GOVERNMRNT BRENNEN COLLEGE THALASSERY

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
Module 1

1.1 Food, Nutrition, and Health

Food is any substance consumed to provide energy and essential nutrients to the body. Nutrition refers to
the process by which organisms obtain and utilize nutrients for growth, repair, and maintenance. Health is a
state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, influenced by proper nutrition.

1. Food:Food provides essential nutrients required for survival, growth, and overall health.

It is categorized based on its role in the body: energy-giving, body-building, and protective functions.

2. Functions of FoodFood plays three key roles:

1. Physiological Functions

2. Psychological Functions

3. Social Functions

a.1 Physiological Functions of Food

a) Energy-Giving Foods-Provide energy for daily activities and body [Link] carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins.

Sources:Carbohydrates: Cereals, pulses, roots, tubers, [Link]: Oils, nuts, seeds, [Link]: Pulses,
legumes, meat, fish, dairy.

b) Body-Building Foods-Help in growth, repair, and maintenance of body [Link] in proteins, classified
into:

High Biological Value Proteins: Milk, eggs, meat, fish (contain all essential amino acids).

Low Biological Value Proteins: Pulses, oilseeds, and nuts (lack some essential amino acids).

c) Protective and Regulatory Foods-Support immune function, metabolism, and body [Link]
vitamins, minerals, and high-protein foods.

Sources:Milk, eggs, fish, liver: Provide essential proteins and [Link] vegetables and fruits: Rich in
vitamins and [Link] maintain heart function, water balance, and body temperature.

2.2 Psychological Functions of Food-Food satisfies emotional needs such as comfort, love, and
[Link] and personal preferences influence food choices.
2.3 Social Functions of Food-Food has cultural and social [Link] food symbolizes friendship,
respect, and social [Link] in celebrations like birthdays, weddings, and festivals.

1.2 Classification of Nutrients Nutrients are essential chemical compounds required for the proper
functioning of the body. They are classified into:

1. Macronutrients
These are required in large amounts and provide energy. Examples:Carbohydrates,Proteins Lipids (Fats
and Oils).Calorific value of 1g of Carbohydrate = 4.1 kcal ,1g of fat = 9.45 kcal AND 1g of protein = 5.65
kcal. Physiological fuel value of Carbohydrates 4.0 kcal;fats 9.0 kcal and proteins 4.0 kcal.

2. Micronutrients

These are needed in small quantities but are crucial for various physiological functions. Examples:Vitamins
and Minerals

3. Water and Dietary Fiber

Water: Essential for digestion, temperature regulation, and cellular functions.

Fiber: Aids digestion and maintains bowel health.

1.3 Macronutrients

11Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
typically in a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen, similar to water. Their general formula is CnH2nOn.

1.2 Classification of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of saccharide (sugar)
units present:

1. Simple Carbohydrates

o Monosaccharides (Single Sugars): Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

o Disaccharides (Double Sugars): Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose

2. Complex Carbohydrates

o Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Fiber

1.2.1 Simple Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides:Glucose (Dextrose or Grape Sugar): A primary energy source found in fruits (grapes,
berries, oranges) and vegetables (sweet corn, carrots). It is the main circulating carbohydrate in the
[Link] (Levulose or Fruit Sugar): Sweeter than cane sugar, found in honey, ripe fruits, and some
vegetables. It is a hydrolysis product of [Link]: Found as a component of lactose in milk but not
in free form.

Disaccharides:Sucrose (Cane Sugar, Table Sugar): Found in sugarcane (10-12%) and beetroot (12-18%).
Hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose by [Link] (Milk Sugar): Found in mammalian milk (4% in
cow/buffalo milk, 7% in human milk). Hydrolyzed into glucose and galactose by [Link] (Malt
Sugar): Found in malted products and sprouted cereals. Hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules by maltase.

12.2 Complex CarbohydratesStarch: A storage carbohydrate in plants, composed of amylose and

amylopectin. Found in cereals (65-85%) and root vegetables (19-35%). Cooking aids digestion by breaking
down starch [Link]: A polysaccharide formed from starch hydrolysis, composed of glucose
[Link]: A storage carbohydrate in animals, consisting of branched glucose chains. It is stored in the
liver and muscles and is converted to glucose when energy is needed.
1.3 Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Energy Production: Provides 4 kcal per gram and serves as a quick and economical energy source.
Excess carbohydrates are stored as glycogen.

