A TEXT BOOK OF

POWER
ELECTRONICS
FOR
SEMESTER – VI

THIRD YEAR (T.Y.) B. TECH COURSE IN

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (PCC-2)
AND
ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING (PEC-2)

Strictly According to New Revised Credit System Syllabus

of Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University (BATU),
Lonere, (Dist. Raigad) Maharashtra,
(w.e.f. June 2019-20)

S. D. SAWANT
M. Tech. (Power Electronics)
Assistant Professor, E & TC Deptt.,
STES's NBN Sinhgad School of Engineering,
Ambegaon (Bk), PUNE.

Price ` 190.00

N1120
POWER ELECTRONICS (E&TC, BATU) ISBN : 978-93-89825-33-6
First Edition : December 2019
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 PREFACE
It gives me great pleasure to present the book "Power Electronics" for the students of Semester VI Third
Year (T.Y.) B. Tech. Course Electronics Engineering (PCC-2) and for Electronics & Telecommunication
Engineering (PEC-2) of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University (BATU), Lonere, Dist. Raigad
(Maharashtra). This book is strictly as per the new revised syllabus 2019-20 Pattern, effective from the
Academic Year July 2019-20.

In New Revised Syllabus, there will Class Assessment (CA) 20 Marks, Mid Sem. Exam. (MSE) 20 Marks and
End Sem. Exam. (ESE) 60 Marks. End Sem. Exam. will be based on all Six units and each unit will carry 20 Marks.

The Theory Course will have 3 Credits.

The basic objective of this book is to bridge the gap between the vast contents of the reference books,
written by the renowned International Authors and the concise requirements of Undergraduate Students. This
book has been written in a comprehensive manner using Simple and Lucid language, keeping in mind students’
requirements. The main emphasis has been given on exploring the basic concepts rather than merely the
Information. Solved Examples, Summary and Exercises have been provided throughout the book and at the
end of the Unit. Also I have given Model Question Papers for practice at the end of book.

My special thanks to my family members, students and all those who directly or indirectly supported us in
this project.

I also take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Shri. Dineshbhai Furia, Shri. Jignesh Furia,
Mrs. Nirali Verma, Shri. M. P. Munde and entire team of Nirali Prakashan, namely Mrs. Deepali Lachake
(Co-ordinator), and her colleagues who really have taken keen interest and untiring efforts in publishing this
text.

The advice and suggestions of my esteemed readers to improve the text are most welcome and will be
highly appreciated.

Pune Author
 SYLLABUS

Unit I : Characteristics of Semiconductor Power Devices

Thyristor, power MOSFET and IGBT- Treatment should consist of structure, Characteristics, operation, ratings, protections

and thermal considerations. Brief introduction to power devices viz. TRIAC, MOS controlled thyristor (MCT), Power

Integrated Circuit (PIC) (Smart Power), Triggering/Driver, commutation and snubber circuits for thyristor, power MOSFETs

and IGBTs (discrete and IC based).Concept of fast recovery and schottky diodes as freewheeling and feedback diode.

Unit II : Controlled Rectifiers

Single phase: Study of semi and full bridge converters for R, RL, RLE and level loads. Analysis of load voltage and input

current- Derivations of load form factor and ripple factor, Effect of source impedance, Input current Fourier series analysis

of input current to derive input supply power factor, displacement factor and harmonic factor.

Unit III : Choppers

Quadrant operations of Type A, Type B, Type C, Type D and type E choppers, Control techniques for choppers – TRC and

CLC, Detailed analysis of Type A chopper. Step up chopper. Multiphase Chopper.

Unit 4 : Single-Phase Inverters

Principle of operation of full bridge square wave, quasi-square wave, PWM inverters and comparison of their performance.

Driver circuits for above inverters and mathematical analysis of output (Fourier series) voltage and harmonic control at

output of inverter (Fourier analysis of output voltage). Filters at the output of inverters, Single phase current source

inverter.

Unit V : Switching Power Supplies

Analysis of fly back, forward converters for SMPS, Resonant converters - need, concept of soft switching, switching

trajectory and SOAR, Load resonant converter - series loaded half bridge DC-DC converter.

Unit VI : Applications

Power line disturbances, EMI/EMC, power conditioners. Block diagram and configuration of UPS, salient features of UPS,

selection of battery and charger ratings, sizing of UPS, Separately excited DC motor drive. P M Stepper motor Drive
 CONTENTS

Unit I : Characteristics of Semiconductor Power Devices 1.1 – 1.48

1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Introduction to Power Electronics 1.2
1.3 Applications of Power Electronics 1.3
1.4 Merits and Demerits of Power Electronic Controller 1.3
1.4.1 Merits 1.3
1.4.2 Demerits 1.3
1.5 Classification of Power Electronic Converters 1.3
1.5.1 Diode Rectifier 1.3
1.5.2 Phase Controlled Rectifier 1.4
1.5.3 DC Chopper (DC-to-DC Converter) 1.4
1.5.4 Inverters (DC to AC Converter) 1.4
1.5.5 AC to AC Converter 1.4
1.6 Power Diode 1.5
1.6.1 V-I Characteristics of Power Diode 1.5
1.6.2 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics 1.6
1.7 Classification of Power Diodes 1.7
1.7.1 General Purpose Diode or Standard Diode 1.7
1.7.2 Fast Recovery Diode / Concept of Fast Recovery Diode 1.7
1.7.3 Schottky Diode / Concept of Schottky Diode 1.7
1.8 Thyristor 1.8
1.8.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 1.8
1.8.2 Static V-I Characteristics of SCR and Operation Steps 1.8
1.8.3 Some Important Parameters of SCR 1.9
1.8.4 Two Transistor Analogy or Model of SCR 1.10
1.8.5 Triggering or Turn-ON Methods of Thyristor 1.11
1.8.6 Pulse Triggering 1.11
1.8.7 Turn-ON Characteristics of SCR 1.12
1.8.8 Turn-OFF Characteristics of SCR 1.12
1.9 Power MOSFETS 1.13
1.9.1 Operation of n-Channel Depletion MOSFET 1.14
1.9.2 MOSFET Characteristics 1.14
1.9.3 Merits, Demerits and Applications of MOSFETs 1.15
1.9.4 Comparison of MOSFET with BJT 1.15
1.10 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 1.15
1.10.1 Physics of Device Operation of IGBT 1.16
1.10.2 IGBT Characteristics 1.17
1.10.3 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of IGBT 1.18
1.10.4 Comparison between Non-Punch Through IGBT (NPT-IGBT) and Punch Through IGBT (PT-IGBT) 1.18
1.10.5 Latch-Up in IGBTs 1.18
1.10.6 Safe Operating Area of IGBT 1.19
1.10.7 Comparison between MOSFET and IGBT 1.19
 1.11 Thyristor Ratings 1.20
1.11.1 Voltage Ratings 1.20
1.11.2 Current Ratings 1.21
1.12 Gate Characteristics of SCR 1.21
1.13 Gate Drive Requirements 1.21
1.14 Comparison between R Triggering, RC Triggering and UJT Based Triggering Methods 1.24
1.14.1 Comparison between MOSFET with SCR 1.25
1.14.2 Comparison between SCR and IGBT 1.25
1.15 Gate Drive Circuits for Power MOSFET and IGBT 1.25
1.15.1 Gate and Device Capacitances 1.25
1.15.2 Driver Circuit Requirements 1.26
1.15.3 MOSFET / IGBT Driver Circuit 1.27
1.15.4 IGBT Protection Circuits 1.27
1.16 OPTO Isolator Driver Circuit for SCR 1.28
1.17 Series and Parallel Operation of SCR’s 1.28
1.18 Thyristor Protection 1.30
1.19 Triggering of SCR using IC-785 1.30
1.19.1 Block Diagram/Internal Structure of TCA 785 IC 1.31
1.19.2 Triggering Circuit for Single-Phase Controller using IC TCA 785 1.32
1.20 Application of Power Devices as a Switch 1.33
1.21 TRIAC Construction Operation and Applications of TRIAC 1.33
1.21.1 Construction of TRIAC 1.33
1.21.2 Characteristics of a TRIAC 1.34
1.22 MOS-Controlled Thyristors 1.35
1.23 Power Integrated Circuits (PIC) Smart Power 1.35
1.23.1 Introduction 1.35
1.23.2 MOSFET Technology 1.36
1.23.3 InnoSwitch™3-EP Integrated Circuit 1.36
1.23.4 LinkSwitch™-TN2 Integrated Circuit 1.37
1.24 Fast Recovery Diode / Concept of Fast Recovery Diode 1.38
1.25 Concept of Schottky Diode 1.38
1.26 Freewheling Diode / Flyback Diode 1.39
1.27 Feedback Diode 1.40
• Summary 1.45
• University Questions 1.46
• Exercise 1.47
Unit II : Controlled Rectifiers 2.1 – 2.36
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Classification 2.1
2.3 Concept of Line and Force Commutation 2.1
2.3.1 Line Commutation or Natural Commutation 2.1
2.3.2 Forced Commutation 2.2
2.3.3 Requirements of Successful Commutation 2.2
 2.4 Single-Phase Half-Wave Converter 2.2
2.4.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Converter (Rectifier) with Resistive Load
(Principle of Operation of Phase Control) 2.2
2.4.2 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier with RL Load 2.4
2.4.3 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier with RL Load and Free-Wheeling Diode 2.4
2.4.4 Comparison between Free Wheeling Diode and Feedback Diode 2.5
2.4.5 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier with RLE Load (Active Load) 2.5
2.5 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Converter (Rectifier) 2.6
2.5.1 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load [Mid-Point Converter
or Single-Phase Two Pulse Converter] 2.6
2.5.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load (Mid-Point Converter with RL Load) 2.7
2.5.3 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free-Wheeling Diode 2.8
2.6 Quadrant Operation of Converters 2.9
2.7 Single-Phase Full-Wave, Controlled Bridge (Converter) Rectifier 2.9
2.7.1 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier with R Load 2.9
2.7.2 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RL Load 2.10
2.8 Single-Phase Half Controlled Bridge Converter or Semi-Converter 2.11
2.8.1 Comparison between Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Configuration of Semi-Converter 2.12
2.8.2 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier (Semiconverter) with R Load 2.12
2.8.3 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier (Semiconverter) with RL Load 2.13
2.8.4 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier (Semiconverter) with RLE Load 2.14
2.8.5 Comparison between Full-Controlled and Half-Controlled Converter Circuits 2.16
2.8.6 Applications of Rectifiers 2.16
2.9 Effect of Source Inductance in Single-Phase Fully-Controlled Converter (Rectifier) 2.17
2.10 Single-Phase Dual Converter 2.17
2.10.1 Summary of Phased Controlled Converters 2.19
2.11 Derivation of Load Form Factor in Single Phase Rectifiers 2.21
2.12 Derivation of Load Ripple Factor in Single Phase Rectifiers 2.21
2.13 Power Factor 2.22
2.13.1 Displacement Power Factor (DPF) 2.23
2.13.2 Harmonic Factor 2.23
• Summary 2.34
• University Questions 2.34
• Exercise 2.35
Unit III : Choppers 3.1 – 3.20
3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 General Features and Applications of DC Choppers 3.1
3.3 Classification of Choppers 3.1
3.4 Principle of Chopper Operation (Step-Down Chopper) 3.2
3.4.1 Continuous and Discontinuous Condition of Step-Down Chopper or Type A Chopper 3.3
3.5 Control Strategies 3.4
3.5.1 Performance Parameters 3.5
3.6 Step-Up Chopper 3.5
3.7 Types of Chopper 3.6
3.7.1 Type A Chopper (First Quadrant Chopper) 3.6
3.7.2 Type B Chopper (Second Quadrant Chopper) 3.6
3.7.3 Type A or Type C Chopper (Two Quadrant Chopper) 3.6
3.7.4 Type B or Type D Chopper (Two Quadrant Chopper) 3.7
3.7.5 Type E Chopper or Four Quadrant Chopper 3.7
 3.8 Multiphase Chopper 3.8
3.9 Forced Commutated Thyristor-Based Chopper 3.9
3.9.1 Voltage or Impulse Commutated Chopper 3.9
3.9.2 Current Commutated Chopper 3.11
3.9.3 Load Commutated Chopper 3.12
3.10 Use of Filter on the Input Side of Chopper 3.14
• Summary 3.19
• University Questions 3.19
• Exercise 3.20
Unit IV : Single Phase Inverters 4.1 – 4.22
4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Classification of Inverters 4.1
4.3 Half Bridge Inverter with 'R' Load 4.2
4.4 Half Bridge Inverter with RL Load 4.3
4.5 Single Phase Bridge Inverter 4.4
4.6 Single Phase Bridge Inverter with RL Load 4.6
4.7 Performance Parameters 4.8
4.8 Single Phase PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Inverters 4.8
4.8.1 Harmonic Elimation / Modulation Technique 4.9
4.9 Device Utilization Factor 4.13
4.10 Applications of Inverters 4.13
4.11 Single-Phase Current-Source Inverters 4.16
4.12 Driver Circuits for Single Phase Inverters 4.18
4.13 Filters at the Output of Inverters 4.20
• Summary 4.21
• University Questions 4.21
• Exercise 4.21
Unit V : Switching Power Supplies 5.1 – 5.14
5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.1.1 Linear DC Power Supply 5.1
5.1.2 Switching DC Power Supply 5.1
5.1.3 Types of Switching Regulator 5.1
5.1.4 Step-Down Converter (Buck Regulator) 5.2
5.1.5 Step-up Converter (Boost Regulator) 5.2
5.1.6 Flyback Converter 5.2
5.2 Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) 5.4
5.2.1 Forward Converters for SMPS 5.6
5.3 Resonant Converter 5.7
5.3.1 Introduction 5.7
5.3.2 Need for Resonant Converters 5.7
5.3.3 Classification of Resonant Converters 5.7
5.3.4 Advantages of Resonant Converter 5.8
5.3.5 Disadvantages 5.8
5.3.6 Series Loaded Half Bridge DC-DC Converter 5.8
 5.4 Concept of Soft Switching 5.9
5.4.1 Resonant Switch Converters 5.9
5.5 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) Resonant Converters 5.9
5.5.1 Zero Current Switching (ZCS) Resonant Converter 5.10
5.5.2 Comparison between ZVS and ZCS Resonant Converter 5.13
• Summary 5.13
• University Questions 5.14
• Exercise 5.14
Unit VI : Applications 6.1 – 6.16
6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Power Line Disturbances 6.1
6.2.1 Power Line Disturbances/Distortions 6.1
6.2.2 Sources of Disturbances 6.2
6.2.3 Effects of Disturbances on Sensitive Equipment 6.2
6.3 Electromagnetic Interference Sources (EMI) / Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) 6.3
6.3.1 Classification of EMI 6.3
6.3.2 Sources of EMI 6.3
6.3.3 EMI Minimizing Techniques 6.4
6.3.4 Shielding Techniques for EMI 6.4
6.4 Power Conditioner 6.4
6.4.1 Principle of Operation 6.4
6.4.2 Advantages 6.5
6.4.3 Circuit Diagram of Power Conditioner 6.5
6.5 Uninterruptable Power Supply 6.5
6.5.1 Need of UPS 6.6
6.5.2 UPS System and its Component 6.6
6.6 Types of UPS 6.7
6.6.1 Off-Line UPS 6.7
6.6.2 On-Line UPS 6.8
6.6.3 Comparison of On-Line UPS and Off-Line UPS 6.9
6.6.4 UPS Power Rating 6.9
6.6.5 Sizing of UPS 6.9
6.7 Battery A-H (Ampere-Hour) Rating 6.10
6.7.1 Battery Charger Rating 6.10
6.8 Single Phase Separately Excited DC Motor Principle / Operation 6.10
6.9 Separately Excited DC Motor Drive 6.11
6.9.1 1–φ Semiconverter Based DC Motor Drive 6.12
6.9.2 1-φ Full Converter Based DC Motor Drive 6.13
6.9.3 1-φ Half Controlled Based Control 6.13
6.9.4 Torque Speed Characteristic 6.14
6.10 Stepper Motor Construction and Control 6.14
6.10.1 Advantages of Stepper Motor 6.15
6.10.2 Disadvantages of Stepper Motor 6.15
• Summary 6.15
• University Questions 6.15
• Exercise 6.15

