is shared with care and a focus
on growth.
 Ask for feedback regularly – Don’t wait for reviews—check in often to learn
how others see you.
 Reflect and adjust – Take what you hear seriously, and look for ways to grow
from it.
 Hidden Self

The Hidden Self includes things you know about yourself but choose not to share
with others. This might be personal beliefs, feelings, fears, or experiences that you
keep [Link] key examples:

 Personal info – Preferences or values you feel aren’t relevant to share at

work.
 Sensitive topics – Emotions, fears, or past experiences that might affect how
you behave.
 Privacy vs. usefulness – It’s important to know what’s okay to keep private
and what, if shared, could help the team understand you better.
 Unknown Area

The Unknown Area covers parts of yourself that neither you nor others know.
These hidden factors can quietly influence your behavior.

They include:

 Hidden talents you haven’t discovered yet

 Habits shaped by past experiences without your awareness

 Deep emotions that affect how you react

How to explore this area:

 Self-reflection: Take time to think deeply and try new things to uncover
hidden strengths.

 Feedback from others: Listen to what others notice about you that you might
miss.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

25 | P a g e

 Team activities: Group work can reveal hidden skills and behaviors.

 Professional support: Sometimes coaching or counseling helps uncover

deeper, unconscious issues.

 Stroking
Stroking refers to recognition of one’s presence by others. When we interact with
others, we expect others to say ‘Good morning’ or some such gesture to indicate that
we are being recognized. Strokes may be positive or negative. The stroke that makes
one feel cheerful is a positive stroke like word of recognition, affection, cuddling.
Negative stroke on the other hand, makes on feel sad like criticism and hatred and
scold are examples of negative strokes. People need strokes, mainly positive ones, but
not always. In the absence of positive strokes, people seek negative strokes, main
because of guilt or lack of self-image. Needless is to stress, that negative strokes cause
inter personal conflict.

 Life Position:
Each of us tend to exhibit one of four life positions. This life position influences our
behavior when we interact with people. What is interesting is that, these positions are
acquired by us very early in our childhood and stay with us throughout, hence, the
term ‘life position’. Although one life position tends to dominate a person's behavior,
other positions may be exhibited from time to time in specific situations. In others
words, there is one life position, but it is not the only one ever taken.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

26 | P a g e

Life position stems from a combination of two viewpoints, how people view
themselves? Second, how do they view other people in general. Either a positive
response (OK) or a negative response (not OK) results in four possible life positions.
They are:
I am not OK, You are OK
I am not OK, You are not OK
1 am OK, You are not OK
I am OK, You are OK
Of the four life positions, the ideal one is I am OK, You are OK. It shows healthy
acceptance of self and others. This life position, surprisingly can be learnt. Here is
good news and hope for society's well being. The other life positions are less
psychologically mature and less effective. What is more, they have potential for
interpersonal conflict.

Group Level Conflict:

Intra-group Conflict:

Inter-group conflict refers to disputes among some or all of a group’s members, which
often affect the group’s performance as happened in the opening case. Family run

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

27 | P a g e

business can be especially prone to severe intra-group and other types of conflicts. These
conflicts typically become more intense when an owner-founder approaches retirement,
actually retires or dies. The way the two sons of the late Dhirubhai Ambani fought on
ownership and control of Reliance Industries is a typical example.

Rarely do family businesses make it to the second and third generations. The biggest
obstacles to succession are the relationships among the family members who own the
business and bear responsibility for keeping it alive for another generation. What
determines whatever a family business soars or nosedives?. It depends, in large part, on
the respect that family members give each other in the workplace, their willingness to
take on roles at work different from those that they have at home, and their ability to
manage conflict.

Inter-group Conflict:

Inter-group conflict, also called organizational conflict, refers to the conflict between
groups. departments, or sections in an organization. Conflict between groups is frequent
and highly visible. The reasons for inter-group conflict are many. The most important of
them are explained below.

1. Task Inter-dependence:

Task inter-dependence refers to the extent to which two departments depend on

each other for assistance, information, compliance, or other coordinative acts in
the performance of their respective tasks. Task dependence may be pooled
dependence, sequential dependence, or reciprocal dependence.

Pooled inter-dependence exists when two teams function with relative

independence their combined output contributes to the overall performance.
Sequential inter-dependence occurs when one team's performance depends on
another team's prior performance. reciprocal inter-dependence teams exchange
outputs, and hence are mutually inter dependent in accomplishing their tasks. In
all the three types of inter-dependence, conflict arises from differences in
performance expectations. Conflict as a result of task inter-dependence will be
worst when:

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

28 | P a g e

(a) the more the activities of one group affect the performance of other groups;
(b) the wider the range of activities in a group that are affected by another, and
(c) the more unstructured the work flow is.21

2. Task Ambiguity:
Another important source of inter-group conflict arises when it is not clear which
group is responsible for performing certain activities; "things fall between the
cracks", and both groups are upset with each other. Task ambiguity arises when
the organization is growing or its environment is changing fast. Task ambiguity
can also occur from unstructured and non-directive leadership.

