Stream: ECE

Paper Name: Control Systems

Paper Code: EC 603 Contacts: 3L Credits: 3 Total Contact: 36
Semester: 6th

Course Objectives:

• To familiarize the students with concepts related to the operation analysis and
stabilization of control systems.
• To understand feedback systems (open loop and closed loop) and system modelling.
• To understand time domain and frequency domain analysis of control systems required
for stability analysis.
• To understand the recompense technique that can be used to stabilize control systems.

Course Outcome EC603:

EC603.1 Explain open loop, closed loop control systems and system modelling.

EC603.2 Determine the time responses of different systems to different

inputs.

EC603.3 Analyze the Stability of control system using root-locus, bode plot
and Nyquist technique.

EC603.4 Able to examine the absolute and relative stability of different

system.

EC603.5 Able to design different controller, compensator to meet the desired

specifications and analyze nonlinear control system using state
variable.

Pre requisite:
(1) Concepts in electrical circuits (Studied in Basic Electrical).
(2) Fundamental concepts on Laplace Transformation (studied in Mathematics)
MODULE <I>: INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS &
MODELLING.
Control system:
In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the development and
advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure shows the basic components of a
control system. Disregard the complexity of the system; it consists of an input (objective), the
control system and its output (result). Practically our day-to-day activities are affected by some
type of control systems. There are two main branches of control systems:

1) Open-loop systems and

2) Closed-loop systems.

Open-loop systems:
The open-loop system is also called the non-feedback system. This is the simpler of the two
systems. A simple example is illustrated by the speed control of an automobile as shown in
Figure below. In this open-loop system, there is no way to ensure the actual speed is close to the
desired speed automatically. The actual speed might be way off the desired speed because of the
wind speed and/or road conditions, such as uphill or downhill etc.

Closed-loop systems:
 The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. A simple closed-system is shown in
Figure below. It has a mechanism to ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed
automatically.

Modeling of electrical system:

Electrical circuits involving resistors, capacitors and inductors are considered. The behavior of
such systems is governed by Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws.

Resistor: Consider a resistance of ‘R’ Ω carrying current ‘I’ Amps as shown in Figure below,
then the voltage drop across it is v = R I

Inductor: Consider an inductor ― L’ H carrying current ’i ’ Amps as shown in Figure below,

then the voltage drop across it can be written as v = L di/dt

Capacitor: Consider a capacitor ’C’ carrying current ’i ’ Amps as shown in Figure below, then
the voltage drop across it can be written as v = (1/C)∫ i dt
Steps for modeling of electrical system
Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law or Kirchhoff’s current law to form the differential equations
describing electrical circuits comprising of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Example

Electrical systems
LRC circuit. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system shown. We obtain the following
equation;

L(di /dt) + Ri + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt =ei …………………….. (1)

1/ C ∫ i(t) dt =e0 ……………………………………….. (2)

Equation (1) & (2) give a mathematical model of the circuit. Taking the L.T. of equations
(1)&(2), assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain

Armature-Controlled dc motors
The dc motors have separately excited fields. They are either armature-controlled with fixed field
or field-controlled with fixed armature current. For example, dc motors used in instruments
employ a fixed permanent-magnet field, and the controlled signal is applied to the armature
terminals.

Consider the armature-controlled dc motor shown in the following figure.

Ra = armature-winding resistance, ohms

La = armature-winding inductance, henrys
ia = armature-winding current, amperes
if = field current, a-pares
ea = applied armature voltage, volt
eb = back emf, volts
θ = angular displacement of the motor shaft, radians
T = torque delivered by the motor, Newton*meter
J = equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load referred to the motor shaft kg.m2
f = equivalent viscous-friction coefficient of the motor and load referred to the motor shaft.
Newton*m/rad/s

T = k1 ia ψ where ψ is the air gap flux, ψ = kf if , k1 is constant

For the constant flux

Where Kb is a back emf constant -------------- (1)

The differential equation for the armature circuit

The armature current produces the torque which is applied to the inertia and friction; hence

Assuming that all initial conditions are condition are zero/and taking the L.T. of equations (1),
(2) & (3), we obtain
Kps θ (s) = Eb (s)
(Las+Ra ) Ia(s) + Eb (s) = Ea (s) (Js2 +fs)

θ (s) = T(s) = K Ia(s)

The T.F can be obtained is

Analogous Systems
Let us consider a mechanical (both translational and rotational) and electrical system as shown
in the fig.
From the fig (a)
We get M d2 x / dt2 + D d x / dt + K x = f

From the fig (b)

We get M d2 θ / dt2 + D d θ / dt + K θ = T

From the fig (c)

We get L d2 q / dt2 + R d q / dt + (1/C) q = V(t)

Where q = ∫i dt

They are two methods to get analogous system. These are (i) force- voltage (f-v) analogy and (ii)
force-current (f-c) analogy
Force –Voltage Analogy

Force – Current Analog

Block diagram

A control system may consist of a number of components. A block diagram of a system is a

pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.
Block
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The
functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal
to the block that produces the output.

Summing point
Although blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical operations, operations of
addition and subtraction are represented by a circle, called a summing point. As shown in Figure
a summing point may have one or several inputs. Each input has its own appropriate plus or
minus sign. A summing point has only one output and is equal to the algebraic sum of the inputs.

A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used by more than one block or summing point.
The transfer function is given inside the block
The input in this case is E(s)
The output in this case is C(s)
C(s) = G(s) E(s)
Functional block – each element of the practical system represented by block with its T.F.

Branches – lines showing the connection between the blocks

Arrow – associated with each branch to indicate the direction of flow of signal

Closed loop system

Summing point – comparing the different signals

Take off point – point from which signal is taken for feed back

Advantages of Block Diagram Representation

o Very simple to construct block diagram for a complicated system

o Function of individual element can be visualized

o Individual & Overall performance can be studied

o Over all transfer function can be calculated easily.

Simple or Canonical form of closed loop system

R(s) – Laplace of reference input r(t)

C(s) – Laplace of controlled output c(t)
E(s) – Laplace of error signal e(t)

B(s) – Laplace of feed back signal b(t)

G(s) – Forward path transfer function
H(s) – Feed back path transfer function

Block diagram reduction technique

Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by control engineers to
describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition
and interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used, together with transfer functions, to
represent the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined
as the relationship between an input signal and an output signal to a device.
Block diagram rules
Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems

Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series Step

2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops

Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards left

Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained

Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System

Problem 1

1. Obtain the Transfer function of the given block diagram

Signal Flow Graph Representation
Signal Flow Graph Representation of a system obtained from the equations, which shows the
flow of the signal

Signal flow graph

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations.
By taking Laplace transfer, the time domain differential equations governing a control system
can be transferred to a set of algebraic equation in s-domain. A signal-flow graph consists of a
network in which nodes are connected by directed branches. It depicts the flow of signals from
one point of a system to another and gives the relationships among the signals.
Basic Elements of a Signal flow graph
Node - a point representing a signal or variable.
Branch – unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.
Path – a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one node
to another node.
Loop – a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node and along the path no
node is met twice.
Nontouching loops – two loops are said to be non-touching if they do not have a common node.
Mason’s gain formula: The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of
signal flow graph is given by the net gain between the input and the output nodes is known as
overall gain of the system. Mason’s gain rule for the determination of the overall system gain is
given below.

Where M= gain between Xin and Xout

Xout =output node variable
Xin= input node variable
N = total number of forward paths
Pk= path gain of the kth forward path
∆=1-(sum of loop gains of all individual loop) + (sum of gain product of all possible
combinations of two nontouching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible combination of
three nontouching loops)
Problem
MODULE <II>: TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS.
Time response analysis-

We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time domain and the frequency
domain. But the Time domain analysis is mostly used. Thus, Time response analysis is also
called time domain analysis. Here, we study the response, i.e. the output as a function of time.

If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called the time
response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

• Transient response
• Steady state response

Total time response c(t) of a control system consists of transient response (dynamic response ct(t)
and steady state response css (t).

c(t) = ct(t) + css(t)

where c(t) = total time response

ct(t) = transient response

css(t) = steady-state response

The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.
Here, both the transient and the steady states are indicated in the figure. The responses
corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state responses.

Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

Where,

• ctr(t) is the transient response

• css(t) is the steady state response

Transient Response

After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady state. So,
the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the
control system during the transient state is known as transient response.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity
and practically, it is five times constant.

Steady state Response

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero value for
large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the transient response will be
zero even during the steady state.
Standard Test Signals

The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to know
the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.

Unit Impulse Signal

A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

The following figure shows unit impulse signal.

So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under small
interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero for all
other values of ‘t’.

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as We can write unit ramp signal, in terms of unit step signal,
as Following figure shows unit ramp signal.
So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value increases
linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is zero for all
negative values of ‘t’.

Unit Parabolic Signal

A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as, we can write unit parabolic signal in terms of the unit
step signal as, The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit parabolic
signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

Question and Answers

1. The system with the open loop transfer function 1/s(1+s) is:
a)Type 2 and order 1
b) Type 1 and order 1
c) Type 0 and order 0
d) Type 1 and order 2

Answer: d
Explanation: Type is defined as the number of poles at origin and order is defined as the total
number of poles and this is calculated with the help of the transfer function from the above
transfer function the type is 1 and order is 2.

2. The identical first order system have been cascaded non-interactively. The unit step response
of the systems will be:
a) Overdamped
b) Underdamped
c) Undamped
d) Critically damped

View Answer

Answer: d
Explanation: Since both the systems that is the first order systems are cascaded non-interactively,
the overall unit step response will be critically damped.

3. A third order system is approximated to an equivalent second order system. The rise time of
this approximated lower order system will be:
a) Same as the original system for any input
b) Smaller than the original system for any input
c) Larger than the original system for any input
d) Larger or smaller depending on the input
View Answer

Answer: b
Explanation: As order of the system increases the system approaches more towards the ideal
characteristics and if the third order system is approximated to an equivalent second order system
then the rise time of this will be smaller than the original system for any input.

4. A system has a single pole at origin. Its impulse response will be:
a) Constant
b) Ramp
c) Decaying exponential
d) Oscillatory
View Answer

Answer: a
Explanation: For a single pole at origin the system is of type 1 and impulse response of the
system with single pole at the origin will be constant.

5. When the period of the observation is large, the type of the error will be:
a) Transient error
b) Steady state error
c) Half-power error
d) Position error constant
View Answer

Answer: b
Explanation: The error will be the steady state error if the period of observation is large as the
time if large then the final value theorem can be directly applied.

6. When the unit step response of a unity feedback control system having forward path transfer
function G (s) =80/s(s+18)?
a) Overdamped
b) Critically damped
c) Under damped
d) Un Damped oscillatory
View Answer

Answer: a
Explanation: The open loop transfer function is first converted into the closed loop as unity
feedback is used and then value of damping factor is calculated.

7. With negative feedback in a closed loop control system, the system sensitivity to parameter
variation:
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Becomes zero
d) Becomes infinite
View Answer

Answer: b
Explanation: Sensitivity is defined as the change in the output with respect to the change in the
input and due to negative feedback reduces by a factor of 1/ (1+GH).

8. An underdamped second order system with negative damping will have the roots :
a) On the negative real axis as roots
b) On the left hand side of complex plane as complex roots
c) On the right hand side of complex plane as complex conjugates
d) On the positive real axis as real roots
View Answer

Answer: c
Explanation: An underdamped second order system is the system which has damping factor less
than unity and with negative damping will have the roots on the right hand side of complex plane
as complex conjugates.

9. Given a unity feedback system with G (s) =K/ s (s+4). What is the value of K for a damping
ratio of 0.5?
a) 1
b) 16
c) 4
d) 2
View Answer

Answer: b
Explanation: Comparing the equation with the standard characteristic equation gives the value of
damping factor, natural frequency and value of gain K.
10. How can the steady state error can be reduced?
a) By decreasing the type of the system
b) By increasing system gain
c) By decreasing the static error constant
d) By increasing the input
View Answer

Answer: d
Explanation: Steady state error is the error as it is the difference between the final output and the
desired output and by increasing the input the steady state error reduces as it depends upon both
the states and input.

System Order
The order of the system is defined by the number of independent energy storage elements in the
system, and intuitively by the highest order of the linear differential equation that describes the
system. In a transfer function representation, the order is the highest exponent in the transfer
function. In a proper system, the system order is defined as the degree of the denominator
polynomial. In a state-space equation, the system order is the number of state-variables used in
the system. The order of a system will frequently be denoted with an n or N, although these
variables are also used for other purposes.
Proper Systems
A proper system is a system where the degree of the denominator is larger than or equal to the
degree of the numerator polynomial. A strictly proper system is a system where the degree of
the denominator polynomial is larger than (but never equal to) the degree of the numerator
polynomial. A biproper system is a system where the degree of the denominator polynomial
equals the degree of the numerator polynomial.
It is important to note that only proper systems can be physically realized. In other words, a
system that is not proper cannot be built. It makes no sense to spend a lot of time designing and
analyzing imaginary systems

Example: System Order

1=Find the order of this system:

G(s)= 1+s/1+s+s*s

The highest exponent in the denominator is s2, so the system is order 2. Also, since the
denominator is a higher degree than the numerator, this system is strictly proper.

In the above example, G(s) is a second-order transfer function because in the denominator one of
the s variables has an exponent of 2. Second-order functions are the easiest to work with.
System Type

Let's say that we have a process transfer function (or combination of functions, such as a
controller feeding in to a process), all in the forward branch of a unity feedback loop.

We call the parameter M the system type. Note that increased system type number correspond to
larger numbers of poles at s = 0. More poles at the origin generally have a beneficial effect on the
system, but they increase the order of the system, and make it increasingly difficult to implement
physically. System type will generally be denoted with a letter like N, M, or m. Because these
variables are typically reused for other purposes, this book will make clear distinction when they
are employed.

Now, we will define a few terms that are commonly used when discussing system type. These
new terms are Position Error, Velocity Error, and Acceleration Error. These names are
throwbacks to physics terms where acceleration is the derivative of velocity, and velocity is the
derivative of position. Note that none of these terms are meant to deal with movement, however.

Position Error
The position error, denoted by the position error constant, this is the amount of steady-state
error of the system when stimulated by a unit step input.

Velocity Error

The velocity error is the amount of steady-state error when the system is stimulated with a ramp
input.

Acceleration Error
The acceleration error is the amount of steady-state error when the system is stimulated with a
parabolic input.

Standard Inputs

There are a number of standard inputs that are considered simple enough and universal enough
that they are considered when designing a system. These inputs are known as a unit step, a
ramp, and a parabolic input.

[Unit Step Function]

The unit step function is a highly important function, not only in control systems engineering,
but also in signal processing, systems analysis, and all branches of engineering. If the unit step
function is input to a system, the output of the system is known as the step response. The step
response of a system is an important tool, and we will study step responses in detail in later
chapters.
[Unit Ramp Function]

It is important to note that the unit step function is simply the differential of the unit ramp
function:

[Unit Parabolic Function]

Notice also that the unit parabolic input is equal to the integral of the ramp function:
Steady State

When a unit-step function is input to a system, the steady-state value of that system is the output
value at time. Since it is impractical (if not completely impossible) to wait till infinity to observe
the system, approximations and mathematical calculations are used to determine the steady-state
value of the system. Most system responses are asymptotic, that is that the response approaches
a particular value. Systems that are asymptotic are typically obvious from viewing the graph of
that response.
Step Response
The step response of a system is most frequently used to analyze systems, and there is a large
amount of terminology involved with step responses. When exposed to the step input, the system
will initially have an undesirable output period known as the transient response. The transient
response occurs because a system is approaching its final output value. The steady-state response
of the system is the response after the transient response has ended.
The amount of time it takes for the system output to reach the desired value (before the transient
response has ended, typically) is known as the rise time. The amount of time it takes for the
transient response to end and the steady-state response to begin is known as the settling time.
It is common for a systems engineer to try and improve the step response of a system. In general,
it is desired for the transient response to be reduced, the rise and settling times to be shorter, and
the steady-state to approach a particular desired "reference" output.