• Model Question Papers for End-Semester Examination (60 Marks) P.1 – P.2
 UNIT I

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR POWER DEVICES

1.1 INTRODUCTION [May 16] ionization. Examples of gas filled tube devices are
thyratron, ignitron, mercury arc rectifier, neon lamp etc.
• To understand power electronic devices and circuits, it
In this type of devices, gas ionization occurs due to
is essential to have knowledge about basic electronic
applied very high potential. These are high power
components. Two main categories of electronic
electronic devices. Due to technological development,
components are (a) Passive components, (b) Active
these are replaced by thyristor devices.
components. For passive components, biasing supply
• Semiconductor components are also known as solid
is not essential. Their working does not depend on
state components. Semiconductor materials are having
external biasing supply. Examples of passive
specific electrical conductivity between that of good
components are resistor, capacitor and inductor. For
conductor and that of good insulator. The ability of
the operation of active component, external biasing
carrying electrical current can be enhanced by the
supply is essential. Their operation changes as per
addition of certain chemical impurities from third and
biasing supply amplitude. Biasing means application of
fifth group of atomic table. Semiconductor materials in
external supply for device operation. For stable
pure form are called as intrinsic semiconductors. These
operation of device, biasing supply must be DC supply.
are from fourth group.
Examples of active devices are diode, BJT, FET, UJT,
SCR, TRIAC, CRT etc. • The most commonly used semiconductor is Si and less
frequently used is Ge. The process of addition of
• Electronic devices can be classified as tube devices and
impurity material to pure semiconductor is called as
solid state or semiconductor devices. In early days of
doping. Due to addition of impurity, impure
electronics (1900 to 1940), tube devices were most
semiconductor is formed. This impure semiconductor
commonly used. Tube devices can be further classified
is called as extrinsic semiconductor. Two types of
as vacuum tube devices and gas filled tube devices.
extrinsic semiconductors are P-type semiconductor
Vacuum tube diode, triode, tetrode, pentrode, cathode
and N-type semiconductor. By using these extrinsic
ray tube (CRT) are few examples of vacuum tube
semiconductors, various electronic devices are
devices. Thermionic emission is the basic principle of
manufactured. Table 1.1 Shows Symbol, Terminal
vacuum tube devices. Emission of electrons due to
Names and Applications of Basic Semiconductor
heating of cathode is known as thermionic emission.
Devices.
Gas filled tube devices operate on the principle of gas
Table 1.1
Device Symbol Applications
P-N Junction Diode 1. Rectifier
A K
2. Clipping circuit
3. Clamping circuit
4. Digital circuit
Zener Diode 1. Voltage regulation
A K 2. Meter protection
3. Over voltage detection
4. Battery charger
Light Emitting Diode 1. Indicator
2. Display device
A K 3. 7-segment display
4. In matrix display
(1.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.2) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

Device Symbol Applications

C
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 1. Amplifier
B
2. Series and shunt voltage regulator
NPN E 3. Oscillator
4. Multivibrator
C
5. Digital circuits
B
PNP 6. Transistorized voltmeter (TVM)
E 7. Operational amplifier
8. Switching element
D
Junction Field Effect Transistor G 1. Amplifier
(JFET) N-channel 2. Oscillator
S 3. Multivibrator
G D 4. Digital circuits
5. TVM
S 6. Digital memory
P-channel
7. Switching element
8. High power applications
D
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field 1. In power electronics
Effect Transistor (MOSFET) sub
2. Inverter
G S
N-channel 3. Digital circuits
D 4. VLSI ICs
sub 5. Amplifier
P-channel G S

E B1
Uni Junction Transistor (UJT) 1. For triggering of SCR
2. Relaxation oscillator
B2 3. Time base generator
4. Beam deflection circuit of CRO and TV
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO POWER • Electrical power generation is a basic need for
ELECTRONICS domestic and industrial applications. To generate
electrical power, conventional and non-conventional
• Power electronics deals with the application of
methods are used. AC electrical power generation and
electronic devices in the control and conversion of
transmission is more efficient than DC electric power.
electrical power. It is partly in power engineering and
For power conversion rectifier, control rectifier,
partly in electronics. Power engineering deals with high
inverter, chopper, cycloinverter, cycloconverter and
electrical power generation, transmission and
other circuits are suitable. Power electronic equipment
utilization at higher frequency. Electronics deals with
involves interaction between the source and the load.
low power signal level and data signal. During last
It utilizes small signal electronic control circuits as well
three decades, power electronics achieved
as power semiconductor devices. In early days before
phenomenal growth to occupy an important place in
1975, thyratron, ignitron, mercury arc rectifier like gas
modern technology.
filled tubes were used for power conversion and
• In broad consideration, electrical engineering field may
control. Now-a-days the major component of power
be divided into three areas :
electronic circuit is the thyristor. Thyristor is a fast
1. Electronics, 2. Power, 3. Control.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.3) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

switching semiconductor and its function is to • Utility Systems : High Voltage DC Transmission
modulate the power in AC and DC systems. (HVDC), excitation system, VAR compensation, static
• Power electronic circuits are also called as thyristorised circuit breakers, fan and boiler-feed pumps,
power controllers. supplementary energy systems (solar, wind).
• The power controllers are generally classified into five 1.4 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF POWER
categories. ELECTRONIC CONTROLLER
1. Phase Controlled Rectifier : These are also called 1.4.1 Merits
as AC to DC converters. For these power controller
Power electronic controller converts one form of electrical
source is single phase or three phase. These are
energy into another form. This controller uses power
used in DC drives, metallurgical and chemical devices. Some of the merits of power electronic systems
industries, excitation system for synchronous are as follows :
system etc. • Flexible control : The output voltage of controller can
2. Chopper : These are DC to DC converters. It easily be controlled by controlling the delay angle.
converts fixed DC input voltage to variable and • High efficiency due to low loss in power
controllable DC output voltage. Choppers are semiconductor devices.
commonly used for DC drive, railway cars, trolley • The converter reliability is high.
trucks, battery operated vehicles. • No mechanical movement in converters, so the life of
3. Inverter : These are DC to AC converters. Output converter is long and it requires less maintenance.
may be variable voltage and variable frequency. • Dynamic response is faster due to static devices.
Inverters are widely used in induction motor drive, • Acoustic noise is lower as compared to relays and
synchronous motor drive, induction heating, UPS, contactors.
HVDC transmission etc. • Due to electronic devices used in controller, the size is
4. Cycloconverter : These circuits convert input compact and of less weight.
power at one frequency to output power at a 1.4.2 Demerits
different frequency. These are basically used for The demerits of power electronic systems are as follows :
low speed large AC drive like rotary kiln etc. • Harmonics are generated in converters due to
5. AC Voltage Controller : These converter circuits switching of power semiconductor devices. These
convert fixed AC voltage directly to a variable AC harmonics are injected into supply system and load.
voltage at the same frequency. These are used for • The cost of controller is high.
lighting control, speed control of fans, pumps etc. • The AC to DC and DC to AC converters work at low
input power factors under some conditions. Special
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONICS
measures are then required for power factor
Power electronics is used in various fields such as : improvements.
• Industrial : For the controlling of AC and DC motors, 1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER ELECTRONIC
blowers and fans; Arc and Industrial furnaces etc.
CONVERTERS
• Residential : Air conditioning, cooking, lighting, A power electronic system has various applications. The
refrigeration door openers, dryers, fans control etc. main use of power electronics is to control and convert
• Aerospace : Space shuttle power supplies, satellite electrical power from one form to another. Depending
power supplies, aircraft systems. upon the input and output, these power electronic circuits
are classified in different ways.
• Commercial : Advertising, heating, air conditioning,
1.5.1 Diode Rectifier
central refrigeration, computer and office equipment,
The output voltage of diode rectifier is fixed DC. It converts
UPS, elevators, light dimmers and flashers.
AC into DC. The input voltage may be single phase or three
• Telecommunication : Battery chargers, power phase.
supplies (DC and UPS). It is a device which converts AC input voltage to a fixed DC
• Transportation : Battery charger, traction control of voltage. These rectifiers are used in variety of applications
electric vehicle, electric locomotives, street cars, trolley like battery charging, electrochemical processing, power
buses, subway automotive electronics. supplies etc. following Fig. 1.1 shows the diode rectifier.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.4) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.5.4 Inverters (DC to AC Converter)