2. Protein Sparing Action: Prevents protein breakdown for energy by supplying sufficient
carbohydrates.

3. Fat Metabolism: Regulates fat metabolism and prevents ketone accumulation, which can lead to
ketosis or acidosis.

4. Synthesis of Body Substances: Helps synthesize non-essential amino acids, glycoproteins

(antibodies), and glycolipids (cell membranes). Lactose supports gut bacteria and calcium
absorption.

5. Detoxification: Glucuronic acid, a glucose metabolite, detoxifies harmful substances.

6. Dietary Fiber (Roughage): Insoluble fibers (cellulose) add bulk to stool and support digestive health.

7. Central Nervous System Function: Glucose is the primary energy source for the brain; prolonged
deficiency can cause irreversible brain damage.

1.4 Food Sources of Carbohydrates Major sources include:Cereals and Millets: Rice, wheat, maize, barley-
Root and Tubers: Potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams-Pulses: Lentils, chickpeas, beans-Sugars: Sugar,
jaggery, honey-Milk and Dairy Products: Lactose-containing foods

[Link]: Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of life. Proteins are
composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N).Nitrogen is a distinctive element in
proteins, absent in carbohydrates and lipids.

2.1 Classification of Proteins

2.2 Classification of Proteins (Based on Chemical Composition)

Simple Proteins: Composed entirely of amino acids (e.g., albumins, globulins).

Conjugated (Complex) Proteins: Contain a non-amino acid component (prosthetic group), such
as:Nucleoproteins (nucleic acid + protein),Glycoproteins (carbohydrate + protein),Lipoproteins (lipid +
protein) and Metalloproteins (metal ions + protein)

2.4 Classification of Proteins (Based on Nutritional Value)

3 Complete Proteins-Contain all essential amino acids in sufficient [Link] in animal sources:
milk, meat, poultry, egg, fish.

4 Incomplete Proteins-Deficient in one or more essential amino [Link] in plant sources:

vegetables, cereals, pulses, nuts, oilseeds.

5 Complementary Proteins-Combining two incomplete protein sources to form a complete protein.

5.2 Examples:Rice + Pulses (e.g., Pongal),Milk + Rice (e.g., Rice Kheer)

2.4 Food Sources of Proteins

• Animal Sources (Complete Proteins): Meat, egg, fish, poultry, dairy.

• Plant Sources (Incomplete Proteins): Legumes, pulses, nuts, oilseeds.

• Vegetables and Fruits: Generally poor sources of protein.

Functions of Proteins

1. Growth and Maintenance: Tissue repair and muscle building.

2. Enzymes and Hormones: Catalysts for biochemical reactions.

3. Transport and Storage: Hemoglobin transports oxygen.

4. Immune Function: Antibody production for disease resistance.

5. Energy Source: Used when carbohydrates and fats are insufficient.

Lipids (Fats and Oils)

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
solvents like ether, chloroform, and benzene. They primarily consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and
serve as a major source of energy, structural components of cell membranes, and signaling molecules in
biological systems.

Classification of Lipids:

Lipids can be broadly classified into the following categories:

[Link] Lipids:Fats and Oils (Triglycerides): Composed of glycerol and three fatty [Link]: Esters of
long-chain fatty acids and alcohols (e.g., beeswax, lanolin).

[Link] Lipids:Phospholipids: Contain phosphate groups (e.g., lecithin, cephalin).

Glycolipids: Contain carbohydrate moieties (e.g., cerebrosides, gangliosides).

Lipoproteins: Lipids combined with proteins, essential for lipid transport.

[Link] Lipids

Steroids: Cholesterol, steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen).

Fatty Acids: Saturated (e.g., palmitic acid) and unsaturated (e.g., oleic acid).

Prostaglandins: Bioactive lipid compounds involved in inflammation and signaling.

Sources of Lipids:

Animal Sources: Meat, dairy products, fish oils, eggs, butter, lard.

Plant Sources: Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils (olive oil, sunflower oil), avocados.

Synthetic Sources: Hydrogenated oils, margarine, emulsifiers in processed foods.

Functions of Lipids:

1. Energy Storage: Provide long-term energy storage, yielding 9 kcal/g.

2. Structural Role: Major components of cell membranes (phospholipids, cholesterol).

3. Insulation and Protection: Help maintain body temperature and cushion organs.

4. Cell Signaling: Act as precursors for hormones (steroids, prostaglandins).

5. Transport of Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Essential for the absorption of vitamins A, D, E, and K.

6. Metabolic Regulation: Cholesterol is a precursor for bile acids and steroid hormones.

Micronutrients-Required in low quantities

[Link]: Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal metabolic functions,
growth, and overall health. They act as coenzymes or precursors for essential biochemical processes but
cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the body and must be obtained through diet.