Target Value

The target output value is the value that our system attempts to obtain for a given input. This is
not the same as the steady-state value, which is the actual value that the system does obtain. The
target value is frequently referred to as the reference value, or the "reference function" of the
system. In essence, this is the value that we want the system to produce. When we input a "5"
into an elevator, we want the output (the final position of the elevator) to be the fifth floor.
Pressing the "5" button is the reference input, and is the expected value that we want to obtain. If
we press the "5" button, and the elevator goes to the third floor, then our elevator is poorly
designed.
Rise Time

Rise time is the amount of time that it takes for the system response to reach the target value
from an initial state of zero. Many texts on the subject define the rise time as being the time it
takes to rise between the initial position and 80% of the target value. This is because some
systems never rise to 100% of the expected, target value, and therefore they would have an
infinite rise-time. This book will specify which convention to use for each individual problem.
Rise time is typically denoted tr, or trise.

Percent Overshoot

Underdamped systems frequently overshoot their target value initially. This initial surge is
known as the "overshoot value". The ratio of the amount of overshoot to the target steady-state
value of the system is known as the percent overshoot. Percent overshoot represents an
overcompensation of the system, and can output dangerously large output signals that can
damage a system. Percent overshoot is typically denoted with the term PO.

Step Response of a second order system

As you would expect, the response of a second order system is more complicated than that of a
first order system. Whereas the step response of a first order system could be fully defined by a
time constant (determined by pole of transfer function) and initial and final values, the step
response of a second order system is, in general, much more complex. As a start, the generic
form of a second order transfer function is given by:

where a, b, c, d and e are arbitrary real numbers and at least one of the numerator terms is non-
zero.
Step Response of Prototype Second Order Low pass System
It is impossible to totally separate the effects of each of the five numbers in the generic transfer
function, so let's start with a somewhat simpler case where a=b=0. Then we can rewrite the
transfer function as

where we have introduced three constants

Note: the term ζ is read as "zeta." Also note that ω0 is always a positive number.

The choice of these constants may seem arbitrary, but we will soon show that the choice
simplifies the mathematics, and that all three constants have a physical interpretation that helps
give insights into a system. We call this the prototype second order low pass system (because
the frequency response of this system is "low pass," don't worry if you don't know what that
means yet).

To find the unit step response of the system we first multiply by 1/s (the Laplace transform of a
unit step input)

Before we can solve for yγ(t) let us first try to factor the denominator into first order terms. The
roots of the denominator of the transfer function, s2+2ζω0s+ω02, are determined from the
quadratic equation

The value of ζ determines five cases of interest that are given special names (whose origin will
soon be apparent):

Name Value of ζ Roots of s Characteristics of "s"

Overdamped ζ>1 Two real and negative roots

Critically
ζ=1 A single negative roots
Damped
 Complex conjugate
Underdamped 0<ζ<1
(j = √-1);

Undamped ζ=0 Pure imaginary (no real part)

Exponential Roots may be complex or real,

ζ<0
Growth but the real part of s is always positive

The first three cases are most important, and the last two will be discussed only briefly in what
follows.

Case 1: The overdamped case (ζ>1)

In the overdamped case we have two real roots at

For convenience, we will refer to these as α and β

and note that

The transfer function may now be written as

and the unit step response as

We can look this form up as the "asymptotic double exponential" in the Laplace transform table
(or do an inverse Laplace transform using partial fraction expansion) to get:
In terms of damping coefficient and natural frequency, this becomes

This is quite a complicated expression, but note several things

1. The final value as t→∞ is K, the system gains. This is also H (0).
2. The initial value as t→0+ is 0. This is also H (∞).
3. Wherever ω0 occurs, it is multiplied by t. That means if we double ω0 we double the
speed of the system, but don't change the shape of the response.
4. As ζ→∞ the second term in the numerator goes to zero, and the system behaves as a first
order system (more on this later when we discuss the "dominant pole" approximation.

The effects of ζ and ω0 on the shape of the response are discussed later.

Case 2: The critically damped case (ζ=1)

To find the response of the critically damped case we proceed as with the overdamped case. For
ζ=1 the roots of the denominator of the transfer function are both at s=-ω0 so the transfer function
can be written as

which yields the step response

This is the "asymptotic critically damped" form in the Laplace transform table, so

We can note several characteristics of this response:

1. The final value as t→∞ is K, the system gains. This is also H (0).
2. The initial value as t→0+ is 0. This is also H (∞).
3. Wherever ω0 occurs, it is multiplied by t. That means if we double ω0 we double the
speed of the system, but don't change the shape of the response.

Case 3: The underdamped case (ζ<1)

For the underdamped case we use the transfer function to find the step response in the Laplace
domain,

We find this form in the Laplace transform table ("Prototype 2nd order lopass step response"), so

There is a lot of information in this expression. Several important characteristics of the equation
include:

1. The final value as t→∞ is K, the system gains. This is also H (0).
2. The initial value as t→0+ is 0. This is also H (∞).
3. Wherever ω0 occurs, it is multiplied by t. That means if we double ω0 we double the
speed of the system, but don't change the shape of the response.
4. The "decay" (e-ζω0t) has time constant τ=1/(ζω0).
5. The frequency of oscillation is called the damped frequency, ωd

For small ζ, ωd≈ω0. (For example, if ζ=0.2, ωd=0.98ω0; if ζ=0.4, ωd=0.92ω0)

The topic of the effects of ζ and ω0 on the shape of the response is an important one but is
discussed later.

Case 4: The undamped case (ζ=0)

When the damping coefficient is zero the system is said to be undamped. The roots of the
denominator of the transfer function are at s=±jω0 so the transfer function is
which give a step response

This is a special case of the "Prototype 2nd order low pass step response" form in the Laplace
transform table with ζ=0. So we get:

As expected from the name, the undammed system (ζ=0) has no damping and oscillates forever.
The graph below shows

Case 5: Exponential growth (ζ<0)

If we consider the case where ζ is negative, we can write the transfer function in terms of the two
roots of the denominator of the transfer function

We determine the unit step response by multiplying H(s) by 1/s (a unit step input), and
performing a partial fraction expansion (assuming, for now, that α and β are not equal):

Since the real parts of α and β are negative, this solution grows exponentially as t increases. If α
and β are complex, the solution oscillates as it grows. For the types of systems, we will discuss,
these types of systems are rare. However, they are important in the design of linear systems.
Effects of Gain, ζ and ω0 on Second Order Low Pass Step Response
The second order low pass transfer function is given by

The graph below shows the effect of ζ on the unit step response of a second order system, for
positive values of ζ, with H0,LP=1. For ζ>1 the system is overdamped, and does not oscillate (it
also does not oscillate for ζ=1). But for ζ<1 the system is underdamped and oscillate more and
more as ζ→0.

Some notes about this image (that are true as long as ζ>0):

• Note that critical damping (ζ=1) does not cause any unexpected behavior; this just
reinforces the idea that critical damping is a special case mathematically, but not in terms
of the physical behavior of a system.
• If H0,LP≠1, the response scales with it (i.e., if H0,LP doubles, the amplitude of the response
doubles; this is not shown on the graph).
• The initial value (t=0+) is given by H(∞) so yγ(0+)=0 (you can also show that the first
derivative of yγ(t) is 0 at t=0+).
• The final value (t→∞) is given by H(0), so yγ(∞)=1.

The graph below shows the effect of ω0 on the step response of a second order system. As you
can see the shape of the system is unchanged as ω0 varies, but the speed changes (note that the
amplitude of first, second, third... peaks are equal, independent of ω0, only their timing
changes). As ω0 increases, the speed of the system increases. If ω0 doubles, the speed of the
system doubles. But ω0 does not change the shape of the response (this is because ω0 and t
always occur as a pair, ω0·t, son increasing ω0 simply increases the product ω0·t at each value of
t).