3. Goal Incompatibility:
Goal incompatibility leads to inter-group conflict. However hard managers try to
avoid incompatible goals for different organizational units, they do exist, leading
to conflict. The main objective of the quality assurance department, for example,
is to ensure uniform quality of all the units of output. This might clash with the
production department which desires somehow to push through the units, minor
deviations in quality notwithstanding.

4. Competition for Limited Resources:

Yet another source of inter-group conflict relates to competition for resources
which are limited in their supply. These resources may be tangible such as money,
materials, and other physical facilities, or they may be intangible, such as power,
status, and prestige. Each department tries to secure a larger share in the resources,
and this will result in conflict.

5. Competitive Reward Systems:

Managers seems to believe that better performance can be achieved through
competition, and this belief is reflected in their reward systems. Competition can
indeed increase the level of performance in work situations where tasks can be
performed independently. However, when tasks require high level of inter-
dependence, competition can hurt cooperation among members and work groups.
For example, conflict occurs when the personnel department is rewarded for

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

29 | P a g e

achieving cost reduction or the production department is given an award for better
industrial relations.

6. Line and Staff:

The traditional organizational structure which has line officers being assisted by
staff officers at different levels has inherent potential for conflict. One reason for
conflict lies in the background of line and staff personnel. The line manager, for
example, the works manager, may either rise from the lower ranks and reach his
position after some years of loyal service, or he may be technically qualified and
may enter the industry straight from university. He is not a status keeper or an
empire-builder, but is concerned with preserving his present status and authority
within his own empire. He is more loyal to his profession than to his employers.
He may see his future depending on mobility within the profession as opposed to
internal promotion. He is more of an individualist, more sophisticated, and
capable of better self-expression. The staff specialist is status conscious.
Their different backgrounds make line and staff officers look at each other with
suspicion. A lineman looks upon the staff officer as a theorist, an academic and
unrealistic. He resents the easy accessibility of the staff officer to the top
management. The staff specialist view the line executives as a mere "Cog in the
machine", incapable of thinking and discussing problems. He sees in the lineman
a barrier to his pursuit of perfection. He feels that the lineman resists new ides and
changes.

7. Intra-personal and Inter-personal Conflict:

Intra-personal and inter-personal-sources of conflict discussed earlier are reasons
for inter group conflict also.

Dynamics of Inter-group conflict: Inter-group conflict will have its impact on operations,
attitudes and behaviours of participants. There are intra-group and inter-group changes
because of conflict.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

30 | P a g e

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

31 | P a g e

Virtual Team:

Virtual teams are groups of colleagues that collaborate remotely. These teams tend to function
entirely out of virtual offices, and many lack a centralized homebase or do not visit
headquarters very often. These teammates work together by using technology.

The structure of virtual teams varies depending on the industry, company, and department.
Some virtual employees follow a traditional 9-5 schedule, while others are allowed a more
flexible schedule and can work whenever, as long as they work for the expected number of
hours each week. Typically, the organization or the manager sets the standard for when and
how employees are expected to be online.

Typical virtual teams are 100% remote and rarely meet, and working remotely is the default.
In contrast, hybrid teams work remotely part time and in-office part time, or have some team
members working remotely while others collaborate in-office. Non-remote and onsite teams
work in the same space 100% of the time. Companies can have a mix of in-person, hybrid,
and remote teams, and employees can be a member of multiple teams. For example, perhaps
managers regularly meet and exchange ideas online, yet rarely meet in person. Or, a project
leader may form a team of international employees to work on a special assignment from
their respective parts of the world. Organizations that work traditionally onsite should still
brush up on virtual work and management best practices because the need to collaborate
virtually may occasionally arise.

Virtual teams sometimes go by other names such as dispersed teams, distributed teams, and
remote teams.

Challenges of virtual teams

Here are the common struggles of remote teams.

1. Harder for teammates to get to know each other

In virtual offices, it may be months or even years before teammates meet each other. Some
teams never meet in person. In more traditional offices, coworkers can chit-chat and make
small talk in meetings, at the copier, in the breakroom, or over lunch. Communication in
virtual offices tends to be business-first. Very few folks schedule a Zoom call or send a direct
message just to say hi. These circumstances make it very hard for remote teammates to get to

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

32 | P a g e

know each other. In fact, team members may be unfamiliar with coworkers’ faces or names,
much less their personalities.

2. Sense of loneliness and isolation

Remote workers are prone to loneliness. Traditional offices have hustle and bustle and the
feeling of other folks being around. Home offices tend to be quieter and more secluded.
Remote employees can go hours, days, or even weeks without interacting with another
human being, depending on their job. Solitude can mean greater short term productivity,
however there are drawbacks to feeling alone for too long. Virtual teammates may not feel
like they are part of a team at all, may lack a sense of belonging, and can struggle to
understand how their work fits into the larger picture.

3. Conflicting schedules

Many virtual offices operate on flexible schedules where teammates can be online whenever
they please, as long as they clock the expected number of hours. Companies that do ask
teammates to be online during standard 9-5 often have team members in different timezones,
meaning schedules still are not fully synchronized. These conflicting schedules can make
communication and collaboration even more of a challenge. Team members may have to wait
for teammates to come online, which could delay answers and cause backups.