1 f or 3 f Fixed DC
A.C. Supply O/P A converter which converts fixed DC voltage to variable AC
Rectifier voltage. The output may be variable voltage and variable
Fig. 1.1 : Diode rectifier frequency. The source voltage is DC so for turning OFF the
Classification of Diode Rectifiers : thyristor, additional circuitry is required, so this converter
• Half-wave rectifier. uses line, load or forced commutation for turning off the
thyristor. Fig. 1.4 shows the inverter.
• Full-wave rectifier.
• Bridge rectifier. Fixed voltage Inverter Variable
DC input AC output voltage
1.5.2 Phase Controlled Rectifier
This rectifier converts fixed AC input voltage to variable DC Fig. 1.4 : Inverter
output voltage. The output voltage of phase controlled Some of the important applications of inverters are as
rectifier is varied by controlling the delay angle or firing listed below :
angle (α). The source voltage (input voltage) is AC, • Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).
therefore this rectifier uses line voltage for their • Frequency converter.
commutation, so these are also called as line commutated
• Emergency lighting systems etc.
or naturally commutated AC to DC converters.
1.5.5 AC to AC Converter
These are used in DC drives, metallurgical and chemical
industries etc. These converters convert fixed AC input voltage into
Fig. 1.2 shows the inputs and outputs of AC to DC variable AC output voltage. These are classified into two
converters. The input is 1φ or 3φ AC. The output is types as :
controlled by DC voltage. 1. AC Voltage Controller (AC Voltage Regulator) :
Phase controlled
rectifier This converter converts fixed AC voltage directly to a
variable AC voltage at the same frequency. AC voltage
1 f or 3 f Variavle or
AC Supply fixed DC
controller uses two SCRs or thyristors in anti-parallel or a
output TRIAC. Here in this case, source voltage is AC. Therefore
Firing or delay angle turning off the thyristor, line or natural commutation is
control circuit
used. Output voltage is controlled by varying delay or
Fig. 1.2 : Phase controlled rectifier
firing angle 'α'.
1.5.3 DC Chopper (DC-to-DC Converter)
Main applications of AC voltage regulator are as listed
It is a device which converts fixed DC input voltage to a
below
controllable DC output voltage. The source voltage for this
• Lighting control.
converter is DC. So this converter requires forced or load
commutation to turn off thyristors. For DC to DC • Speed control of fans and pumps etc.
conversion, power BJT or power MOSFETs are also used Fig. 1.5 (a) shows the AC voltage controller.
and the converters are called switched mode power supply.
AC voltage
DC to DC converters are used for battery charger, DC Fixed AC Variable AC voltage
controller
voltage supply without changing frequency
drives and DC power supplies. Fig. 1.3 shows DC chopper.
Fig. 1.5 (a) : AC voltage controller
DC
Fixed DC Fixed or variable
voltage supply
Chopper
DC voltage supply 2. Cyclo-Converter :
This converter converts input power at one frequency to
Fig. 1.3 : DC chopper
output power at a different frequency. In other words, the
Applications of DC Chopper :
converter that converts an AC voltage of fixed amplitude
DC chopper (DC to DC) converter is used in : and frequency into an AC voltage of variable frequency
• Switched-mode power supply (SMPS) and amplitude is called cyclo-converter. The word "cyclo"
• DC motor control. means frequency. So it is also called as frequency changer
• Battery chargers. or converter. Line commutation is more commonly used in
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.5) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

these converters. These are primarily used for slow speed • The main difference between power diode and low
large AC drives like rotary kiln etc. Fig. 1.5 (b) shows inputs power p-n junction diode is that a n− layer called drift
and outputs of cyclo-converter. layer (lightly doped layer, resistivity of this layer is high)
+ +
is placed between p (heavily doped) and n layer.
Fixed voltage Cyclo-converter Variable frequency and Therefore power diode have larger power, voltage and
and fixed frequency variable voltage AC output
AC supply current handling capacities than ordinary
Fig. 1.5 (b) : Cyclo-converter semiconductor diode.

1.6 POWER DIODE • The degree of doping decides the conductivity of n-

type and p-type semiconductor material. The anode
Power semiconductor diode is very similar to low power
and cathode layers are heavily doped with doing levels
p-n junction diodes, called signal diode. The symbol and 19
of 10 cm−3, whereas drift layer is lightly doped with
V-I characteristics of power diode is very similar to that of a
doping level of 10−3. Due to low doping of drift layer,
low power p-n junction diode. Power diode is a
the resistivity is high. Width of drift layer decides the
uncontrolled device. The current flows through diode from
breakdown voltage of power diode.
anode to cathode only. The diode has two operation
1.6.1 V-I Characteristics of Power Diode
modes, one is forward bias (ON state) and other is reverse
Static Characteristics or Steady State Characteristics :
bias mode.
• The diode conducts during forward bias condition, i.e.
Construction of Power Diode :
when anode is positive with respect to cathode. During
• A power diode is a two terminal p-n junction device, conduction, diode has relatively low forward voltage
namely anode and cathode. It has one p-n junction drop across it and the magnitude of this drop would
formed by alloying, diffusing or epitaxial growth. The depend on manufacturing process and junction
modern control technique in diffusion and epitaxial temperature. When the cathode is positive with respect
process permits the desired device characteristics. Fig. to the anode, the diode is reverse bias condition. In
1.6 (a) and 1.6 (b) show the sectional view and diode this condition of diode, a small reverse current called
symbol respectively. leakage current of the order of microamperes or
Anode Cathode
p n milliamperes.
A K
• If the current in the reverse direction is not limited by
+ series resistance, the current will become quite high to
V_
destroy the diode. The reverse avalanche breakdown of
_
+ diode is avoided by operating the diode below
V
rectified peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM. Fig. 1.7
(a) Sectional view of power diode (b) Symbol of power diode shows diode characteristics, where VRRM and cut-in
Fig. 1.6 voltage are shown. Cut-in voltage is also known as
• The vertically oriented cross-sectional view of power threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. For silicon diode,
diode is shown in Fig. 1.6 (c). The vertically oriented the cut-in voltage is around 0.7 V. When diode
structure is preferred in all the power devices as it conducts, there is a forward voltage drop of the order
increases the more surface area for the forward of 0.8 to 1 V.
I
current, therefore reduces the forward resistance and Forward voltage drop
ON-state power dissipation.
Anode

19 -3
10 cm VRRM
Junction p 10 mm
-
n Vs
wd Reverse
14 -3
Drift layer 10 cm leakage current
(Decide the Cut-in voltage
breakdown voltage) n+ = 0.7 V
19 -3 250 to 300 mm
10 cm
Reverse
Cathode breakdown

Fig. 1.6 (c) : Cross-sectional view of power diode Fig. 1.7 : V-I characteristics of power diode
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.6) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
Current
The V-I characteristics as shown in Fig. 1.7 can be
expressed by an expression known as Schottky diode trr
IF
equation and it is given by,
VD/ηVT
ID = IS (e − 1) … (1.1)
ta
Where, ID = Current though the diode in ampere 0 Time
0.25 IRR
Slope
VD = Diode voltage with anode positive (di/dt)
with respect to cathode (ON-state IRR

voltage) tb
IS = Leakage current (or reverse saturation
current) typically in the range of 10−6 (a) Soft recovery characteristics
to 10−15 ampere. Current

η = Empirical constant known as emission trr

IF
coefficient or ideality factor whose
value varies from 1 to 2.
VT = Constant called thermal voltage and is ta
0 Time
given by, 1I t
K⋅T 2 RR a Approximately
VT = … (1.2) IRR 1 I t
q =
2 RR b
tb
Where, q = Electron charge : 1.6022 × 10−19 C
T = Absolute temperature in kelvin (b) Abrupt recovery characteristics
K = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3806 × 10−23
Fig. 1.8
J/K
At junction temperature of 25° C, Equation (1.2) • The peak reverse current can be expressed in reverse
becomes, di/dt as,
VT ≅ 25.8 mV di
IRR = ta … (1.4)
1.6.2 Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics dt

• During forward biased condition of diode i.e. ON-state, • Reverse recovery charge QRR is the amount of charge
its forward current reduces to zero, the diode carriers that flow across the diode in reverse direction
continues to conduct in reverse direction due to stored and is given by,
charges (minority carriers). These minority carriers are 1 1
stored in p-n junction and bulk semiconductor QRR ≅ IRR ta + IRR tb
2 2
material. These minority carriers require certain time to
1
recombine with opposite charges and to neutralize. QRR ≅ I (t + tb)
2 RR a
This time is called reverse recovery time and is denoted
by trr. 1
QRR = I t … (1.5)
2 RR rr
trr = ta + tb … (1.3)
Where ta is due to charge stored in depletion region of From Equation (1.3), IRR is,
the junction and represents the time between zero 2 QRR
IRR = … (1.6)
crossing and peak reverse current IRR. tb is due to the trr
charge stored in a bulk semiconductor material.
Equating Equation (1.4) and Equation (1.6), we get,
• The ratio tb/ta is known as the softness factor 'SF'.
di 2 QRR
• The reverse recovery characteristics of power diode ta ⋅ = … (1.7)
dt trr
consist of two types :
Rearranging above Equation (1.5), we get,
1. Soft recovery characteristics.
2 QRR
2. Abrupt recovery characteristics. trr ⋅ ta = … (1.8)
di/dt
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.7) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

If tb is negligible as compared to ta, which is usually the platinum or gold doping is carried out. But this type of
case, trr = ta and Equation (1.8) becomes, doping increases the forward voltage drop in diode.
2 2 QRR ➢ Current Rating : Upto 1000 A
trr = … (1.9)
dti/dt ➢ Voltage Rating : 50 V to 3 kV
2 QRR ➢ Frequency : 10 kHz
∴ trr = … (1.10)
di/dt Applications :
Putting Equation (1.10) in Equation (1.6), we get, • DC to DC converters i.e. choppers.
2 QRR • DC to AC converters i.e. inverters.
IRR =
2QRR
1.7.3 Schottky Diode / Concept of Schottky Diode
di/dt
• The symbol and V-I characteristics of Schottky diode
∴ IRR = 2 QRR ⋅ (di/dt) … (1.11) are very similar to that of low power, p-n junction
From above Equation (1.10) and Equation (1.11), we diode. But only difference is that forward voltage drop
observe that the reverse recovery time trr and peak reverse across it is very small (0.3 V to 0.4 V only) and in the
current IRR depend on the stored charge QRR and the reverse biased condition of diode, the Schottky diode
reverse di/dt. have large reverse leakage current.
1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER DIODES • Schottky diode is formed by depositing a thin metal
Depending upon the manufacturing technique and reverse film on a semiconductor as shown in Fig. 1.9. The metal
recovery characteristics, power diodes are classified as film acts as a anode of diode and semiconductor acts
below. as a cathode.
Anode
1.7.1 General Purpose Diode or Standard Diode Aluminium
contact
• Reverse recovery time of general purpose diodes is SiO2

high, of the order of 25 µsec. So these diodes are used

16 -3
for low frequency applications. n 10 cm
➢ Current Rating : Vary from 1 A to several 3+
n
thousand amperes. 19 -3
10 cm
➢ Voltage Rating : 50 V to 5 kV.
➢ Frequency : 1 kHz.
Cathode
Applications : Fig. 1.9 : Schottky diode
These diodes are used for rectification, frequency limit • In Fig. 1.9, there is no p-n junction, so the charge
upto 1 kHz.
storage problem of p-n junction diode can be
• Battery charging and electric traction. eliminated in a Schottky diode. These diodes have very
• Rectifiers in welding power supplies. small turn-off time because storage time is absent.
• Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). • The recovered charge of a Schottky diode is much less
1.7.2 Fast Recovery Diode / Concept of Fast than that of a equivalent p-n junction diode.
Recovery Diode ➢ Current Rating : 1 to 300 A
• The diodes are with low recovery time, of about 5 µsec. ➢ Voltage Rating : 1 to 300 A
or less, as compared to file general purpose diodes.
➢ Upper Frequency : 20 kHz
Therefore they are turned off more quickly and hence
can be used in the high frequency applications such as Applications
DC to DC converter and DC to AC converters. • High frequency and low voltage instrumentation.
• The epitaxial process is used for diode fabrication, for • Switching power supplies.
voltage rating below 400 V. These diodes have fast Advantages of Schottky Diode :
recovery time as low as 50 nsec. For voltage rating • Unlike conventional semiconductor diodes, which
above 400 V, diffusion technique is used for fabrication
consist of a PN junction, the Schottky diode is made
of diode. To reduce the reverse recovery time,
from a metal semiconductor junction.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.8) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

• This offers a number of advantages in some large power applications, thyristor needed better
circumstances as the diode has a very low forward- cooling; this is achieved with the help of heat sinks.
voltage drop, and secondly it has a very fast switching (A) Anode
speed.
p
A
• Both of these properties make it ideal for many RF
n J1
applications as well as giving it uses in many other
areas. Gate J2
p
G (G)
1.8 THYRISTOR n J3
K
• In 1957, the first prototype semiconductor device
(silicon based) called thyristor was developed by Bell (K) Cathode

Laboratories USA. After the development of thyristor Fig. 1.10 (a) : Thyristor symbol and three p-n junctions
called Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), number of • For turn ON a SCR, a small positive voltage is applied
devices developed, the characteristics of these devices between gate and cathode terminal.
is similar to that of thyristor. These semiconductor Threaded stud
devices are called thyristor family devices which areas Anode (Aluminium)
follows :
➢ Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT). p
➢ Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO). J1
n
➢ Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT).
J2
➢ TRIAC. p
J3
+
➢ DIAC. n

➢ Static Induction Thyristor (SITH). Gate (G)

Cathode
➢ Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier (LASCR).
Fig. 1.10 (b) : Cross section of p-n-p-n structure
➢ MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT).
1.8.2 Static V-I Characteristics of SCR and
➢ Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR). Operation Steps
• The name thyristor denotes family of semiconductor [Feb. 15, Nov. 16, Feb., May 17]
devices used for power control in AC and DC systems. • The V-I characteristics of SCR is obtained with the help
Out of these thyristor family devices, silicon controlled of SCR circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 1.11 (a). V-I
rectifier is more commonly used in power circuits. characteristics of SCR is obtained by plotting the graph
1.8.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) [Feb. 15] of anode current (Ia) as a function of anode to cathode
voltage (VAK) shown in Fig. 1.11 (b).
• Thyristor consists of four layers, three junctions,
• The operation of SCR is divided into three steps :
alternate p-type and n-type silicon semiconductor 1. Forward blocking mode (off state)
material. It has three terminals; anode, cathode and 2. Forward conduction mode (on state) and
gate. It has three junctions J1, J2 and J3. Thyristor 3. Reverse blocking mode.
manufactured by diffusion (Fig. 1.10 (a)) shows the • In V-I characteristics of SCR, VBO is forward breakover
thyristor symbol and the section view of three p-n voltage, VBR is reverse breakdown voltage, and Ig0, Ig1
junctions. are gate currents applied to SCR. As the amplitude of
• The cross section of a thyristor is shown in Fig. 1.10 (a). gate current increases, the forward breakover voltage
Here in this figure threaded portion is shown for the decreases.
+ Load A
purpose of tightening the thyristor to the frame or
heat sink with the help of a nut. Gate terminal is near S SCR VAK
to cathode terminal. The terminal connected to outer E
p-region is called anode (A). Similarly the cathode R
+
terminal connected to outer n region and terminal _ ES
K
connected to inner p-region is called the gate (G). For (a) Circuit for obtaining V-I characteristics
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.9) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.8.3 Some Important Parameters of SCR