The graph below shows the effect of ζ on the step response of a second order system, for positive
and negative values of &zeta. For positive values of ζ the response decays with time. For ζ=0,
there is no damping (the system is said to be undamped). For negative values of ζ the response
actually grows with time. We won't run into many situations like this, but they can occur in
certain situations in systems that have energy being added. Notice that the final value isn't
defined when ζ<0.
Step Response of Prototype Second Order High pass System
The second order high pass system

has many of the same characteristics as the second order low pass, with some differences as well.
Similarities (marked with "+") and differences (marked with "-") to the lowpass response
include:

• (+) As ζ decreases, system becomes less damped (oscillates more).

• (+) As ω0 increases, system becomes faster (this is not shown on the graph).
• (+) If H0,LP≠1, the response scales with it (i.e., if H0,LP doubles, the amplitude of the
response doubles; this is also not shown).
• (-) The initial value (t=0+) is still given by H(∞), but now yγ(0+)=1.
• (-) The final value (t→∞) is still given by H(0), but now yγ(∞)=0.

Step Response of Prototype Second Order Bandpass System

The second order band pass system

has many of the same characteristics as the second order low pass and high pass, with some
differences as well.
Similarities (marked with "+") and differences (marked with "-") to other second order responses
include:

• (+) As ζ decreases, system becomes less damped (oscillates more).

• (+) As ω0 increases, system becomes faster (this is not shown on the graph).
• (+) If H0,BP≠1, the response scales with it (i.e., if H0,BP doubles, the amplitude of the
response doubles; this is also not shown).
• (-) The initial value (t=0+) is still given by H(∞), but now yγ(0+)=0.
• (-) The final value (t→∞) is still given by H(0), but now yγ(∞)=0

PID controllers use a 3 basic behavior types or modes: P -proportional, I -integrative and D -
derivative. While proportional and integrative modes are also used as
single control modes, a derivative mode is rarely used on it’ s own in control systems.
Combinations such as PI and PD control are very often in practical systems.

P Controller: In general, it can be said that P controller cannot stabilize higher order processes.
For the 1st order processes, meaning the processes with one energy storage, a large increase in
gain can be tolerated. Proportional controller can stabilize only 1st order
unstable process. Changing controller gain K can change closed loop dynamics. A large
controller gain will result in control system with:
a) smaller steady state error, i.e. better reference following
b) faster dynamics, i.e. broader signal frequency band of the closed loop
system and larger sensitivity with respect to measuring noise
c) smaller amplitude and phase margin
When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state error. Stable systems do
not have problems when large gain is used. Such systems are systems with one energy storage
(1st order capacitive systems). If constant steady state error can be
accepted with such processes, than P controller can be used. Small steady state errors can be
accepted if sensor will give measured value with error or if importance of measured value is not
too great anyway.

PD Controller: D mode is used when prediction of the error can improve control or when it
necessary to stabilize the system. From the frequency characteristic of D element, it can be seen
that it has phase lead of 90°.
MODULE <III>: STABILITY ANALYSIS
Routh stability Criterion:

Routh stability criterion is a mathematical test to determine the stability of a linear time
invariant (LTI) control system.

This test requires the characteristic equation of the control system under consideration.
Characteristic equation is nothing but equating the denominator of the closed loop transfer
function equal to zero.

Then arrange the characteristic equation terms in the decreasing order of power of s from left to
right as shown.
a0Sn+ a1Sn-1+ a2Sn-2+ a0Sn+ ... an-1S1+ anS0 = 0
Now, arrange the coefficients of the characteristic equation into an array called Routh array as
shown.

We get two rows. The first row consists of coefficients a0, a2, a4, a6 and so on. The second row
consists of coefficients a1, a3, a5 and so on.
Remember: - missing terms are taken zero-coefficient.

All the remaining rows can be obtained from these two rows as

and so on.

For the complete array obtained, Routh stability criterion states that

"For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that each term of the first column of the
Routh array be positibe if a0 > 0 . If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and the
number of sign changes of the terms of the first column of the Routh array = number of poles of
the given control system in the right half of the s-plane ".

Special cases

when you will practice Routh stability criterion, you will find that in some problems, the routh
criterion breaks down. This may happen in two ways.

1. When the first terms in any row is zero while the rest of the row has at least 1 non-zero term.
Because of this zero term, the terms in the next become infinite and the routh test fails.
Ex :- S3-row in characteristic equation

S5+ S4+ 2S3+ 2S2+ 3S1+ 5 = 0

To overcome such situations, simply replace S by 1/Z and apply Routh test for this newly
obtained characteristic equation.

5Z5+ 3Z4+ 2Z3+ 2Z2+ Z1+ 1 = 0

2. when all the elements in any row of the Routh array are zero.

Ex :- S3-row in characteristic equation

S6+2S5+ 8S4+ 12S3+ 20S2+ 16S1+ 16 = 0

To solve such situations, make a polynomial from the row just above the all zero row i.e S4-row

The polynomial will be S4+ 6S2+ 8 , differentiate it w.r.t S, we get 4S3+ 12S

Now, replace the all zero row with coefficients of the above obtained polynomial i.e replace
zeros with 4 and 12.

Note: - Routh stability criterion only gives the number of roots in the right half of the s-plane. It
gives no information about the nature and values of the roots.

Root Locus Algorithm - In control theory and stability theory, root locus analysis is a graphical
method for examining how the roots of a system change with variation of a certain system
parameter, commonly a gain within a feedback system. This is a technique used as a stability
criterion in the field of classical control theory developed by Walter R. Evans which can
determine stability of the system. The root locus plots the poles of the closed loop transfer
function in the complex s-plane as a function of a gain parameter.

The root locus of a feedback system is the graphical representation in the complex s-plane of the
possible locations of its closed-loop poles for varying values of a certain system parameter. The
points that are part of the root locus satisfy the angle condition. The value of the parameter for a
certain point of the root locus can be obtained using the magnitude condition. Suppose there is a
feedback system with input signal and output signal.
The factoring of and the use of simple monomials means the evaluation of the rational
polynomial can be done with vector techniques that add or subtract angles and multiply or divide
magnitudes. The vector formulation arises from the fact that each monomial term in the factored
represents the vector from to in the s-plane. The polynomial can be evaluated by considering the
magnitudes and angles of each of these vectors.
According to vector mathematics, the angle of the result of the rational polynomial is the sum of
all the angles in the numerator minus the sum of all the angles in the denominator. So to test
whether a point in the s-plane is on the root locus, only the angles to all the open loop poles and
zeros need be considered. This is known as the angle condition.
Similarly, the magnitude of the result of the rational polynomial is the product of all the
magnitudes in the numerator divided by the product of all the magnitudes in the denominator. It
turns out that the calculation of the magnitude is not needed to determine if a point in the s-plane
is part of the root locus because varies and can take an arbitrary real value. For each point of the
root locus a value of can be calculated. This is known as the magnitude condition.
A graphical method that uses a special protractor called a "Spirule" was once used to determine
angles and draw the root loci. The root locus only gives the location of closed loop poles as the
gain is varied. The value of does not affect the location of the zeros. The open-loop zeros are the
same as the closed-loop zeros.
In addition to determining the stability of the system, the root locus can be used to design the
damping ratio (ζ) and natural frequency (ωn) of a feedback system. Lines of constant natural
frequency can be drawn radially from the origin and lines of constant damping ratio can be
drawn as arccosine whose center points coincide with the origin. By selecting a point along the
root locus that coincides with a desired damping ratio and natural frequency, a gain K can be
calculated and implemented in the controller. More elaborate techniques of controller design
using the root locus are available in most control textbooks: for instance, lag, lead, PI, PD and
PID controllers can be designed approximately with this technique.
The definition of the damping ratio and natural frequency presumes that the overall feedback
system is well approximated by a second order system; i.e. the system has a dominant pair of
poles. This is often not the case, so it is good practice to simulate the final design to check if the
project goals are satisfied.
Construction of Root Locus

Follow these rules for constructing a root locus.

Rule 1 − Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.

Rule 2 − Find the number of root locus branches.

We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop zeros. So,
the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of finite open loop poles P or the
number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater.

Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N as

N=P
if P≥Z

N=Z

if P<Z

Rule 3 − Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.

If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 1800, then that
point is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side of
a point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore, the branch of
points which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus branch.