4. Dependence on technology

The virtual office is not a literal office, but rather a software suite. Remote teams are
dependent on technology, and technical issues can put a damper on productivity. For
example, Zoom malfunctions, unstable internet connections, Slack outages, or power loss.
These obstacles can range from a couple of minutes or hours of lost time, to whole days gone.
In some cases, teammates can work offline and transfer work later or use backup methods of
contact like phone calls. However, on a fundamental level, remote teams need technology to
operate.

5. Communication

Communication is important for all teams, yet is especially critical for virtual teams.
Conversations are more natural in traditional offices where coworkers see each other
regularly. Folks can misinterpret the tone of written messages, or may assume a colleague is
ignoring them when that colleague is just busy. Not to mention, the virtual office can create

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

33 | P a g e

an out-of-sight-out-of-mind effect that makes it easier to forget to respond to a colleague.

Communicating only via computer feels unnatural to most folks and requires practice to
master.

6. Culture

According to a survey by PwC, only 5% of leaders believe that companies can have a strong
culture without employees ever going to the office. Culture is one of the major challenges
that remote teams face. Virtual teammates have fewer shared experiences, especially since
each of their working environments is unique. Often, work is independent and each teammate
does his or her part separately. Not to mention, remote teams tend to have fewer natural
interactions. Under these conditions, it can be hard for these coworkers to form a cohesive
culture, never mind a positive one.

7. Zoom fatigue

Staring at the screen for long periods of time can be exhausting. Remote teams are prone to a
condition called Zoom fatigue. According to a Stanford article, causes include excessive
online eye contact, seeing yourself on screen, limited movement, and added awareness and
effort. Simply speaking, communicating via video conferencing feels unnatural, and adjusting
to the medium takes extra energy. Video calls tend to make us more self-conscious and are
typically less emotionally rewarding than chatting face to face.

8. Lack of management

Managing remote teams takes an entirely different approach and set of skills than managing
in-person teams. According to a report from the Association of Talent Development, only
56% of companies offer training in virtual management. Inexperienced managers may not
know how to train, get to know their reports, notice when teammates are dissatisfied or
struggling, encourage teamwork, or gauge progress when working completely virtually.
Striking the proper balance is hard, and many remote managers either micromanage or
undermanage.

Benefits of virtual teams

Here are some of the perks of being on a virtual team.

1. Geographical diversity

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

34 | P a g e

Taking teams virtual means that the group is not limited to folks who can commute to an
office building. Virtual teams can consist of members in different regions, time zones,
countries, and continents. Remote teams mean that professionals around the globe can work
together without traveling to meet. Virtual team members can live wherever they like and are
not limited to one particular city, or city-living in general. Some remote workers choose the
digital nomad life and travel while working remotely. One of the perks of being part of a
geographically dispersed team is getting a direct window to the world via coworkers.

2. Cultural diversity

Remote teams tend to be more culturally diverse than in-person teams. Often, team members
are spread out across different regions, countries, and continents, which means the blending
together of many different cultures instead of one homogenous culture. Also, the ability to
work remotely may remove barriers to entry that previously excluded certain groups. For
instance, flexible schedules make it easier for parents of young children or team members
with disabilities to work. Not having a commute means that folks who lack reliable
transportation or live far away from the company’s home base can join the team. Teammates
who share traditions and different perspectives with each other broaden each other’s horizons.

3. Reduced overhead

Virtual teams tend to have less overhead than in-person teams. Since teammates
telecommute, there is no need to rent office space, which can cut operation costs significantly.
Some companies reimburse employees for computers and equipment, internet and phone, and
home office furniture, however these costs still tend to be less than stocking and running an
office. While employees often wind up with increased utility costs, telecommuters save
money on commuting and parking costs, professional attire, and takeout lunches, and often
wind up saving money by working from home.

4. Increased productivity

A Stanford study found that working from home increased productivity by 13%. Most remote
workers report being more productive when telecommuting. Home offices are quieter and
have fewer distractions and disruptions. Zoom meetings tend to be shorter and more
controlled than traditional meetings, and teammates can arrive late or leave the meeting early
without disturbing other attendees. Remote workers can typically make their own hours and
optimize their workdays by being on the clock when they are most alert. Also, remote team

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli

35 | P a g e

members tend to take fewer sick days, both because they are exposed to fewer germs when
not in contact with officemates, and because some employees can still work from home when
recovering from minor illnesses. Because individuals tend to be more productive when
working remotely, teams are more productive too. Virtual teamwork tends to be independent
in nature, with each team member doing an assigned part and sharing the rewards of those
efforts with the rest of the team.

5. More flexibility for teammates

In-office teams have to compromise much more often than remote teams. Virtual teammates
have many more freedoms than their in-office counterparts. Individual team members can
create home offices that most suit their individual needs and tastes. In virtual offices, there
are no squabbles between teammates about noise or temperature, because each team member
can have their personal preference. Remote teams also offer team members more flexible
working hours. Team members do not need to have identical working schedules, as long as
there is some schedule overlap and the ability to collaborate.

Unit3 Group and Team Behavior Ms. Yashvi Chevli