Ig1 > Ig0
Latching current
Ia 1. Latching Current (IL) :
Forward voltage drop
Latching current IL is the minimum anode current
Holding current Gate
triggered required to maintain the thyristor in the ON state
IL Forward immediately after thyristor has been turned ON and
Reverse breakdown breakover
voltage IH Ig1 the gate signal has been removed.
voltage
VBR
VAK 2. Holding Current (IH) :
VBO
Forward leakage Holding current is the minimum anode current
Reverse leakage current required to maintain the thyristor in the ON state. The
current accompanying voltage is termed as holding voltage VH.
If the forward anode current is reduced below holding
current, the SCR will be turned OFF. The holding
current is less than the latching current : (IH < IL).
(b) V-I characteristics
2
Fig. 1.11 3. I t Rating :
Operation : This rating gives an idea about the maximum energy a
Step 1 : Forward Blocking Mode : power device can absorb or dissipate without getting
When the anode voltage is made positive with respect to damaged. The current I is the rms value of device
2
cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased. The current for an interval t. The I t rating of the device is
2
junction J2 is reverse biased and only a small leakage used for selection of I t rating of fuse or protecting
current flows from anode to cathode. The SCR is then said device. It should be matched otherwise device will be
to be forward blocking state or off-state condition and damaged.
leakage current is known as off-state current ID. 4. di/dt Rating (Turn-on Snubber) :
Step 2 : Forward Conduction Mode : This indicates the maximum tolerable rate of rise of the
If anode to cathode voltage VAK is increased to a anode current. At the time of turn-ON, the anode
sufficiently large value, the reverse biased junction J2 will current is not evenly distributed throughout the device.
break. This is known as avalanche breakdown and The current flows through filaments of small diameter,
corresponding voltage is known as breakover voltage VBO. formed inside the device. If the rate of anode current
Since the other junctions J1 and J3 are already forward increase is very high then a very short time after the
biased, the device will then be conducting state or ON turn ON of a device, a large current will be forced
state. The voltage drop would be to the ohmic drop in the through these filaments. The resistance offered to the
four layers and it is typically 1 volt. In the ON state, the flow of current by these filaments is high due to their
anode current is limited by external impedence or small diameter. Therefore the power dissipation in the
resistance. filaments is large and it is localized which will develop
The anode current must be more than a value known as localized "hot spot" to damage thyristor.
latching current IL. di
In order to avoid this damage, the should be less
Once a thyristor conducts, it behaves like a conducting dt
diode and there is no control over the device. The device than its maximum specified value. A thyristor can be
will continue to conduct because there is depletion layer protected by adding a small inductance in series as
on the junction J2 due to the free movements of carriers. shown in Fig. 1.12 (a). Addition of inductance will
However, if the forward anode current is reduced below a reduce the rate of rise of anode current as shown in
level known as holding current IH, the holding current is of Fig. 1.12 (b).
the order of milliamperes and is less than the latching +

current IL i.e. IL > IH. Holding current is the minimum anode L

current required to maintain the thyristor in the ON state.
Step 3 : Reverse Blocking Mode :
Vdc R
When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to
anode the junction J2 is forward biased, but junctions J1
SCR
and J3 are reverse biased. The thyristor will be in the
reverse blocking state and reverse blocking current known _
as reverse current IR, would flow through device. (a) Use of L to limit di/dt in a thyristor circuit
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.10) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
Anode Anode
current
IA = IE1
IA
a1 IB1 = IC2
Withoout external L p-n-p T1
di/dt high
IC1
Gate a2
T2
With external L IG IB2 n-p-n
di/dt low
t IK = IE2

(b) Effect of L on di/dt

Fig. 1.12 (b) Equivalent circuit

5. Surge Current : Fig. 1.13 : A transistor model of SCR

Surge current is the current which the device can According to transistor current equation for CB
withstand without damaging itself. The thyristor can be configuration,
subjected to the surge current rating only once in its IC = αIE + ICBO … (1.12)
life time. where, IC = Collector current
1.8.4 Two Transistor Analogy or Model of SCR IE = Emitter current
ICBO = Leakage current
[May 15, 17, Feb. 16]
α = Current gain in CB configuration
• A thyristor is a combination of two complementary
The anode current,
transistors one p-n-p T1 and other n-p-n T2 as shown
IA = IC + IC … (1.13)
in Fig. 1.13. The collector of T1 provides the base drive 1 2

for T2. The gate current and collector current of T1 According to equation (1.12),
provide the base current of T2. When a small gate IA = (α1IE + ICBO ) + (α2IE + ICBO ) … (1.14)
1 1 2 2
current is applied to base of T2, the amplified collector Base current of T2 transistor
current generates very large collector current of T1. IB = IG + IC … (1.15)
2 1
This current is again supplied to the base of T2. Thus a
As IE = IA and IE = IK, putting these values of
1 2
positive feedback is initiated and within a few
IE and IE in equation (1.14)
microseconds, saturation is immediately reached. The 1 2

current is only limited by the external load connected IA = α1IA + ICBO + α2IK + ICBO … (1.16)
1 2
with transistor (thyristor). As IE = IB + IC
• The collector current IC of transistor is related in So, IK = IB + IC According to equation (1.15)
2 2
general to the emitter current IE and the leakage IK = IG + IC + IC
1 2
current of collector-base junction ICBO as,
∴ IA = α1IA +
IC = αIE + ICBO ICBO + [α2 (IG + IC + IC ) + ICBO ]
A 1 1 2 2

IA As IC + IC = IA … (1.17)
1 2

p
∴ IA = α1IA + ICBO + [α2 (IG + IA) + ICBO ]
1 2

…(1.18)
n n
∴ IA = α1IA + ICBO + α2IG + α2IA + ICBO
1 2
G
p p IA = α1IA + α2IA + α2IG + ICBO + ICBO
IG 1 2

n
∴IA – α1IA – α2IA = α2IG + ICBO + ICBO
1 2

IA (1 – α1 – α2) = α2IG + ICBO + ICBO

1 2
IK
α2IG + ICBO + ICBO
K 1 2
∴ IA = … (1.19)
(a) Basic structure 1 – (α1 + α2)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.11) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

From Equation (1.19), we can say that, anode current IA which provides a high level of electrical isolation from
depends on gate current IG, leakage currents ICBO1 and control circuit to the device.
ICBO2 and current gain factors α1 and α2. If (α1 + α2) 5. Gate Current (Turns-ON Characteristics) :
tends to be unity, the denominator [1 − (α1 + α2)] In general, thyristors are switched by the application of
approaches zero, resulting in a large value of anode a gate signal. For reliable operation and successful
current IA and the thyristor will turn ON. triggering of the device, the VG and IG should be close
1.8.5 Triggering or Turn-ON Methods of Thyristor to their maximum limit without exceeding the limiting
Thyristor can be turned ON in different ways : values. As the gate current increases the forward
1. Thermal Turn-ON : blocking voltage decreases, this will be shown in V-I
characteristics of SCR as shown in Fig. 1.13 (b).
When the temperature of a device increases, additional
carriers are generated. Due to movement of free 1.8.6 Pulse Triggering
carriers (minority) across J2, reverse saturation current • In this method of triggering, a current pulse of
increases. This increase in current causes anode current sufficient width is applied to the gate-cathode
IA to increase, therefore, α1 and α2 also increase. Due to junction, so the anode current increases beyond the
latching or regenerative action, (α1 + α2) may tend to holding current IH and SCR turned ON. The pulse
unity and thyristor may be turned ON. This type of turn widths of 100 µsec. are treated as DC and DC data is
ON causes thermal runaway and therefore it is applied, whereas, if the pulse widths are less than 100
avoided. µsec. higher gate voltage and current can be applied
2. High Forward Voltage : faster turn-ON.
Gate current
When anode to cathode forward voltage (VAK) is IG
increased beyond VBO, the reverse biased junction J2
breaks. This is known as avalanche breakdown and
corresponding voltage is known as forward breakover Ton
voltage VBO. Since the other junctions J1 and J3 are
time
already forward biased, then device will be conducting T
state or ON state. This method is not used practically 100 msec.

because this type of turn ON may damage device by (a) Pulse triggering
thermal runaway. Normally this is used for turning ON Gate current
IG
a layer only.
3. Rate of Change of Voltage (High dVAK/dt) :
When SCR is forward biased, the junction J2 is reverse
biased which blocks the conduction of the device. The
time
junction J2 has a sufficiently large value of capacitance (b) High frequency carrier gating
across depletion layer. If there is sudden change in Fig. 1.14 : Gate triggering current
applied voltage (high dVAK/dt), it causes a charging
• In this case, higher the gate voltage and current,
current, icj2 = Cj2 (dv/dt) to reach J2 layer of the device. greater the amount of gate power dissipation can be
Thus the device turns ON undesirably. This method of allowed, however it should be less than the peak
switching OFF thyristor is never employed rather it is instantaneous gate power dissipation PGM as specified
an undesirable triggering of a thyristor, which has to by the manufacturer, and in any case, the average
be avoided. That is why snubber circuits are used. power dissipation PGM. Thus, if gate pulse magnitude is
4. Light Triggering : such that instantaneous gate power dissipation is PGM,
When a beam of light falls on the blocking junction of pulse width is Ton and period is T as shown in
the device, it generates electron-hole pairs. Due to Fig. 1.14 (b).
flow of carriers (current) that reaches J2, it turns ON the Then, Average gate power dissipation ≤ Average gate
power limit
device. However this method is used in LASCR which is
used for high voltage and high current applications PGM ⋅ Ton
i.e. ≤ PGAV … (1.20)
T
(e.g. HVDC transmission system, static VAR control etc).
Normally, a fiber-optic system is used to trigger LASCR Where, PGAV = Average gate power.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.12) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

If f = frequency of firing or pulse repetition rate in Hz. 1.8.8 Turn-OFF Characteristics of SCR
1 Thyristor can be turned OFF (from its ON state) by
∴ f =
T reducing the anode current below a holding current (IH).
Putting f in Equation (1.20), Different methods are used for turning OFF a thyristor. The
PGM ⋅ f ⋅ Ton ≤ PGAV … (1.21) commutation is a process of conducting thyristor turn-OFF.
In the limiting case, In commutation technique, the anode current maintains
PGM ⋅ f ⋅ Ton = PGAV below a holding current for some time, so the thyristor
and the frequency of firing is given by, becomes OFF.
PGAV For turning OFF a thyristor, basically two commutation
f = … (1.22)
Ton ⋅ PGM methods are used.
Duty Cycle : 1. Line Commutation (Natural Commutation) :
A duty cycle is defined as the ratio of pulse ON-time
When the source voltage of thyristor circuit is AC, the
(Ton) to the periodic time (T) of pulse.
alternating current flowing through the thyristor goes
Ton
∴ δ = = f ⋅ Ton … (1.23) through natural zero value and natural reverse of
T
supply voltage appears across the thyristor. Therefore
From Equation (1.21),
thyristor is automatically turned OFF. This is known as
PGM ⋅ δ ≤ PGAV … (1.24) line commutation or natural commutation.
1.8.7 Turn-ON Characteristics of SCR
2. Force Commutation :
Fig. 1.14 shows the waveforms of the anode current, When the thyristor is turned OFF by external L and C
following the application of gate signal. There is a time commutating components which do not carry the load
delay known as tum-ON time ton between the application current ON continuous basis, the technique is called
of gate signal and the conduction of a thyristor. ton is "forced commutation". Forced commutation can be
defined as the time interval between 10 % of steady-state employed in thyristor circuit fed by AC or DC source.
(signal) gate current (0.1 IG) and 90 % of the steady-state Forced commutation can be further subdivided into
thyristor ON-state current (0.9 IT). two types :
• Turn-ON Time : (i) Voltage Commutation : It is implemented by
This time is sum of delay time and rise time. applying a pulse of large reverse voltage across
ton = td + tr the conducting diode.
• Delay Time (td) : (ii) Current Commutation : It is implemented by
It is defined as the time interval between 10 % of gate passing a pulse of current higher than load current,
signal (0.1 IG) and 10 % of thyristor ON-state current in reverse direction through the conducting
thyristor.
(0.1 IT).
The dynamic turn-OFF characteristics of SCR is as
• Rise Time (tr) :
shown in Fig. 1.16.
It is defined as the time required for the anode current IA Anode current
to rise from 10 % of ON-state current (0.1 IT) to 90 % of
ON-state current (0.9 IT).
iT
IT
0.9 IT
0 t
0.1 IT
t VA
0
iG Anode voltage trr trc
IG toff = tq