Rule 4 − Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.

• If P=Z

• , then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros.

• If P>Z

, then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros and P−Z

• number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at infinite open loop
zeros.

• If P<Z

, then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros and Z−P

• number of root locus branches start at infinite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros.

So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when P≠Z

. Asymptotes give the direction of these root locus branches. The intersection point of
asymptotes on the real axis is known as centroid.

We can calculate the centroid α by using this formula,

α=∑Realpartoffiniteopenlooppoles−∑RealpartoffiniteopenloopzerosP−Z
The formula for the angle of asymptotes θ is

θ=(2q+1)1800P−Z
Where,

q=0,1,2,....,(P−Z)−1
Rule 5 − Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an imaginary axis.

We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis and the
value of K at that point by using the Routh array method and special case (ii).

• If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the root locus branch
intersects the imaginary axis and vice-versa.
• Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then the elements
of the entire row are zero. Find the value of K for this combination.
• Substitute this K value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection point of the
root locus branch with an imaginary axis.

Rule 6 − Find Break-away and Break-in points.

• If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then there will
be a break-away point in between these two open loop poles.
• If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then there will
be a break-in point in between these two open loop zeros.

Note − Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus branches.

Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points.

• Write K

in terms of s from the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0

• .

• Differentiate K

with respect to s and make it equal to zero. Substitute these values of s

• in the above equation.

• The values of s

for which the K

• value is positive are the break points.

Rule 7 − Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival.

The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex conjugate open
loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively.

The formula for the angle of departure ϕd is

ϕd=1800−ϕ

The formula for the angle of arrival ϕa is

ϕa=1800+ϕ
Where,

ϕ=∑ϕP−∑ϕZ
MODULE <IV>: FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS.
In conventional control system analysis there are two basic methods for predicting and adjusting a
system’s performance without resorting to the solution of the system’s differential equation. They are
• Root-Locus Method
• Frequency-Response Method

For the comprehensive study of a system by conventional methods it is necessary to use both methods of
analysis. Frequency response is the steady state response of a system to a sinusoidal input. In frequency
response methods, we vary the frequency of the input signal over a certain range and study the resulting
response. The design of feedback control systems in industry is probably accomplished using frequency
response methods more often than any other, primarily because it provides good designs in the face of
uncertainty in the plant model. By the term frequency response, we mean the steady-state response of a
system to a sinusoidal input. Industrial control systems are often designed using frequency response
methods. Many techniques are available in the frequency response methods for the analysis and design of
control systems.
Consider a system with sinusoidal input r (t ) = A sin t . The steady-state output may be written

as, c(t ) = B sin(t +  ) . The magnitude and the phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and the
steady-state output of a system is called frequency response. The frequency response test is performed by
keeping the amplitude A fixed and determining B and  for a suitable range of frequencies. Whenever it
is not possible to obtain the transfer function of a system through analytical techniques, frequency
response test can be used to compute its transfer function.

The design and adjustment of open-loop transfer function of a system for specified closed-loop
performance is carried out more easily in frequency domain. Further, the effects of noise and parameter
variations are relatively easy to visualize and assess through frequency response. The Nyquist criteria is
used to extract information about the stability and the relative stability of a system in frequency domain.

Correlation between time and frequency response

The transfer function of a standard second-order system can be written as,
C (s) n2
T (s) = = 2 .
R( s ) s + 2n s + n2

n2 1
Substituting s by j we obtain, T ( j ) = = .
( j ) + 2n ( j ) + n (1 − u ) + j 2 u
2 2 2

Where, u =  / n is the normalized signal frequency. From the above equation we get,

1
T ( j ) = M =
(1 − u ) + (2 u ) 2 .
2 2

T ( j ) =  = − tan −1[2 u /(1 − u 2 )]

The steady-state output of the system for a sinusoidal input of unit magnitude and variable frequency  is
1  2 u 
given by, c(t ) = sin  t − tan −1 .
(1 − u ) + (2 u)
2 2
 2 1− u2 

It is seen from the above equation that when,

u = 0, M =1 and  =0
1
u = 1, M= and  = − / 2
2
u = , M →0 and  → −

The magnitude and phase angle characteristics for normalized frequency u for certain values of  are
shown in figure in the next page.
The frequency where M has a peak value is called resonant frequency. At this point the slope of the
1  −4(1 − ur )ur + 8 ur 
2 2
dM
magnitude curve is zero. Setting = 0 we get, − = 0.
du 2 (1 − u 2 ) 2 + (2 u ) 2  3/ 2
u = ur
 r r 

Solving, ur = 1 − 2 2 or, resonant frequency r = n 1 − 2 2 . ………… …… (01)

1
The resonant peak is given by, resonant peak, Mr = . ……………… (02)
2 1 −  2

1
• For,   (= 0.707) , the resonant frequency does not exist and M decreases
2
monotonically with increasing u.
• For 0   
1 
, the resonant frequency is always less than n and the resonant peak has a
2
value greater than 1.
Mr
From equation (01) and (02) it is seen that The resonant peak of frequency response is indicative of

damping factor and the resonant frequency

 r is indicative of natural frequency for a given  and hence
indicative of settling time.
 1
• For
  r , M decreases monotonically. The frequency at which M has a value of 2 is called
1

the cut-off frequency c . The range of frequencies over which M is equal to or greater than 2
is defined as bandwidth,
b .
• The bandwidth of a second-order system is given by,
1/ 2
b = n 1 − 2 2 + 2 − 4 2 + 4 4  ………….(03)
 

Figure below shows the plot of resonant peak of frequency response and the peak overshoot of step
response as a function of  .
It is seen that the two performance indices are correlated as both are the functions of the system damping
1
factor  only. For   (= 0.707) the resonant peak does not exist and the correlation breaks
2
down. For this range of  , M p is hardly perceptible. From equation (03) it is seen that the bandwidth is
indicative of natural frequency and hence indicative of settling time, i.e., the speed of response for a given
.

Polar Plot

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G( j) is a plot of the magnitude of G( j) versus the
phase angle of G( j) on polar coordinates as  is varied from zero to infinity. An advantage of using
polar plot is that it depicts the frequency response characteristics of a system over the entire frequency
range in a single plot.

1 1
The polar plot of G ( j ) = =  tan −1 T is shown in figure below.
1 + jT 1+  T
2 2

1
The polar plot of the transfer function, G( j ) = is shown in figure above.
j (1 + jT )
The plot is asymptotic to the vertical line passing through the point (-T, 0). Polar plots are useful
for the stability study of systems. The general shapes of the polar plots of some important
transfer functions are given in figure below.

From the plots above, following observations are made,

1. Addition of a nonzero pole to the transfer function results in further rotation of the polar
plot through an angle of -90 as  → .
2. Addition of a pole at the origin to the transfer function rotates the polar plot at zero and
infinite frequencies by a further angle of -90.

Bode Plots

The transfer function G( j) is represented by, G( j) = G( j) e j ( ) .

Taking natural logarithm of both sides, ln G( j) = ln G( j) + j ()
………………………(04)

The unit of real part is called neper.

Similarly,
log G( j) = log G( j) + 0.434 j () ……………………………………..(05)

The standard procedure is to plot 20log G( j) and phase angle  ( ) vs. log  . The unit of
magnitude 20log G( j) is decibel. These two plots are called Bode plots in honor of HW Bode.

1 1
Example G ( j ) = =  tan −1 T .
1 + jT 1+  T
2 2

The log-magnitude is, 20log G( j ) = −10log (1 +  2T 2 ) .

For low frequencies (  1/ T ), the log magnitude is approximated as,

20log G( j) = −10log1 = 0 db. (01)

For high frequencies (  1/ T ), the log magnitude is approximated as,

20log G( j) = −20log  − 20log T . (02)

The logarithmic plot of equation (01) is a straight line coincident with the horizontal axis. The
plot of equation (02) is also a straight line with a slope -20 db per unit change in log  . A unit
change of log  means

log(2 / 1 ) = 1 or, 2 = 101 .

This range of frequencies is called a decade. The slope of the equation (02) is -20 db/decade.