Classification of Vitamins

Vitamins are classified based on their solubility into two main groups:
 1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)-Stored in body fat and [Link] dietary fats for
[Link] intake may lead to toxicity

2. Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-complex and C):Not stored in the body; excess is excreted in [Link]
regular replenishment through [Link] mainly as coenzymes in metabolism

Sources and Functions of Vitamins

Vitamin Sources Functions

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A (Retinol, Beta- Liver, dairy products, carrots,

Vision, immune function, skin health
carotene) spinach, mangoes

Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol, Sunlight, fish, eggs, fortified dairy

Calcium absorption, bone health
Ergocalciferol) products

Vitamin E (Tocopherols, Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, green

Antioxidant, protects cell membranes
Tocotrienols) leafy vegetables

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone,
Green leafy vegetables, liver, eggs Blood clotting, bone metabolism
Menaquinones)

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Carbohydrate metabolism, nerve

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Whole grains, legumes, nuts, pork
function

Dairy, eggs, green vegetables,

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Energy production, skin health
meat

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, fish, whole grains, peanuts DNA repair, cholesterol metabolism

Coenzyme A synthesis, energy

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) Eggs, fish, whole grains, avocados
metabolism

Amino acid metabolism,

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Poultry, fish, bananas, potatoes
neurotransmitter synthesis

Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Egg yolks, nuts, whole grains Fatty acid synthesis, skin health

DNA synthesis, red blood cell

Vitamin B9 (Folate/Folic Acid) Leafy greens, citrus fruits, legumes
formation

Nerve function, red blood cell

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Meat, fish, dairy, fortified cereals
production

Citrus fruits, strawberries, bell Antioxidant, immune function,

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
peppers collagen synthesis
[Link]-Minerals are inorganic nutrients required by the body in small amounts for various
physiological functions, including growth, development, and metabolism. Unlike vitamins, minerals are
elements that originate from the earth and are obtained through food and water.

Classification of Minerals

Minerals are classified into two groups based on the required daily intake:

1. Macrominerals (Major Minerals) – Needed in larger amounts (>100 mg/day)

2. Microminerals (Trace Elements) – Required in smaller amounts (<100 mg/day)

Examples, Sources, and Functions of Minerals

Mineral Sources Functions

Macrominerals

Dairy products, leafy greens, Bone and teeth health, muscle function, blood
Calcium (Ca)
fortified cereals clotting

Phosphorus (P) Meat, dairy, nuts, whole grains Bone and teeth formation, energy metabolism

Nuts, seeds, whole grains, leafy Muscle relaxation, nerve function, energy
Magnesium (Mg)
greens production

Fluid balance, nerve signaling, muscle

Sodium (Na) Table salt, processed foods, seafood
contractions

Bananas, potatoes, citrus fruits, Regulates blood pressure, nerve function, muscle
Potassium (K)
beans contraction

Maintains fluid balance, stomach acid

Chloride (Cl) Table salt, seaweed, tomatoes
production (HCl)

Component of amino acids, detoxification, skin

Sulfur (S) Meat, fish, eggs, garlic
health

Microminerals (Trace Elements)

Red meat, legumes, spinach,

Iron (Fe) Hemoglobin formation, oxygen transport
fortified cereals

Zinc (Zn) Meat, shellfish, legumes, nuts Immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis

Copper (Cu) Shellfish, nuts, seeds, whole grains Red blood cell formation, iron absorption

Whole grains, nuts, tea, leafy

Manganese (Mn) Bone formation, antioxidant activity
greens
Mineral Sources Functions

Thyroid hormone production, metabolism

Iodine (I) Iodized salt, seafood, dairy
regulation

Selenium (Se) Brazil nuts, seafood, eggs, meat Antioxidant defense, thyroid function

Fluoride (F) Fluoridated water, fish, tea Strengthens teeth, prevents cavities

Chromium (Cr) Whole grains, broccoli, meats Enhances insulin function, blood sugar regulation

Molybdenum
Legumes, grains, dairy Enzyme activation, detoxification
(Mo)

1.5 Prebiotics and Probiotics

Prebiotics: Prebiotics are non-digestible food components that promote the growth and activity of
beneficial gut [Link]: Garlic, onions, bananas, asparagus, whole grains, chicory root.

Functions:[Link] gut microbiota health. [Link] digestion and nutrient absorption [Link]
immune function

Probiotics: Probiotics are live beneficial bacteria that improve gut health when consumed in adequate
[Link]: Yogurt, kefir, kimchi, sauerkraut, miso, fermented foods.