0.1 IG t
t
td tr

ton
Fig. 1.15 : Turn-on characteristics of SCR Fig. 1.16 : Dynamic turn-off characteristics
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.13) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

The turn-OFF time tq is the sum of reverse recovery therefore reduces the forward resistance and ON-state
time trr and recombination time trc. power dissipation.
Drain
tq = trr + trc (D)
Gate (G)
Turn-OFF time is the minimum value of the time
interval between the instant when the ON-state current
has decreased to zero and the instant when thyristor is
Source
capable of withstanding forward voltage without turn (S)
ON. tq depends on the peak value of ON-state current (d) Symbol of n-channel enhancement
and the instantaneous ON-state voltage. Typical value power MOSFET power MOSFET
of tq is 40 µsec to 200 µsec. Gate Metal
Source
Drain
1.9 POWER MOSFETS [May 17]
-- ----
++++++ SiO2 layer
The power metal oxide semiconductor field effect, + -
----
----
--- +
n n
transistor is a voltage controlled, majority carrier device. Current
This device is developed by combining the areas of MOS
technology and field effect concept. Power MOSFETs are p-substrate

basically classified into two categories :

1. n-channel MOSFET (e) n-channel enhancement

2. p-channel MOSFET Fig. 1.17

Each of these are again classified into two types : • A power MOSEFT is a voltage controlled device and
(i) Depletion MOSEFT : Channel is physically present. requires small input current for turning ON. Operation
of MOSFET depends on majority carriers only. MOSFET
(ii) Enhancement MOSFET : Channel is physically
is a unipolar device. Switching speed is very high and
absent.
switching times are of the order of nanoseconds.
• Fig. 1.17 shows the symbols of n-channel and p-
MOSFETs are used in low power, high frequency
channel MOSFETs.
Drain Drain
application. MOSFETs do not have the problem of
(D) (D) electrostatic discharge and require special care in
Gate (G) Gate (G)
handling.
• Following Fig. 1.17 (f) shows the four layer structure of
Source Source MOSFET. From this Fig. 1.17 (f), we observe that n−
(S) (S) +
layer called drift layer is inserted between p and n
(a) n-channel (b) p-channe
layers. The drift layer is lightly doped and the doping
Metal
Gate 14
Source Drain
level of this layer is 10 cm−3. This layer has high
Oxide resistivity. This is done to support larger blocking
layer
n
+ n n
+ voltage.
Gate Metal
Metal Channel Source
substrate
p-type substrate SiO2 layer
+
n 1019cm-3

p Body
(c) Basic structure of n-channel depletion MOSFET 16 -3
10 cm
Fig. 1.17 : Depletion MOSFETs and Structure - Drift layer
n 14 -3 (Decides the
10 cm
• A power MOSFET is a three terminal device called breakdown voltage)
+
drain, source and gate terminal as shown in Fig. 1.17 n 19 -3
10 cm
(e). The circuit symbol is shown in Fig. 1.17. Here arrow
Drain
indicates the direction of electron flow. Power
MOSFETs prefer vertically oriented structure, so it Fig. 1.17 (f) : Basic four layer structure of n-channel
provides more surface area for the forward current, enhancement power MOSFET
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.14) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
ID(A)
1.9.1 Operation of n-channel Depletion MOSFET
VGS
Source Gate Drain ID

RD
n
+ n n
+
VDD VGST
Channel
VGS
2 4 6 8 10
p-type substrate
(b) Typical characteristics of power MOSFET
Fig. 1.19
Fig. 1.18 : n-channel depletion type MOSFET 2. Output Characteristics (Static Characteristics) :
• The gate to source voltage VGS could be either positive • Power MOSFET output characteristics shown in
or negative. If VGS is negative, some of electrons in n-
Fig. 1.19 (c) indicate the variation of drain current ID as
channel area will be repelled and depletion layer will
a function of drain source voltage VDS as a parameter.
be created below the oxide layer. So channel width
For low values of VDS, the graph between ID − VDS is
decreases. Therefore, resistance from source to drain
almost linear; this indicates constant value of on-
increases very small current flows in the device.
resistance RDS = VDS/ID.
• If VGS is made more negative enough, channel will be ID(A)
completely depleted, drain to source resistance
VGS7 > VGS6 >.......... > VGS1
increased and there will not be current flow from drain
to source. On the other hand, if VGS is made positive, VGS7

channel becomes wider and drain to source current VGS6

increases due to reduction in drain to source VGS5
resistance. VGS4
• The operation of p-channel depletion type MOSFET is VGS3
similar, only the polarities of power Supply VDS and VGS VGS2
are reversed. Here in this p-channel, the current VGS1
VDS
carriers are holes instead of electrons.
Fig. 1.19 (c) : Output characteristics of a power MOSFET
1.9.2 MOSFET Characteristics [May 17]
3. Switching Characteristics :
The basic circuit diagram for n-channel power MOSFET is
shown in Fig. 1.19 (a) where voltages and currents are as • Due to presence of internal capacitance of device and
indicated. internal impedance of the gate drive circuit, the
MOSFET does not respond instantaneously. Presence
1. Transfer Characteristics :
of capacitances will affect switching behaviour of
• This characteristic is plotted between drain current (ID)
MOSFET.
as a function of gate source voltage VGS. Fig. 1.19 (b)
shows typical transfer characteristics for n-channel • The switching model of MOSFETs is shown in Fig. 1.19
power MOSFET. (d). Cgs is gate to source parasitic capacitance and gate
• It is seen that there is threshold voltage VGST (cut-in to drain parasitic capacitance Cgd. MOSFET can be
voltage) below which the device is OFF, the magnitude turned ON by applying, positive pulse to gate to
of VGST is of the order of 2 to 3 V. source terminal.
ID Cgd
G D
+
+
Load RD VDD Vgs Cgs Cds rds Gm Vgs
_
D _
R
G
S
S Fig. 1.19 (d) : Switching model of MOSFETs
VG VGS
• The typical switching waveforms and times of MOSFET
are shown in Fig. 1.19 (e). The turn-ON delay td (on) is
(a) n-channel power MOSFET circuit diagram
the time required to charge the input capacitance to
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.15) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

threshold level. The rise time tr is the time for gate • MOSFETs in higher voltage ratings have more
charging from the threshold level to the fall gate conduction losses.
voltage VGSP, which is required to drive the transistor Applications :
into the linear region. Thus the total turn-ON time of • MOSFETs are used for high frequency and low power
MOSFET is, applications (i.e. inverters).
ton = td (on) + tr • Low power AC and DC drives.
VG
• High frequency choppers, SMPS.

V1 1.9.4 Comparison of MOSFET with BJT

Comparison of MOSFET with BJT as following :
t
Sr.
Power MOSFET Power BJT
V1 No.
VGSP
VT
1. Power MOSFET has lower Power BJT has higher
0 t switching losses. switching losses.
td(on) tr td(off) tf
2. MOSFET has no state and BJT has lower conduction
Fig. 1.19 (e) : Switching waveforms and Time
conduction losses are more. losses
• The time can be reduced by using low impedance gate
3. MOSFET is a voltage BJT is a current controlled
drive source.
controlled device. device.
• The turn-OFF delay time td (off) is the time required for
the input capacitance to discharge from the overdrive 4. Positive temperature Negative temperature
gate voltage V1 to the pinch-off region (VGSP). The fall coefficient of resistance. coefficient of resistance.
time tf is the time that is required for the input 5. Due to positive temperature Due to negative temperature
capacitance to discharge from pinch-off region to coefficient of resistance, coefficient of resistance,
threshold [Link] turn-OFF time of MOSFET is parallel operation of parallel operation of BJT is
equal to sum of turn-OFF delay time and fall time i.e. MOSFET is easy. not easy.
toff = td (off) + tf 6. Secondary breakdown does Secondary breakdown
1.9.3 Merits, Demerits and Applications of not occur. occurs.
MOSFETs
7. Driver circuit is simple. Driver circuit is complex.
Merits :
8. It is suitable for high It is suitable for low
• MOSFETs are unipolar, majority carrier devices. frequency, high power frequency and high power
• MOSFET has lower switching losses. So at high applications. applications.
frequency applications, power MOSFET is the best
9. MOSFETs are available with BJTs are available with
choice.
ratings upto 500 V, 140 A. ratings upto 1200 V, 800 A.
• MOSFETs do not have the problem of secondary
breakdown. 1.10 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
• MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient of (IGBT) [Nov. 15]
resistance. This makes parallel operation of MOSFETs • IGBT is a recent development in the field of transistor
easy. family. An IGBT combines the advantages of BJTs and
• MOSFETs do not require commutation circuitry. MOSFETs. An IGBT has high input impedance, like
• MOSFETs operation is controlled through gate only. MOSFETs and low on-state conduction losses, like BJTs.
• Drive circuit required for MOSFET is easy. IGBT has no breakdown problem. IGBT is also known
as Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Insulated Gate
Demerits :
Transistor (MOSIGT), Conductively Modulated Field
• On resistance and conduction losses are more in
Effect Transistor (COMFET) or Gain Modulated FET
MOSFET. (GEMFET). It was initially called Insulated Gate
• MOSFET have the problem of electrostatic discharge. transistor (IGT). Fig. 1.20 (b) shows the typical symbol
• MOSFETs are used for low power applications. of IGBT.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.16) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
+
• The performance of an IGBT is closer to that of BJT depletion layer boundary does not touch the p
+ +
than an MOSFET. This is because of p substrate. injecting layer. In this n buffer layer is absent, this type
+
p substrate injects number of free electrons into the of IGBTs is called as non-punch through IGBT.
n-region. The IGBT has three terminals : emitter (E), 1.10.1 Physics of Device Operation of IGBT
gate (G) and collector (C). When gate-emitter voltage 1. Blocking State Operation (Principle of Operation) :
is applied, the current flows from collector to emitter. The IGBT is basically a MOSFET, the gate-source
When VGE is removed, the IGBT is turned OFF. Hence voltage controls the state of the device. When VGS is
the operation of IGBT is totally dependent on gate less than VGS (threshold), there is no inversion layer
voltage. created to connect the drain to source and hence, the
Basic Structure : device is in the OFF state. The applied drain-source
• The silicon cross section of an IGBT is shown in voltage is dropped across the junction J2 and only a
Fig. 1.20 (a) which is identical to that of a MOSFET very small leakage current flows. This blocking state
+ +
except that p substrate. This p substrate (layer) acts operation is essentially identical to that of the MOSFET.
as a collector of IGBT. IGBT is a four layer 2. ON-State Operation :
semiconductor device and could latch like a thyristor When the gate-source voltage exceeds the threshold
given the necessary condition (αn-p-n + αp-n-p) > 1. The voltage, an inversion layer forms near the gate of IGBT.
+
+
n buffer layer and the wide epitaxial base reduces the This inversion layer shorts the n− drift region to the n
gain of the NPN terminal by internal design. source region exactly as in the MOSFET. An electric
Gate (G) Metal current flows through this inversion layer as shown in
Emitter (E) or
Source (S) Fig. 1.21 (a), which in turn causes substantial hole
SiO2 layer + +
n+ n+
injection from the p drain contact layer into the n
J3 p Ls Body region drift region, as also indicated in Fig. 1.21 (a). The
injected holes move across the drift region by both
J2 n- Drain drift region
drift and diffusion, taking a variety of paths shown in
J1 n+ Buffer layer Fig. 1.21 (a) and reach the p-type body region that
+
p+
Injecting layer surrounds the n source region.

Drain (D)
or Collector (C)
Fig. 1.20 (a) : Basic structure of IGBT
Drain (D) Collector
(C)

Gate (G) Gate (G)

Source (S) Emitter

(E)
(i) Symbol of IGBT (ii) Modified Symbol
Fig. 1.20 : (b) Symbols of n-channel IGBT
Fig. 1.21 : (a) Cross section of an IGBT showing
Punch Through IGBT : on-state current flow paths
+ +
• The n buffer layer between the p drain contact and From this description, an equivalent circuit for
then drift layer is not essential for the operation of modeling the operation of the IGBT can be developed,
IGBTs, whereas those with this layer are termed as which is shown in Fig. 1.21 (b).
C
punch through, PT-IGBTs. Drift region
resistance
• If the doping and thickness of this layer are chosen
appropriately, the presence of this layer can
significantly improve the operation of the IGBT.
Non-Punch Through IGBT : G
• Depletion region of the J2 junction extends principally
into the n− drift region, since the p-type body region is
purposely doped much more heavily than the drift E
region. The thickness of drift region is large enough to Fig. 1.21 : (b) Approximate equivalent circuit valid
accommodate the depletion layer, so that the for normal operating condition
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.17) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.10.2 IGBT Characteristics [Nov. 15, 16] 3. Switching Performance / Characteristics of IGBT :
IGBT is a voltage controlled device, it combines the During turn-ON and turn-OFF process of IGBT,
properties of both MOSFET and BJT. The operation control switching characteristics take place as shown in
parameter is voltage instead of current. The circuit of
Fig. 1.24. When gate-emitter voltage VGE applied to
Fig. 1.22 (a) shows the various parameters pertaining to
IGBT characteristics. gate-emitter junction of IGBT, collector current does
1. Static V-1 Characteristics : not respond instantly. The turn-ON time is defined as
This characteristics (graph) is a plot of collector current the time between the instant of OFF state to ON state.
IC as a function of a collector-emitter voltage VCE for The turn-ON time is sum of the delay time td and rise
different values of gate-emitter voltages. This
time tr.
characteristic is very similar to that of BJT, but only
difference is that the operation control parameter is ton = td + tr
voltage. As shown in Fig. 1.22 (b), if VGE increases, Delay Time (td) :
collector current increases.
IC • It is defined as the time for the collector-emitter
voltage falls from VCE to 0.9 VCE. Here VCE is the initial
R collector-emitter voltage.
C + • It is also defined as the time for the collector current
+
RB _
VCC rise from its initial leakage current ICE to 0.1 IC. Here Ic
+ VCE is the final value of collector current.

