Simple roup - A roup is called simple if its only normal
sub roups are the trivial sub roup and the roup itself.
Normal sub roup - A sub roup H of a roup G is called
normal if
H = H for all in G.
(Equivalently: H ⁻¹ = H for all in G.)
S3 is the roup of all permutations of the set {1, 2,
3} under composition.
S3 = { e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132) }
A cyclic roup has a unique sub roup of order d for
every divisor d of |G|.
The roup which has prime order is a simple roup .
A simple abelian roup must be cyclic of prime order.
|G| = |G₁/G₀| × |G₂/G₁| × ... × |Gᵣ/Gᵣ₋₁|
simple roups have only 1 composition series (trivial)
Division Rin : A division rin is a rin with unity in which
every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
Multiplication need not be commutative.
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Field: A field is a commutative rin with unity in which
every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
A field or a division rin (R), when considered as a
module(R) over itself, is a simple module because
any non-zero submodule(N) contains a non-zero
element (lets a≠0 € N), and since every non-zero
element has an inverse in R(a^-1€R), this forces the
identity element 1 to belon to the
submodule(1€N). Once 1 is in the submodule, every
element of the rin belon s to it, and hence the
submodule becomes the whole rin .(N=R)
Therefore, the only submodules are {0} and the rin
itself, so the module is simple.
A rin is a non-empty set equipped with two binary operations, usually called addition and multiplication, that satisfy the
followin conditions:
1. The set is an abelian roup under addition (that is, addition is associative, commutative, has an identity element called
zero, and every element has an additive inverse).
2. Multiplication is associative.
3. Multiplication is distributive over addition from both sides (that is, a(b + c) = ab + ac and (a + b)c = ac + bc for all
elements a, b, c in the set).
If multiplication is also commutative, the rin is called a commutative rin .
If there exists a multiplicative identity (1 ≠ 0), the rin is called a rin with unity.
An inte ral domain is a commutative rin with unity that has no zero divisors. ab=0 => a or b
=0
A field is a commutative rin with unity in which every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
A non-constant polynomial f in a rin R[x] is called irreducible if:
A
Whenever f = * h with and h in R[x],
then either is a unit (invertible) or h is a unit.
A principal ideal domain (PID) is an inte ral domain in which every ideal is principal,
that is, can be enerated by a sin le element.
A unique factorization domain (UFD) is an inte ral domain in which every non-zero,
non-unit element can be written as a product of irreducible elements, and this
factorization is unique up to order and units.
An ideal is a subset of a rin that is closed under addition and multiplication by any
rin element.
A primitive polynomial has coefficients with HCF = 1.
If a is a root, then:a0 + a1a + a2a^2 + ...
+ an*a^n = 0. So,a0 = - (a1a + a2a^2
+ ... + an*a^n). Everythin on the ri ht
side is a multiple of a, so a divides a0
Check each value in Z_7 for x^3 + 3x + 2; none ives zero, so there are
no roots in Z_7
To show x⁴ + 8 is irreducible over Q:
1. By Rational Root Test, possible roots are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8. None satisfy
x⁴ + 8 = 0. Hence no linear factor.
2. If reducible, it must factor as (x² + ax + b)(x² + cx + d).
Comparin coefficients ives a + c = 0, ac + b + d = 0, ad + bc = 0, bd =
8.
From a + c = 0 → c = -a → either a = 0 or d = b.
• If a = 0 → b + d = 0 → b² = -8 → not in Q.
• If d = b → b = a²/2 → b² = 8 → b not in Q.
Hence no such rational coefficients.
Therefore, x⁴ + 8 is irreducible over Q.
x^3 - x - 1 has no rational root and so is irreducible over Q
4) Quadratic: x^2 + x + 1
Cubic: x^3 + x + 1, x^3 + x^2 + 1
Biquadratic: x^4 + x + 1, x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1
These are the irreducible polynomials over
Z_2[x], found by listin all possibilities and
checkin for factors or roots
If there is some
al ebrically closed
field. and let some
To prove that if every irreducible
polynomial of de n polynomial of a field of polynomials is
of de ree one, then that field is
belon to its field of al ebraically closed —
we first assume that there exists some
polynomials. then by extension of the field and take any
element from that extension.
th 2.3 there will be By definition, the smallest polynomial
some extension of satisfied by that element is irreducible.
But accordin to the iven condition,
that al ebrically every irreducible polynomial is of
de ree one.
closed field which So that smallest polynomial must be of
the form “variable minus some
contain its solution constant,” where the constant belon s
to the ori inal field.
and as per 2.5 dim of Since the element satisfies this
equation, the element must be equal to
that extension over that constant itself.
Hence that element also belon s to the
al ebrically closed ori inal field.
This means the extension adds
field should also nothin new, and therefore the field
and its extension are actually the
equal to de of same.
So the field is al ebraically closed.
polynomial that is "n".
But as it was
al ebrically closed,
then its every
extension should be
itself only. so dim of
extension over
al ebrically closed
field should be 1. so
de ree of irreducible
polynomial also 1.
If there is a field, and we have a
one-to-one mappin from this field
into another field which already
contains roots of all polynomials
(that is, an al ebraically closed
field),
then when we create a bi er field
by addin one new element to the
first field,
this mappin can also be extended
to that bi er field.
The number of different ways this
extension can happen is equal to
the number of different roots of the
smallest polynomial that the added
element satisfies
Let V be a finite-dimensional
vector space over a field F.
Since dimensions of
subspaces cannot increase or
decrease indefinitely beyond
the finite value dim(V), every
ascendin and descendin
chain of subspaces stabilizes.
Hence V is both Noetherian
and Artinian.