Functions:[Link] gut flora [Link] digestion and prevent gastrointestinal disorders 3/.Boost
immunity and reduce inflammation

1.5 Organic Foods: Organic foods are produced without synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, genetically
modified organisms (GMOs), or artificial additives.

2 Examples: Organic fruits, vegetables, dairy products, meats, and grains.

Benefits: [Link] from chemical residues b. Environmentally friendly [Link] levels of certain nutrients
and [Link] sustainable agriculture and e. Phytochemicals and Antioxidants

Phytochemicals:Bioactive compounds found in plants that provide health benefits beyond basic
nutrition.

Examples:[Link] (found in carrots, tomatoes).[Link] (found in berries, tea).[Link]

(found in grapes, dark chocolate) [Link] (found in legumes)

Functions:

✓ Anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties

✓ Support heart and immune health
✓ Reduce risk of chronic diseases

Antioxidants:Molecules that neutralize harmful free radicals, preventing oxidative damage to cells.
Examples:Vitamin C (citrus fruits, bell peppers).Vitamin E (nuts, seeds, spinach).Selenium (Brazil nuts,
seafood).Beta-carotene (carrots, sweet potatoes)

Functions:
 ✓ Protect against cell damage
✓ Reduce the risk of chronic diseases like cancer and heart disease
✓ Slow aging and support skin health

1.8 Introduction to Nutraceuticals

Definition:

Nutraceuticals are bioactive compounds derived from food sources that provide health benefits beyond
basic nutrition and may help prevent or manage diseases.

Classification of Nutraceuticals

1. Dietary Supplements – Vitamins, minerals, amino acids (e.g., Vitamin D, Omega-3)

2. Functional Foods – Fortified or enriched foods (e.g., calcium-fortified juice)

3. Medicinal Foods – Formulated for specific health conditions (e.g., diabetic meal replacements)

4. Pharmaceuticals from Food Sources – Plant-derived compounds with medicinal properties (e.g.,
curcumin from turmeric)

Uses and Roles of Nutraceuticals

• Improve overall health and wellness

• Prevent nutrient deficiencies

• Support immune and cardiovascular health

• Aid in managing chronic conditions (e.g., diabetes, hypertension)

1.9 Nutritional, Dietary, and Health Supplements

Nutritional, dietary, and health supplements are products designed to provide essential nutrients that
may be lacking in a person’s diet. They include vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbal extracts, and
other bioactive compounds.

Types of Supplements:

1. Vitamin and Mineral Supplements – Provide essential micronutrients (e.g., multivitamins,

calcium, iron).

2. Herbal Supplements – Plant-based extracts with health benefits (e.g., ginseng, echinacea).

3. Protein and Amino Acid Supplements – Support muscle growth and recovery (e.g., whey protein,
BCAAs).

4. Omega-3 and Fatty Acid Supplements – Improve heart and brain health (e.g., fish oil, flaxseed oil).

5. Probiotic and Prebiotic Supplements – Enhance gut microbiota balance (e.g., Lactobacillus,
inulin).

6. Specialized Supplements – Target specific conditions (e.g., glucosamine for joint health, melatonin
for sleep).

Benefits of Supplements:
 • Address nutrient deficiencies

• Support immune function and overall health

• Improve energy levels and metabolism

• Aid in the management of chronic diseases

• Enhance physical performance and recovery

Risks and Considerations:

• Excessive intake may cause toxicity (e.g., too much Vitamin A can lead to liver damage).

• Possible interactions with medications.

• Quality and efficacy may vary among brands.

1.10 Supplement Labeling

Importance of Supplement Labeling:

Supplement labels provide essential information about ingredients, dosage, and health benefits, helping
consumers make informed choices.

Key Components of a Supplement Label:

1. Product Name & Description – Clearly states the supplement type (e.g., "Vitamin C 1000mg").

2. Serving Size & Dosage Instructions – Recommended daily intake.

3. Ingredients List – Active and inactive ingredients, including fillers or additives.

4. Nutrient Content & % Daily Value (%DV) – Indicates how much of each nutrient is provided
relative to daily needs.

5. Health Claims & Warnings – Statements about potential benefits and risks (e.g., "Supports
immune health," "Not for pregnant women").

6. Manufacturing & Expiry Date – Ensures product safety and potency.

7. Certifications & Regulatory Approvals – Marks from FDA, EFSA, or other health authorities.

Regulations and Compliance:

• United States: Regulated by the FDA under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
(DSHEA).

• European Union: Controlled by EFSA (European Food Safety Authority).

• India: Regulated by FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India).

Other Countries: May have their own specific regulations.