• The range of frequencies 2 = 21 is called an octave. Since -20log 2 = - 6 db, the slope -
20 db/decade can also be expressed as -20 db/octave.
Further at  = 1/ T the plot has a value of 0 db. The plot is shown in figure below.

The frequency  = 1/ T at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency. The
corner frequency divides the plot in low and high frequency regions.

The actual log-magnitude plot can be obtained by applying corrections for the errors
introduced by asymptotic approximation. The error at the corner frequency  = 1/ T is,
−10 log(1 +  2T 2 ) + 10 log1
= −10 log(1 + 1) + 10 log1 = −3 db

The error at the corner frequency

 = 1/ 2T is,
−10 log(1 +  2T 2 ) + 10 log1
.
= −10 log(1 + 1/ 4) + 10 log1 = −1 db

For 1/ T     , the error in log-magnitude is given by,

−10log(1 +  2T 2 ) + 20log T .

The error caused by the asymptotic plot is shown in figure above.

Simple Rules for Plotting Bode Diagrams

The open-loop transfer function for a linear system can be written in the form,

K (1 + jTa )(1 + jTa )

G ( j ) = .
       
2

( j ) (1 + jTa )(1 + jTa ) 1 + 2  j + j  

n

  n   n  

Bode diagram can be sketched for any general system by simply adding the effects of each pole
and each zero in order to determine the angles and intersection points of the asymptotes.

1. Factors of the form K /( j )r

K
The log magnitude of this factor is 20 log = −20r log  + 20 log K and the phase is,
( j )
r

 ( ) = −90 r . With log  as abscissa, the plot of above equation is a straight line having a
slope of -20r db/decade and passing through 20log K at  = 1 . This is shown in figure below
for r = 0, 1, 2 and 3.

2. Pole or zero on the real axis

The pole factor 1/(1 + jT ) has explained in the previous example. The phase angle for this
factor is  = − tan −1 T . At corner frequency, the phase angle of this factor is -45. At zero
frequency it is 0 and at infinity it is -90.

The bode plot for the zero factor (1 + jT ) has a slope of +20 db/decade and a phase angle of
+ tan −1 T . The db correction is added to the asymptotic plot.
3. Complex conjugate poles
The quadratic factor for a pair of complex conjugate poles may be written in normalized
form as

1 1 
= ; u=
     
2
1 + j 2 u − u 2
n
1 + 2  j  +  j 
 n   n 
.

The log-magnitude of this factor is,

1 1/ 2
20log = −20log (1 − u 2 )2 + (2 u) 2 
1 + j 2 u − u 2

= −10log (1 − u 2 )2 + (2 u )2 

.

For u 1,

1
20 log  −10 log1 = 0
1 + j 2 u − u 2
.

For u 1,

1
20 log  −10 log u 4 = −40 log u
1 + j 2 u − u 2
.
 The two asymptotes meet on 0-db line at u = 1. The asymptotic and the actual plots are
shown in figure right. The error between the actual magnitude and the asymptotic
approximation is as given below:

For 0  u  1, the error is

−10log (1 − u 2 )2 + 4 2u 2  + 10log1 For 1  u  , the error is

−10log (1 − u 2 )2 + 4 2u 2  + 40log u

The error versus u curves for different values of  are shown in figure below.

The phase angle of the quadratic factor

is given by,

 2 u 
 = − tan −1  2 
.
 1− u 

The phase angle plots are shown in figure above. The phase angle curve also depends on  .

General Procedure for Constructing Bode Plots

The following steps will be used in constructing the bode plot for a given G( j) .

1. Write the sinusoidal transfer function in time-constant form.

2. Identify the corner frequencies associated with each factor of the transfer function.
3. Knowing the corner frequencies, draw the asymptotic magnitude plot.
4. From the error graphs, determine the corrections to be applied to the asymptotic plot.
5. Draw a smooth curve through the corrected points such that it is asymptotic to the line
segments. This gives the actual log-magnitude plot.
6. Draw phase angle curve for each factor and add them algebraically to get the phase plot.
 64( s + 2) 4(1 + s / 2)
Example G( s) = = .
s( s + 0.5)( s + 3.2s + 64) s(1 + 2s)(1 + 0.05s + s 2 / 64)
2

The sinusoidal transfer function in time-constant form is,

4(1 + j / 2)
G ( j ) = .
   
2

j (1 + 2 j )(1 + 0.4 j   −  
8 8
Factor fc Log-magnitude characteristic Phase angle
characteristic

4 / j - Straight line of slope -20 db/decade, Constant

passing through 20log 4 = 12 db point
-90
at  = 1 .

1/1 + 2 j 1 = Straight line of 0 db for   1 , 0 to -90 ,

0.5 straight line of slope -20 db/decade for
−45 at 1 .
  1 .

1 + j 0.5 2 = Straight line of 0 db for   2 , 0 to +90 ,

2 straight line of slope +20 db/decade
45 at  2 .
for   2 .

   
2
3 = Straight line of 0 db for   3 , 0 to −180
1 + j 0.4   −   ; n = 8,  = 0.2
8 8 8 straight line of slope -40 db/decade for
−90 at  3 .
  3 .
To the asymptotic plot, corrections are to be applied to get the actual plot. The following list
shows the list of corrections obtained from the error versus log-magnitude curve (plots are given
in the previous pages).

Frequency Net Correction

Frequency Correction
0.25 -1 db
1 = 0.5 -3 db
0.5 -3 db
1 / 2 = 0.25, 21 = 1 -1 db
1 0 db
2 = 2 +3 db
2 +3 db
2 / 2 = 1, 22 = 4 +1 db
4 +3 db
3 = 8,  = 0.2 +8 db
8 +8 db
3 / 2 = 4, 23 = 16 +2 db
16 +2 db

The phase angle curve may be drawn using the following procedure.

1. For the factor K / ( j ) , draw a straight line of -90r.

r
 2. The phase angles of the factor (1 + jT ) 1 are
a. 45 at  =1/T
b. 26.6 at =1/2T
c. 5.7 at  =1/10T
d. 63.4 at  =2/T
e. 84.3 at =10/T
3. The phase angles for the quadratic factor are
a. −90 at  =n
b. A few points of phase angles are read off from the normalized Bode plot for the
particular  .

Bode Plot: Example 1

Draw the Bode Diagram for the transfer function:

Step 1: Rewrite the transfer function in proper form.

Make both the lowest order term in the numerator and denominator unity. The numerator is
an order 0 polynomial, the denominator is order 1.

Step 2: Separate the transfer function into its constituent parts.

The transfer function has 2 components:

A constant of 3.3
A pole at s=-30

Step 3: Draw the Bode diagram for each part.

This is done in the diagram below.

 • The constant is the cyan line (A quantity of 3.3 is equal to 10.4 dB). The
phase is constant at 0 degrees.
• The pole at 30 rad/sec is the blue line. It is 0 dB up to the break frequency, then
drops off with a slope of -20 dB/dec. The phase is 0 degrees up to 1/10 the break
frequency (3 rad/sec) then drops linearly down to -90 degrees at 10 times the break
frequency (300 rad/sec).

Step 4: Draw the overall Bode diagram by adding up the results from step 3.

The overall asymptotic plot is the translucent pink line, the exact response is the black line.
MODULE <V>: STATE SPACE ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS
TIME SYSTEMS.

Introduction: Another method for system description and analysis.

What we already have?

(Why introduced Laplace Transform? to avoid the complexity of solving high-order differential
equations!)

Is Laplace Transform method good enough or do we need more or other techniques?

(1) How effective Laplace Transform is in solving high-order differential equations with non-
zero initial conditions?
(2) How effective Laplace Transform is in handing multivariable (multi-input multi-output)
system?
(3) Classical control theory: Laplace Transform based
Modern control theory: state equation based

Uniform structure (form) for all linear-systems: despite the order, the numbers of inputs and
outputs, and forms of the input functions.

Always: x = Ax + Bu state equation

y = Cx + Du output equation

x : state vector, x = (x1, … xn)T

xjs : state variable

u = (u1, …, um)T : input vector

ujs : inputs

y = (y1,…yp)T : output vector

 yjs : outputs

A : nxn B: nxm

C: pxn D: pxm

Difference: dimensions of the vectors and matrices.