VG RGE E Rise Time (tr) :

VGE • It is defined as the time, during which collector-emitter
_ _
(a) Circuit diagram
voltage falls from 0.9 VCE to 0.1 VCE.
IC(A)
V GE >>........V GE • It is also defined as the time for the collector current
5 1
rise from 0.1 IC to its final value IC.
VGE
5
• The turn-off time is some different. It is sum of :
VGE
4

VGE
➢ Delay time (tdf)
3

VGE
➢ Initial fall time (tf1) and
2

VRM
VGE
1
➢ Final fall time (tf2)
VCE
0 toff = tdf + tf1 + tf2
V GE
(b) Static V-1 characteristics V GET
Fig. 1.22
V GET
2. Transfer Characteristics :
This characteristics (graph) is a plot of collector IC as a
t
function of gate-emitter voltage VGE as shown in O t df
Fig. 1.23. This characteristic is very similar to that of t f1
V CE , iC
MOSFET because IGBT combines the advantages of
both MOSFET and BJT. If gate-emitter voltage VGE is V CE
V GE
less than VGET (threshold), the IGBT is tuned OFF.
0.9 V CE V GE = V CC
IC (A) 0.9 IC
0.9 V CE
0.1 V CE 0.2 IC
0.1 IC 0.1 IC
t
t dn t f1
ICE tr V CES
t df t f2
t on
V GE t off
0 V GET
Fig. 1.23 : Transfer characteristics Fig. 1.24 : IGBT turn-on and turn-off characteristics
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.18) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1. The Delay Time (td) : 1.10.4 Comparison between Non-Punch Through

It is the time during which gate voltage falls from VGE IGBT (NPT-IGBT) and Punch Through IGBT
to VGET (threshold voltage). As VGE falls to VGET during (PT-IGBT)
tdf, the collector current falls from IC to 0.9 IC. Sr. NPT-IGBT PT-IGBT
2. First Fall Time (tf) : No.

It is defined as time during which collector current falls 1. The n+ buffer layer is The n+ buffer layer between
essential for the operation of p+ drain contact and n− drift
from 90% to 20% of its initial value IC. Or the time
IGBT. So it is called layer is not essential for the
during which collector-emitter voltage rises from VGES
symmetric IGBT or NPT- operation of the IGBT, is
to 0.1 VCE. IGBT. known as asymmetric IGBT
3. Final Fall Time (tf2) : or PT-IGBT.
It is the time during which collector current falls from 2. At lower voltage rating, NPT- At lower voltage rating, the
20% to 10% of IC. Or the time during which collector- IGBT structure have higher PT-IGBT structure have
emitter voltage rises from 0.1 VCE to final VCE. overall losses. lower overall losses.

1.10.3 Advantages, Disadvantages and 3. BJT base is smaller. BJT base is larger.
Applications of IGBT 4. It is used for higher voltage It is used for lower voltage
ratings. ratings.
Advantages :
• IGBTs are having lower switching losses, therefore, 5. Switching time is higher. Switching time is less.

switching speed is higher. 6. ON-state voltage drop is ON-state voltage drop is

lower. higher.
• ON-state voltage drop is lower.
1.10.5 Latch-Up in IGBTs
• The gate drive circuit is simple.
• When gate voltage is removed from the gate of IGBT,
• Turning OFF a IGBT, no commutation circuitry is
the IGBT remains in ON state, this is known as latch up.
required.
• The lateral current flow will develop a lateral voltage
• Secondary breakdown does not occur in IGBTs. drop in the ohmic resistances of the body layer as
• IGBTs have positive temperature coefficient of indicated in Fig. 1.25. This will tend to forward bias the
+
n p junction (labelled as J3) the largest voltage across
resistance.
the junction occurring, where the inversion layer meets
• IGBTs are available with higher voltages and current +
the n source.
ratings i.e. 1200 V, 500A. Drift region C
resistance
Disadvantages : T1
R2 p-n-p
• IGBTs are sensitive to electrostatic charge. T2
n-p-n
• IGBTs are somewhat more expensive than BJTs. G
R1 Body region
• IGBTs are unipolar devices. resistance

Applications : E

• IGBTs are used for medium power applications like DC Fig. 1.25 : Equvalent circuit of IGBT

and AC motor drives. • When the voltage applied is large enough, the electron
flow from the source into body region will occur. At
• Switched mode power supplies.
this instant, parasitic n-p-n transistor (T2) will turn ON.
• High frequency DC chopper. If this occur, then both the parasitic n-p-n and p-n-p
• UPS system. transistors will turn ON and hence the parasitic
thyristors composed of these transistors will latch on
• Power supplies.
and latch up of the IGBT will have occurred as shown in
• Drivers for relays, solenoids and contactors. Fig. 1.25. Once the IGBT is in latch up, the gate no
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.19) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
ID
longer has any control of the drain current. The only
way to turn-off the IGBT in this situation is by forced
commutation of the current.
-5
Avoidance of Latch Up : 10 sec.
-4
• Different methods are used to avoid the latch in IGBT, 10 sec.
that the device manufacturer can take to increase the DC
critical current required for the initiation of the latch-
VDS
up. The user has responsibility to design circuits where
the possibility of over currents that exceeds IDM are Fig. 1.27 : Forward bias SOA
minimized. 2. Reverse Biased SOA (RBSOA) :
• Another step that can be taken is to slow down on the • The RBSOA of IGBT is somewhat different than the
IGBT at turn-off, so that the rate of growth of depletion power MOSFET as shown in Fig. 1.28. The upper right
region into the drift region and the holes present in hand corner of RBSOA is progressively cut-out and the
the drift region have a longer time to recombine. Thus RBSOA, becomes smaller as the rate of change of
reducing the lateral current flow in the p-type body dVDS
reapplied drain to source voltage becomes larger.
region during the turn-off. dt
Metal Gate The reason for this restriction on the RBSOA as a
Source function of reapplied dVDS/dt is to avoid latch up.
SiO2 ID
+ +
n n
p p p

1000 V/msec.
n
- Reapplied
2000 V/msec. dVDS
+
n 3000 V/msec. dt
+
p

VDS
Drain
Fig. 1.26 : Modified of the body region by behavior doping Fig. 1.28 : Reverse bias SOA

and greater depth to lower the spreading resistance • Too large a value of dVDS/dt during turn-off will cause
a latch up of the IGBT exactly as it can do in thyristors
• The third step is to increase the latching current by
and GTO. Fortunately this value is quite large,
lowering the body spreading resistance in the
comparing favorably with other power devices. In
equivalent circuit of IGBT. This is done in several ways.
addition, the device user can easily control the
First the lateral width of source region is kept as small reapplied dVDS/dt by proper choice of VGG and gate
as possible, second, the p-type body is often drive resistance.
proportioned into two separate regions of different 1.10.7 Comparison between MOSFET and IGBT
levels of accepter doping density as shown in Fig. 1.26.
[Feb. 15, 16]
1.10.6 Safe Operating Area of IGBT Sr. MOSFET IGBT
The IGBT has robust SOAs both during turn-ON and turn- No.
OFF. The IGBT has two SOAs i.e. forward biased SOA and 1. High switching (> 100 kHz) Low Switching frequency
reverse biased SOA. (< 20 kHz)
1. Forward Biased SOA (FBSOA) : 2. Wide line and load condition. High power levels.

• The FBSOA of IGBT is very similar to that of MOSFET. 3. dv/dt on the diode is limited High dv/dt needed to be
handled by the diode
The FBSOA of IGBT is square for short switching times,
for turn-off time shorter than 1 msec. For longer 4. High light load efficiency is High full load efficiency is
needed. needed.
switching time, the IGBT is thermally limited as shown
in FBSOA, this is identical to the behaviour FBSOA of 5. Motor Drives (< 250 W) Motor drives (> 250 W)
the power MOSFET. 6. Low to medium power PFCs High power PFCs
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.20) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.11 THYRISTOR RATINGS 1.11.1 Voltage Ratings

Each power semiconductor device has a limited capability This rating indicates the maximum allowable voltage that
of handling the power i.e. voltage and current. Basically; it the device can with-stand during its turn-ON time without
depends upon the temperature withstand capacity of p-n damaging the device.
junctions at the steady-state and dynamic conditions. After • VDWM (Peak Working Forward Blocking Voltage) :
thoroughly testing a particular device, manufacturer It is maximum (ON-state) forward blocking voltage
prepares the device specifications. It specifies critical values that the thyristor can with-stand during operation.
of different parameters and the boundaries of the
• VDRM (Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage) :
recommended safe operating area (SOA) of the device.
It is the peak value of transient voltage that the
Ratings :
thyristor can withstand repeatedly or periodically in
It depends upon the condition of thyristor/SCR. The ratings forward blocking mode, at allowable junction
can be classified as : temperature, with gate open or with specified biasing
• Continuous Rating : These ratings are related with the resistance between gate and cathode.
continuous working condition of the device. It is • VDSM (Peak Surge or Non-Repetitive Forward
expressed in terms of average or RMS values, Blocking Voltage) :
depending upon whether the device experiences
It is the peak value of non-repetitive surge voltage that
unilateral or bilateral voltages.
the thyristor can withstand in forward blocking mode.
• Repetitive Rating : This rating is useful when device is It is approximately 130% of VDRM but less than forward
switched ON periodically. breakover voltage VBO.
• Surge or Non-Repetitive Rating : A surge rating • VRWM (Peak Working Reverse Voltage) :
corresponds to the maximum permissible non-
It is the maximum reverse voltage that the thyristor can
repetitive current and voltage ratings in both forward
with-stand during its working. It is the negative
and reverse direction as shown in Fig. 1.29.
iA (VT, IT)
maximum value of applied voltage.
• VRRM (Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage) :
IL (VD, ID)
VBR IH VBO It is the peak reverse transient voltage that the
VR
(VD, IT) thyristor can withstand repeatedly or periodically in
reverse blocking mode, at maximum allowable junction
temperature.
VRSM VRRM VRWM VDWM VDRM VDSM
V • VRSM (Peak Surge or Non-Repetitive Voltage) :
It represents the peak value of the reverse surge
voltage that does not repeat. Its value is about 130% of
VRRM. But VRSM is less than reverse breakdown voltage
VBR as shown in Fig. 1.29.
• VT (ON-state Voltage Drop) :
It is the voltage between anode and cathode with
specified forward current and junction temperature. It
is about 1 to 1.5 V.
• Forward dv/dt Rating :
It is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that will
turn ON the thyristor without any gate signal. Its
wt
typical values for SCR type – IR – 530 FE are 500 to
Fig. 1.29 : Different critical/limiting ratings of thyristor
1000 V/µsec.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.21) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.11.2 Current Ratings • Fig. 1.30 shows the typical gate characteristics. In this
• Average Current Rating (IT) : case, the minimum value of gate voltage VG and gate
current IG are required to forward bias a SCR.
The current flowing through thyristor increases, as the
temperature increases. The average ON-state power loss • For high frequency gate signal, the limiting values of
PAV is given by, gate characteristics increase due to some initial
recombination of change in gate p-region. If a gate
PAV = Forward ON-state voltage drop × IT
switching pulse duration is reduced from 100 µsec to 1
Thus the average power loss in SCR depends upon the
µsec, then VG and IG are required to increase by 2 to 10
average current flowing through SCR. If SCR is operating at
times, respectively. The gate characteristics are also
high frequencies then switching losses are negligible.
affected by junction temperature. For different
2
• I t Rating : temperatures, the possible minimum trigger values VG
This rating gives an idea about the maximum energy a and IG are VGT and IGT.
power device can absorb or dissipate without getting VG
damaged. The current I is the rms value of device current
2 VGFM
for an interval t. The I t rating of the device is used for
2
PGM
selection of I t rating or a fuse or protecting device. It IGmin