(1) Uniform method of solution:

Laplace: different equations, different input function➔ different solution!

State: Different solution method for different inputs? No difference !

Different solution method for different systems (with different orders)?

No! The same!

 uniform form, uniform methods for analysis and design!

Fundamental Characteristic

Laplace Transform, differential equation, …, convolution:

external inputs → external outputs!

State equation (state-variable technique):

External inputs → internal state variables (as a bridge)

→ external outputs

help to understand the system better because of use of “internal state”!

What’s the state of a system?

Form of the state equations

1. Form
Example :

 x1 = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + b11u1 + b12 u 2


 x 2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + b21u1 + b22 u 2
 x = Ax + Bu

 y1 = c11 x1 + c12 x2 + d11u1 + d12u2


 y2 = c21 x1 + c22 x2 + d 21u1 + d 22u2
 y = Cx + Du

x  a a12  b b 
x =  1 , A =  11 B =  11 12 
 x2  ,
 21
a a 22  b21 b22 

y  c c  d d12 
y =  1, C =  11 12  , D =  11
 y2 

c21 c22  d 21 d 22 

u 
u =  1
u 2 
 In general :

 x1   u1   y1 
 
x =    , u =    , y =  ,
 x n  u m  yp 
 

x = Ax + Bu state equation

y = cx + du output equation

A: nn B : nm
C : pn D:cm

( x : n 1 , u : m 1 , y : p 1)

(2) Simulation example

 x1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + b11u1 + b12u 2


 x 2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + b21u1 + b22u 2
y = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + d1u1 + d 2u 2
(1) Block Diagram of state equation

 x = Ax + Bu

 y = cx + du

Homework

1. Given x (t ) = Ax (t ) + Bu (t ) with initial condition x(t0 ) = x0 where x0 is the given

initial state. Construct an algorithm (recursive equation) to calculate
x(t0 + (k + 1)t ), (k = 0,1,...) based on x(t0 + kt ) and u(t0 + kt ) where
t  0 is a small time interval.

2. Given the initial condition problem

  x = Ax + Bu

 x(t0 ) = x0
It is known that the solution of this problem is unique. Prove that the unique solution of this
problem is

t
x(t ) = e A( t − t 0 )
x0 +  e A(t −  ) Bu( )d
t0

f ( , t )
t t
d
(Note: 
dt a
f ( , t )d = f ( , t )  =t + 
a
t
d )

3. Use Laplace transform to prove

Y ( s) = [c( sI − A) −1 B + D]U ( s)

 x (t ) = Ax(t ) + Bu(t ), x(0) = 0


 y (t ) = Cx (t ) + Du (t )
when

Time-Domain solution of the state equations

Focus: Find x(t) (t  t0) which satisfies

 x = Ax + Bu

 x(t0 ) = x0 x0 given

1. Mathematical Preparation
(1) Matrix Exponential eAt
Scalar Exponential

a2 2 a3 3
e = 1 + at + t + t + 
at

2! 3!

Introducing Notation
 1 22 1 33
e At = I + At + A t + A t +
2! 3!

where : A : n  n matrix

1 0 
I : n  n Identity matrix    n
 
0 1  

              
              
A : AA = 
2  = 
     
    

            
  
n n n n n n

Aj : nn j = 0,1,2,…

t: scalar

e At : n  n

Properties of eAt

de At
• = Ae At
dt
1 22 1 33
e At = I + At + A t + A t +
2! 3!
 de At 2 3
= 0 + A + A 2 t + A 3t 2 + 
dt 2! 3!
1
= A( I + At + A2t 2 + )
2!
= Ae At

• e A0 = I
1 2 2
e A0 = I + A  0 + A 0 + = I
2!

* (e At ) −1 = e − At (Inverse of n  n matrix eAt is e-At)

1 1
= I + (− A)t + (− A) 2 t 2 + (− A) 3 t 3 + 
2! 3!
1 1
= I − At + A2t 2 − A3t 3 + 
2! 3!
1 1
= I + A(−t ) + A2 (−t ) 2 + A3 (−t ) 3 + 
2! 3!

d t t
f ( , t )
(2) 
dt a
f ( , t )d = f ( , t )  = t + 
t
d )
a

If f ( , t ) = e A(t − ) Bu( )

d t t
f ( , t )
dt t  t d
Then f (  , t ) d = f (  , t )  =t
+
0 0t

But f (, t )  =t = e A(t −t ) Bu(t ) = IBu(t ) = Bu(t ) ,

 f ( , t )
= Ae A(t −  ) Bu( )
t

t t
d
Therefore 
dt t0
e A(t − ) Bu( )d = Bu(t ) + A e A(t − ) Bu( )d
t0

t
Denote Z (t ) =  e A(t −  ) Bu( )d
t0

d t A( t −  )
Z (t ) =  e
 Bu( )d
=> dt t
0

= AZ (t ) + Bu(t )

i. e. Z (t ) = AZ (t ) + Bu(t )

Analytic solution of homogeneous equation

 x = Ax
 zero-input response
 x(t 0 ) = x0
question : what do we mean that x(t) = f(t) is a solution of a differential equation with a

given initial condition ?

df (t )
(1) x = =Af(t)
dt

(2) f (t ) t = 0 = x0
 for example, if we assume x(t)=At

then x = A  A( At ) = Ax (t )

 x(t)=At is not a solution of x (t ) = Ax (t )

 x = Ax
question : Is x(t ) = e x0
At
a solution of  ?
 x(t 0 ) = x0

d At
x (t ) = (e x0 ) = Ae At x0 = Ax(t )
dt

 x = Ax
=> x = Ax satisfies the first of 
 x(t 0 ) = x0
However,

x(t0 ) = e At 0 x0

If t0  0 and A  0 , e At 0  I

=> x(t0 )  x0

 x = Ax
Therefore, x(t ) = e At x0 is not a solution of 
 x(t 0 ) = x0

 x = Ax
Question: If we find a solution for 
 x(t 0 ) = x0
Can we find a second different solution for it?
  x = Ax
No! The solution for  is unique
 x(t 0 ) = x0
when A = constant matrix!

 x = Ax
Let’s find “any” solution for  . It will be the unique solution!
 x(t 0 ) = x0

Suggested solution

x(t ) = e A(t − t 0 ) x0

verification:

de A(t − t 0 ) x0
(1) x = = Ae A(t − t 0 ) x0 = Ax
dt

(2) x(t0 ) = e A(t 0 − t 0 ) x0 = Ix0 = x0

=> x(t ) = e A(t − t 0 ) x0 : unique solution

 x = Ax + Bu (a)
2. Analytic solution of  .
 x(t 0 ) = 0 (b)
(zero-state response)

t
Suggested solution : x(t ) =  e A(t −  ) Bu( )d
t0

Verification:
 From mathematical preparation:

t
z (t ) =  e A(t −  ) Bu( )d  our suggested x(t)
t0

=> z (t ) = Az (t ) + Bu (t )

Hence, suggested solution x(t) satisfies x (t ) = Ax (t ) + Bu (t ) (a)

t0
Further, x(t0 ) =  e A(t 0 −  ) Bu( )d = 0 (b)
t0

 x = Ax + Bu

 x(t 0 ) = x0
Solution of (Given problem)

Solution: zero-input response + zero-state response

t
x(t ) = e A ( t −t 0 )
x0 +  e A(t − ) Bu( )d
t0

State Transition Matrix (t ) = e At

No input, x(t) is a transition of x0 at t0 to t>t0:

x(t ) = e A(t − t 0 ) x0 = (t − t0 ) x0

Output

t
y (t ) = C(t − t0 ) x0 +  C(t −  ) Bu( )d + Du(t )
t0

Frequency-Domain solution of the State Equation

x = Ax + Bu , x(0) = x0 (t0 = 0)

1. Solution
sX ( s) − x0 = AX ( s) + BU ( s)
( sI − A) X ( s) = x0 + BU ( s)
X ( s) = ( sI − A) −1 x0 + ( sI − A) −1 BU ( s)
x(t ) = L−1[(sI − A) −1 x0 ] + L−1 [(sI − A) −1 BU ( s)]

2. What is ( sI − A) −1 ?
L−1[(sI − A) −1 ] = e At = (t )

 ( sI − A) −1 : Laplace transform of the state transition matrix or of eAt.