should be matched, otherwise the device will be damaged. VGT, IGT

Preferred gate
• Surge Current : switching area IGFM
Surge current, which the device can withstand without VGmin
damaging itself. The thyristor can be subjected to the IG
surge current rating only once in its life time. Fig. 1.30 : Gate characteristics of thyristors
• di/dt Rating : • For particular temperature (say 25°C), the preferred
This rating indicates the maximum tolerable rate of rise of gate drive area beyond these typical values shown in
the anode current. At the time of turn-ON, the anode Fig. 1.30. Here VGFM, IGFM and PGM are maximum forward
current is not evenly distributed through the device. Due to gate voltage, current and power ratings, respectively.
high di/dt the device can be damaged, to avoid this type of
1.13 GATE DRIVE REQUIREMENTS
damage, the di/dt should be less than its maximum
specified value. For the smooth operation of SCR or by proper turn-ON of
SCR, gate pulse is required. The gate pulse (gate voltage or
• The RMS Current Ratings (ITR) :
current) should be sufficient in amplitude to forward bias
This rating is used to avoid excessive heating in metallic
(turn-ON) a SCR. Therefore different driver circuits are used
joints, leads and interfaces of SCRs.
for turn-ON SCR.
• Other Ratings :
1. Thyristor Gating Requirements : [May 16]
These ratings include : Some important requirements of gate driver circuit are as
➢ Latching and holding current. follows :
➢ Turn-on and turn-off time. • The gating potential of thyristor must be positive with
➢ Gate circuit voltage, current and power rating. respect to cathode. The gate voltage amplitude should
be sufficient to forward bias the gate-cathode junction.
➢ Reverse recovered charge characteristics
The amplitude of gate voltage must be within the limit,
1.12 GATE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR [May 16] specified by gate characteristics, otherwise thyristor
• Normally a DC signal is required for triggering the gets damaged.
thyristors. It may be a constant of magnitude DC • The gating circuit should consist of a transformer for
signal, single pulse, a slow rising DC signal or a train of isolation in order to protect the device and low-power
high frequency (10 kHz) pulses. The amplitude of gate triggering circuit. At the same time, pulses from the
current and gate voltage should be sufficient to drive triggering circuit should be coupled to SCR. This is
the gate-cathode junction in forward bias and that achieved by using pulse transformer or opto coupler.
should be within the limit specified by gate • To turn ON a SCR in a short time, rectangular pulses of
characteristics. short time with very small rise and fall time.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.22) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
VAC
• The pulse must be of sufficient length allowing the
anode current of thyristor enough time to reach its Vm
latching value.
2p
• The ON-time of each pulse should be equal to the ON- 0 wt
p 3p
time of SCR. Otherwise successful turn-ON of SCR is
not possible. VG

2. Thyristor Firing Circuits : VGT

Vm
Different methods are used for turning on a SCR. These
methods are as follows : wt
0
• Resistance Triggering : Vo
This is the simplest method of triggering to SCR. Trigger
current required by the gate is derived from anode supply 0 a p wt
2p 2p + a 3p
through resistance (R1 + RG1). Fig. 1.31 (a) shows simple
resistance triggering circuit.
Fig. 1.31 (b) : Waveforms of R-trigger circuit
Load
This firing circuit/triggering circuit is not suitable for
R1 practical purpose as the firing angle may vary from cycle to
cycle and heating of RG1, IG may vary.
S
VDC
IG D1 RG1 • RC Triggering Circuit / RC Half-Wave Triggering
Circuit :
R2 Fig. 1.32 (a) shows the simple Resistance-Capacitor (RC)
triggering circuit.
Fig. 1.31 (a) : Resistance triggering circuit The disadvantage of resistance triggering circuit is
Resistance R1 is used to limit gate current to its rated value. overcome in the RC triggering circuit. By using this
Resistance RG1 is used for 'α' control and resistance R2 is method, the firing angle 'α' can be varied from 0° to 180°.
used to stabilize gate bias. Diode D1 is used to protect the RC triggering circuit uses the capacitor to shift the phase of
anode voltage so that a positive gate current can be
SCR from negative gate voltage. Voltage applied to gate of
supplied even after α = 90°. Simply by changing the value
SCR is,
of R, the firing angle 'α' can be controlled from 0° to 180°.
VG = V − VR1 − VRG1 − VD1 In the negative half-cycle, C charges through D2 with lower
Where, V = Instantaneous value of supply voltage plate acquiring positive peak of supply voltage.
VR1 = Voltage drop across R1 Load

VRG1 = Voltage drop across RG1 R

D2
VD1 = Voltage drop across diode D1
S
VAC
Gate current is given by,
V − VR1 − VRG1 − VD D1
iG = VC C
R1 + RG1 R2

SCR will switch into conduction when iG = IGt (min), where

Fig. 1.32 (a) : RC triggering
iGt (min) is the required minimum value of gate current to
trigger SCR. With the supply voltage passing through zero value and
then supply being positive, C begins to charge in reverse
Firing angle 'α' can be controlled by varing resistance 'RG1'.
direction. When the capacitor charges to positive voltage
Firing angle can be controlled from the range of α = 0° to
equal to gate trigger voltage, SCR is fired. D1 is used to
α = 90°. By this method, the control cannot be done
prevent the breakdown of cathode to gate junction
beyond α = 90°. Fig. 1.31 (b) shows waveforms for an AC
through D2, while the thyristor is facing negative half-cycle.
circuit. Before conduction of the SCR, the input supply (V)
appears across the SCR. Fig. 1.32 (b) shows the RC firing circuit waveforms.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.23) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
VAC

Vo D1 D2
Load S R
2p
0 wt VAC
p 3p VT
VG
D4 D3
+
Vm _ C

0 wt
For low value of R
Fig. 1.33 (a) : RC full-wave triggering circuit
VO Fig. 1.33 (b) shows the input and output waveforms of RC
full-wave triggering circuit.
VAC

0 a wt
For low value of R
0 wt
VG
VG

0 wt wt
0
VO For high value of R
VO

0 wt
0 wt
For high value of R
Fig. 1.33 (b) : RC full-wave trigger circuit waveforms
Fig. 1.32 (b) : Waveforms of RC triggering circuit • UJT Based Triggering Circuit [Feb. 15, 16, May 16]
For zero output voltage, in the range of power frequencies The principle being the same, the UJT based firing circuit
(≈ 50 Hz), the time constant RC is given by, generates pulses suitable for firing of thyristor. By
changing R, the firing angle can be controlled for 0° to
1.3 T
RC ≥ 180°. UJT based oscillator provides constant frequency,
2
sharp pulses with small rise time. Fig. 1.34 shows UJT based
1.3 triggering circuit and waveforms.
RC ≥ … (1.25) + VBB
2f
• RC Full-Wave Triggering Circuit : R R2

Fig. 1.33 (a) shows the simple RC full-wave triggering E B2

B1
circuit. In this circuit, diodes D1 to D4 are used for
converting AC into DC. The pulsed DC is supplied to the C VE
R1 Vo
SCR.
(a) UJT oscillator
When SCR is in OFF state, the capacitor C starts to charge Capacitor
t = RC
charging 2
from 0 V. When the voltage across capacitor is VC = VGt, VP Capacitor
discharging
SCR is fired and rectified voltage Vs appears, across load. t2 = R1C
As the capacitor 'C' charges through load impedance and VV
t
R, the time constant depends upon load impedance and R. T=a
Vo
The value of RC is given by,
T 50 50 × 2π
RC ≥ 50 × ≅ ≅ … (1.26)
2 2f 2 (2πf)
t
0 t
147 (b) Waveforms
RC ≅ ω … (1.27)
Fig. 1.34 : UJT based triggering circuit and waveforms
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.24) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

When DC supply voltage VBB is applied, the capacitor C Width of triggering pulses
begins to charge through R exponentially towards VBB. τ2 = R1C
Initially the capacitor voltage is less than η ⋅ VBB, hence
More accurately this pulse width will be,
emitter-base diode is reverse biased. Even though, reverse
leakage current flows, it is very small and emitter circuit of τ2 = (R1 + RB1) C … (1.38)
UJT can be treated as open circuit. The charging capacitor Here we have considered the interbase resistance RB1
voltage VC equal to emitter voltage VE is given by, also.
VC = VE = VBB [1 − e−t/RC] … (1.28) If leakage current of UJT is given, then R1 can be
The charging time constant τ1 = RC. calculated using following equation
When the emitter voltage VE reaches the peak point
VB = Ileakage (R1 + R2 + RB1 + RB2) … (1.39)
VpC = η VBB + VD, the uni-junction emitter-base diode
The maximum value of R is given by,
conducts. The UJT is turned ON and capacitor discharges
through R1 with time constant τ2 = R1 ⋅ C. VBB − Vp
Rmax = … (1.40)
∴ Vp = VV + VBB (1 − e−T/RC) … (1.29) Ip
But Vp = η ⋅ VBB + VD … (1.30) and the minimum value of R is given by,
Equating Equations (1.29) and (1.30), we get, VBB − Vv
η ⋅ VBB + VD =VV + VBB (1 − e−T/RC) Rmin = … (1.41)
Iv
AssumingVD = VV and η VBB = VBB [1 − e−T/RC]
Where, Vp = Peak voltage
η = 1 − e−T/RC … (1.31)
∴ e−T/RC
= 1−η Ip = Peak current
1 Vv = Valley voltage
T/RC
and e =
1−η Iv = Valley current