Denote: ( s) = ( sI − A) −1

What is ( sI − A) −1 BU ( s) ?

 ( s )( BU ( s )) ---- product of  (s ) and BU (s ) !

 L−1[(sI − A) −1 BU ( s)] : convolution of

L−1 [(sI − A) −1 ] = (t ) and L−1[ BU ( s)] = Bu(t ) !

Hence
 t
L [(sI − A) BU ( s)] = (t ) * Bu(t ) =  (t −  ) Bu( )d
−1 −1

3. Output Laplace Transform and Transfer Function Matrix

Y ( s ) = CX ( s ) + DU ( s )
= C ( sI − A) −1 x0 + c( sI − A) −1 BU ( s ) + DU ( s )

When x0 = 0

Y (s) = C (sI − A) −1 BU (s) + DU ( s)

= [C (sI − A) −1 B + D]U (s)

Denote H ( s) ( p  m)

= C ( sI − A) −1 B + D

=> Y (s) = H (s)U (s)

H(s): Transfer function matrix

 H11 ( s) H12 ( s)  H1m ( s) 

 
H ( s) =   
 H p1 ( s) H p 2 ( s)  H pm ( s)
 
Hij(s) : transfer function between the jth input and ith output.

4. Impulse Response Matrix H(t)

 
H (t ) = L−1 [ H ( s )]
 H (t ) = L−1 [C ( sI − A) −1 B + D ]
= Ce At B + D (t )

 (t ) is m  1 vector impulse
5. Is that all for state equation technique?

No! We have not found effective way for eAt yet!

Finding the state Transition Matrix

Based on ( s) = ( sI − A) −1

(t ) = L−1[(sI − A) −1 ]

Key : (1) Find ( sI − A) −1 ;

(2) For each element of ( sI − A) −1 , obtain partial-fraction expansion

0 1
Example A= 
− 6 − 5

 s 0  0 1  s − 1 
( sI − A) =   − 6 − 5 = 6 s + 5
−
 0 s     

 a22 − a12 
 a11 a12 
−1 − a a11 
=  21
a  a11a22 − a12 a21
 21 a22 
  s + 5 1
−1  − 6 s
s −1 
−1
( sI − A) =   =  
 6 s + 5 s ( s + 5) + 6
 s + 5 1  s+5 1 
 − 6 s 
 = ( s + 2)(s + 3) ( s + 2)(s + 3) 
=   
( s + 2)(s + 3)  −6 s 
 ( s + 2)(s + 3) ( s + 2)(s + 3) 

s+5 3 2
= −  3e − 2t − 2e − 3t
( s + 2)(s + 3) s + 2 s + 3
1 1 1
= −  e − 2t − e − 3t
( s + 2)(s + 3) s + 2 s + 3
−6  1 1 
= −6 −   −6[e − 2t − e − 3t ]
( s + 2)(s + 3)  s + 2 s + 3
s −2 3
= +  −2e − 2t + 3e − 3t
( s + 2)(s + 3) s + 2 s + 3
eAt = …

(sI-A)-1 : Systematic way exists! But very complex operation!

Example 7-7

Step 1: Label vc as x1
iL as x2
Step 2: For vc , write KCL :
iR1 = Cx1 + x2 (1)
For iL , write KVL
x1 = Lx2 + iR2 R2 (2)

Step 3 : Other variables (undesired): iR1 , iR2

Must be expressed in
v − x1
iR1 = s terms of state
R1
variables and sources!
i R 2 = i L = x2
 vs − x1
 = Cx1 + x2 (1)'
  R1
 x = Lx + R x
 1 2 2 2
 1 1 1
 1x = − x 1 − x 2 + vs
CR1 C CR1

 x = 1 x − R2 x
 2 L 1 L 2
 1 1
− −   x1   1 
 x1   CR1
   +  CR1  vs
 = C
 x2   1  
− 2  2   0 
R x
 L L 

Step 4 : Output equation y = v0

x 
y = R2 x2 = 0 1  1 
 x2 

State Equation from Transfer Functions

State Equation => Tell how to realize and simulate (system

realization) the systems

Problem in this section :

 Y ( s) bm s m + bm −1s m −1 +  + b1s + b0
Given = n ( m  n)
U ( s) s + an −1s n −1 +  + a1s + a0

x = Ax + Bu
Find (u --- scalar, y --- scalar)
y = Cx + Du

−1
Such that C ( sI − A) B + D equals the given transfer function.

1. Basic solution
Example :
Y ( s) 4 4 4 4U (S ) 4U (s)
= = −  Y ( s) = − = 4 X 1 ( s) − 4 X 2 ( s)
U (s) (s + 1)(s + 2) s + 1 s + 2 s +1 s + 2

U ( s)
X 1 (s) =  x1 = − x1 + u
s +1
U (s)
X 2 ( s) =  x 2 = −2 x2 + u
s+2

 x1  − 1 0   x1  1
 x  =  0 − 2  x  + 1u
 2   2   
x 
y = 4 − 4 1 
 x2 

General Case

Y ( s) bm s m + bm −1s m −1 +  + b1s + b0
=
U ( s) ( s − p1 )(s − p2 )  ( s − pn )
Assumption: No repeated poles
 No zero-pole cancellation

Partial-Fraction Expansion:

Y ( s) B1 B2 Bn
= + ++
U ( s) s − p1 s − p 2 s − pn
B1U ( s) B2U ( s) B U ( s)
Y ( s) = + ++ n
s − p1 s − p2 s − pn
= B1 X 1 ( s) + B2 X 2 ( s) +  + Bn X n ( s)

 x1 
x 
y (t ) = B1 , B2 ,  Bn  2  ---- output equation

 
 xn 

U (s)
( X j (s) =  x j = p j x j + u (t ) )
s − pj

 x1   p1 0   x1  1
 =      + u (t ) ---- state equation
      
 xn   0 pn   xn  1

Drawback (not serious): Complex pole

 Complex coefficients!
There are ways to fix it!
2. Repeated pole : No zero-pole cancellation
Y (s) A B
= + + + +
U (s) ( s − pi ) 2
s − pi

Denote:

AU ( s) BU ( s) 
Yi ( s) = + = AX i1 ( s) + BX i2 ( s)
( s − pi ) 2 s − pi

U ( s)
X i2 ( s) =
 s − pi
x i2 = pi  xi2 + u (t )
X i2 ( s )
X i1 ( s) =
s − pi
x i1 = pi  xi1 + xi2 ( s)

Sub-block :

 xi1   pi 1   xi1  0

 x  =   +
pi   xi2  1
u
 i2   0
 xi 
yi =  A B  1 
 xi 2 

How to incorporate this method into system realization, see examples.

Example 7-9

Y ( s) s 2 + 3s + 9
=
U ( s) 5s 5 + 8s 4 + 24s 3 + 34s 2 + 23s + 6
3.5 − 4.75 5.875 7 1.125
Y ( s) = + + − +
( s + 1)3 ( s + 1) 2 s + 1 s + 2 s + 3
  x1  − 1 1 0 0 0   x1  0
 x   0 − 1 1 0 0   x2  0 
 2     
 x3  =  0 0 −1 0 0   x3  + 1u (t )
      
x
   4 0 0 0 − 2 0   x4  1
 x5   0 0 0 0 − 3  x5  1

 x1 
x 
 2
y (t ) = 3.5 − 4.75 5.875 − 7 1.125 x3 
 
 x4 
 x5 

Text Books:
1. Automatic Control Systems 8th edition– by B. C. Kuo 2003– John Wiley and son’s,
2. Control Systems Engineering – by I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, New Age International
(P) Limited, Publishers, 2nd edition.
[Link] Systems –by Ramesh Babu

Reference Books:
1. Modern Control Engineering – by Katsuhiko Ogata – Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 3rd edition, 1998.