∴
T
= ln
 1  … (1.32) 1.14 COMPARISON BETWEEN R TRIGGERING,
RC 1 − η
RC TRIGGERING AND UJT BASED
 1 
T = RC ⋅ ln
1 − η
… (1.33) TRIGGERING METHODS
1 Sr. R Triggering RC Triggering UJT Triggering
∴ Pulse frequency =f = No.
T
1. It is the simplest It is very simple Difficult than R
Considering both charging and discharging times, the time
and economical and economical and RC triggering
period of output pulse is τ, which corresponds to
method of triggering circuit. methods.
2π radians. The frequency of output pulse is given by triggering.
f = 1/τ, the angular frequencies being ω = 2πf. As the 2. Firing angle 'α' Firing angle 'α' Firing angle 'α'
period τ corresponds to 2π, the firing angle α corresponds can be controlled can be controlled can be controlled
to T which is obtained as, between 0° to between 0° to between 0° to
τ = 2π 90°. 180°. 180°.
T ⋅ 2π 3. Gate signal Gate signal Gate signal
T→α = provided is in provided is in provided as in
τ = 2πf ⋅ T = ωT
continuous form. continuous form. pulse form.
∴ α = ωT … (1.34) 4. More power loss More power loss Low power loss in
Putting Equation (1.33) in Equation (1.34), we get, in gate-cathode of in gate-cathode of gate-cathode of
SCR. SCR. SCR.
α = ωRC ln
 1  … (1.35) 5. Less accuracy of Less accuracy of More accuracy of
1 − η
control. control. control.
Above Equation (1.35) gives firing angle of UJT triggering 6. Isolation is not Isolation is not Isolation is
circuit. Here ω = 2πf and f is the frequency of UJT oscillator. provided. provided. provided using
The resistance R2 should be selected as follows : pulse transformer.
0.7 (RB2 + RB1) 7. It can be used for It can be used for It can be used for
R2 = … (1.36) automatic or automatic or automatic or
ηVBB
feedback control feedback control feedback control
Here RB2 and RB1 are interbase resistances of UJT. R2 system. system. system.
can be calculated approximately as, 8. Power dissipation Power dissipation No large power
104 is large in R is large in RC dissipation.
R2 = … (1.37)
ηVBB triggering. triggering.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.25) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.14.1 Comparison between MOSFET with SCR 1.15 GATE DRIVE CIRCUITS FOR POWER
Sr. Power MOSFET SCR MOSFET AND IGBT
No.
• The input characteristics of a MOSFET differ from its
1. Operating frequency is Operating frequency is 400
100kHz to 500 Hz. bipolar counterparts. The gate is isolated from the
2. Voltage controlled needs Current controlled needs source by a layer of silicon dioxide. Ideally, no current
confinvous gate drive. single pulse to turn-on. flows into the gate when a DC voltage is applied.
3. On-state voltage drop is 4-5 On-state voltage drop is However, a small leakage current (of the order of 10−19
volts less than 2 volts. amperes), flows to maintain the gate voltage. During
4. Snubbers can be eliminated. Snubbers are necessary.
the transition periods (off to on and on to off),
5. It is voltage controlled. It is current controlled.
therefore a small current is enough to charge and
6. It is a Majority carrier device. It is a Minority carrier
device. discharge the device capacitances. However, the device
7. Commutation circuit is not Commutation circuit is capacitances and source impedances of gate drive,
required. necessary. limit the device switching speed.
1.14.2 Comparison between SCR and IGBT • The gate drive circuit for the IGBT and MOSFET are
[May 17] same because both these devices have identical input
(gate to source) structure. Both IGBT and MOSFET are
Sr. SCR (Silicon Control IGBT (Insulated Gate
No. Rectifier) Bipolar Transistor) voltage controlled devices. For turn-on those devices, a
1. Three terminal Three terminal positive gate voltage is applied between gate and
semiconductor device semiconductor device source terminal.
Terminals : Anode , Cathode Terminals : Emitter, 1.15.1 Gate and Device Capacitances
and Gate Collector and Gate
• Fig. 1.35 shows enhancement type MOSFET, it has
2. It is used for current control It is used for current control
3. It requires short duration It requires continuous supply three parasitic capacitances. They are non-linear and
Pulse to trigger it .i.e. at Gate terminal voltage dependant. MOSFET or IGBT has large input
switching it to ON state capacitance (gate-source capacitance), therefore driver
4. It has Three PN junction It has single PN junction circuit must have a low output resistance in order to
5. It is a power device It is also power device
reduce the switching time (turn-ON and turn-OFF
6. It tightly coupled pair of It is a type of transistor
time). Capacitance values are high for low magnitude
transistor
7. It is a Low speed operating High speed operation device of VDS and become almost constant for higher or the
device rated values of VDS.
8. Suitable only for low Suitable for high switching +VDD
switching frequency frequency application (800 Load
application (400Hz) Khz)
9. Two separate circuits are Single circuit is used for turn + 12 V Cgd
required one for triggering ON and Turn OFF process 0
D Cs
(turn ON) and one for VDS
Commutation (turn OFF) RG G S
VGG
10. Applications Applications Cgs
Phase control applications SMPS
Power control applications UPS
Temperature Control Medium and High power
switching application Fig. 1.35 : An n-channel enhancement type MOSFET with
Inverter Circuit
Motor Speed Control High frequency Heating voltage dependant device capacitances
Battery Charger Circuit Induction heating • To turn-off the device, let the gate voltage is reduced
Relay control Circuit Traction system to zero, then VDS attains the supply voltage magnitude
AC drives
(VDD). Thus the potential at D swings from 0 to VDD and
11. Part No Part No.
Cgd gets charged up to VDD (say 100 V), as shown in Fig.
IRKT250-16 BSM15GD60DN2
1.36 (a). Now a gate-drive signal is applied (higher than
10TTS08S TPS54540
SCR 2P4M the threshold value VT) the device will be turned ON.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.26) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
+ VDD
Ideally, the voltage across D and S reduces to zero
(neglecting small VDS) and terminal D will swing to Load
ground potential (which was earlier at VDD = 100 V).
The decreasing VDS produces a feedback current (i = D
Cgd dVDS/dt) to the gate circuit, through Cgd, as shown Input gate S
Rg
in Fig. 1.36 (a) and (b). control
circuit
• This feedback mechanism is called Miller effect. Due to
charging and discharging of Cgs and due to the large
(b) Delayed turn-off
swing in gate to drain voltage, a gate drive circuit is
Fig. 1.37
required with high source and sink capabilities.
Although Cgs is an important parameter but Cgd is more 1.15.2 Driver Circuit Requirements
significant due to Miller effect. Driver circuit for IGBT and MOSFET is same because both
+ VDD (100 V) these devices require a identical input (gate to source
Load voltage).
1. Drive Voltage :
Cgd + ID = 0 IGBT and MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices. For
_
Rg D turning ON these devices a gate to cathode (Vgs) is
G
S applied between gate-cathode junction. The ON-state
VGG = 0 + voltage across these devices depends on gate-source
_ Cgs
voltage.
(a) During turn-off Typically turn-ON voltage of IGBT is 15 V and turn-OFF
+ VDD (100 V) voltage is –5V.
Load 2. Drive Current :
The output current of driver circuit is large enough to
Cgd + ID = 0 charge and discharge the device capacitances, so the
_
D
Rg G VDS = 0 switching time is reduced.
S 3. Isolation :
Cgs
VGG = 12 V IS = ID Isolation is most important requirement for the
protection of power device and driver circuit. The
(b) During turn-on isolation is done with the help of pulse transformer
Fig. 1.36 : Large voltage swing of Cgs at D and optocoupler.
• Both turn-ON time and turn-OFF time are affected by If trigger circuit/driver circuit drives the two or more
devices, one of the devices (MOSFET or IGBT) is
Rg, because Rg is in series with Cgs and Cgd. These
damaged, trigger circuit is directly connected to
periods can be independently controlled. The turn-ON
supply, therefore trigger circuit is also damaged. To
time and turn-OFF time are reduced by diode which overcome this, electrical isolation is must. This
allows the quick charge and discharge capacitors, by electrical isolation is achieved with the help of
shorting Rg as shown in Fig. 1.37 (a) and (b) optocoupler or pulse transformer.
respectively. • Isolation using Pulse Transformer :
+ VDD
Pulse transformer is a device, which has only one
primary and two or more secondary. See Fig. 1.38.
Load

Rg
D RL
G
Input gate S +
Rg _ VS
control
circuit Pulse input

(a) Delayed turn-on Fig. 1.38 : Electrical isolation using pulse transformer
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.27) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

• Isolation using Optocoupler : 1.15.4 IGBT Protection Circuits

Optocoupler mainly consists of infrared LED and photo • The operation of power devices (IGBT) depends on
transistor. When input voltage is applied to infrared junction temperature. For the smooth operation of
LED, it will turn ON. If the light falls on the base of IGBT, its junction temperature, current and voltages are
photo transistor, it will also turn-ON. Fig. 1.39 shows within the limits. Due to some accidental problem,
the circuit symbol of optocoupler.
Optocoupler
these parameters change and the device gets
permanently damaged. To avoid this type of damage,
we use snubber circuit for the protection of IGBT. For
the safety operation of IGBT, it works within the safe
Input Output
side side operating area during turn-ON and turn-OFF time. The
power losses taking place in IGBTs are diverted to
snubber circuit. There are two types of snubbers used :
Fig. 1.39: Optocoupler symbol
1. Turn-ON snubber.
4. Gate Voltage :
2. Turn-OFF snubber.
The IGBT turn-ON voltage is typically + 15 V. If the
gate voltage is increased due to some accidental • IGBT protects from overvoltage and overcurrent, there
problem, the gate-cathode (source) junction is are two methods used :
damaged. To avoid this a zener diode is connected 1. Gate overvoltage protection.
between gate and source terminal. 2. Overcurrent protection.
5. IC Driver : 1. Turn-ON Snubber :
In the recent days, ICs are used to drive the devices. In Fig. 1.41 shows the turn-ON snubber for IGBT. This circuit
these ICs, gate voltage, gate current is sufficient to protects the IGBT during turn-on process against
drive the device specified by its characteristics. These overvoltage and overcurrent. This turn-ON snubber circuit
ICs are IR 2125 a single MOS driver IC and IR 2110 a will reduce the power loss at the time of turn-ON.
double MOS driver IC. + VCC

1.15.3 MOSFET / IGBT Driver Circuit [May 17]

L
• Fig. 1.40 shows a configuration for fast turn-ON with o
a DFW
reduced power dissipation in TTL. d
+ 12 V
+ VCC
= + 5V TTL I R
C Load + VDD

D
Q3 G

Q1 Q2

Fig. 1.41 : Turn-on snubber for IGBT

2. Turn-OFF Snubber :
Fig. 1.40 : Fast turn-on with reduced power dissipation in TTL During switching (ON to OFF and OFF to ON) the power
Operation : loss takes place in IGBT. So this power loss can be reduced
• When the TTL output is at logic '0' level, transistor Q2 by using snubber circuit. Snubber circuit protects the IGBT
conducts. The output point (cathode of diode and base from the switching i.e. high dv/dt and di/dt. Fig. 1.42 shows
of Q2) comes to about the ground potential, and Q3 the typical circuit of turn-OFF snubber of IGBT.
+ VCC
remains in OFF state. A very small power loss (few mW)
takes place in R whose value is large and it behaves as
D R
the base of resistance Q3. Similarly when the TTL
IQ
output is at logic '0' level, Q3 conducts due to high
C
voltage at its base and diode becomes reverse biased.
Thus a high voltage reaches the gate of MOSFET and
MOSFET turns ON. Fig. 1.42 : A turn-off snubber
 POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.28) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …
Optocoupler
During turn-OFF condition, the snubber circuit provides the
another path for load current, in this the IGBT protects
from load current. During OFF state of IGBT, voltage across
Input Output
IGBT starts increasing, which the diode D forward biased side side
and capacitor C connected across IGBT. Capacitor C
charges towards VCC. So IGBT protects during turn-OFF. Fig. 1.44: Optocoupler symbol
1.16 OPTO ISOLATOR DRIVER CIRCUIT FOR 1.17 SERIES AND PARALLEL OPERATION OF
SCR SCR’S
• Light can be used to turn ON SCR by causing • In many power control applications the required
breakdown of the junction J2 with junctions J1 and J3 voltage and current ratings exceed the voltage and
forward biased. current that can be provided by a single SCR. Under
• In light triggered SCR, gate region is of light sensitive such situations the SCRs are required to be connected
in series or in parallel to meet the requirements.
material. When light rays of appropriate wavelength
Sometimes even if the required rating is available,
and intensity falls on gate region, gate current
multiple connections are employed for reasons of
increases. It causes forward biased SCR to turn ON. A
economy and easy availability of SCRs of lower ratings.
SCR turn ON by light radiation is known as light
• Like any other electrical equipment, characteristics /
activated SCR (LASCR). Fig. 1.43 shows basic
properties of two SCRs of same make and ratings are
construction and symbol of LASCR.
never same and this leads to certain problems in the
Light
Glass
circuit. The mismatching of SCRs is due to differences
top in
Anode Anode
Glass Cathode
➢ Turn-on time
lead lead ➢ Turn-off time
Hermetic Hermetic
seal seal ➢ Leakage current in forward direction
Gate
➢ Leakage current in reverse direction and
Gate
Welded
main seal ➢ Recovery voltage.
Cathode Cathode
Light Silicon
sensitive pellet
Series Connection of an SCR
area (a) (b) R2 R2 Static
Glass
top equalisation
circuit
Anode Anode SCR1 SCR2
Cathode
lead
D1 D1
Hermetic
seal Dynamic
Gate
equalisation
R1 C1 R1 C1 circuit
Gate

Cathode Cathode Fig. 1.45 : SCR series connection

Silicon
pellet • When the required voltage rating exceeds the SCR
(b) voltage rating, a number of SCRs are required to be
Fig. 1.43 : Light-activated SCR (LASCR) (a) Basic construction, connected in series to share the forward and reverse
(b) Symbol of SCR shows light rays falling on SCR voltage. As it is not possible to have SCRs of
Optocoupler mainly consists of infrared LED and photo completely identical characteristics, deviation in
transistor. When input voltage is applied to infrared LED, it characteristics lead to the following two major
will turn ON. If the light falls on the base of photo problems during series connections of the SCRs:
transistor, it will also turn-ON. Fig. 1.44 shows the circuit 1. Unequal distribution of voltage across SCRs.
symbol of optocoupler. 2. Difference in recovery characteristics.
 POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.29) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

• Care must be taken to share the voltage equally. For • When the load current exceeds the SCR current rating,
steady-state conditions, voltage sharing is achieved by SCRs are connected in parallel to share the load
using a resistance or a Zener diode in parallel with current. But when SCRs are operated in parallel, the
each SCR. For transient voltage sharing a low non- current sharing between them may not be proper. The
inductive resistor and capacitor in series are placed device having lower dynamic resistance will tend to
across each SCR, as shown in Fig. 1.45. Diodes D1
share more current. This will raise the temperature of
connected in parallel with resistor Rl, helps in dynamic
that particular device in comparison to other, thereby
stabilisation. This circuit reduces differences between
reducing further its dynamic resistance and increasing
blocking voltages of the two devices within permissible
current through it. This process is cumulative and
limits. Additionally the R-C circuit can also serve the
continues till the device gets punctured.
function of ‘snubber circuit‘. Values of R1 and C1 can
primarily be calculated for snubber circuit and a check • Some other factors which directly or indirectly add to
can be made for equalization. If ∆Q is the difference in this problem are difference in turn-on time, delay time,
recovery charge of two devices arising out of different finger voltage* and loop inductance. Arrangement of
recovery current for different time and ∆V is the SCRs in the cubicle also plays vital role. When the SCRs
permissible difference in blocking voltage then C1= are connected in parallel, it must be ensured that the
∆Q/ ∆V.
latching current level of the all the SCRs is such that
• The value of resistance Rx should be sufficient to over
when gate pulse is applied, all of them turn-on and
damp the circuit.
remain on when the gate pulse is removed. Further the
• Since the capacitor C1 can discharge through the SCR holding currents of the devices should not be so much
during turn-on, there can be excessive power
different that at reduced load current one of the device
dissipation, but the switching current from C1 is limited
gets turned-off because of fall of current through it
by the resistor R1 This resistance also serves the
blow its holding current value. This is particularly
purpose of damping out ‘ringing’ which is oscillation of
important because on increase in load current, the
C1 with the circuit inductance during commutation. All
device which has stopped conducting cannot start in
the SCRs connected in series should be turned-on at
the same time when signals are applied to their gates the absence of gate pulse.
simultaneously. • Another point to be considered is the on-state voltage
Parallel Connection of an SCR +VCC across the device. For equal sharing of currents by the
I devices voltageI drop across the parallel paths must be
Heat
SCR1 I1 I2 equal.I1 For operation I2of all the SCRs connected in
SCR1 SCR2parallel at the same temperature, it becomes necessary
L1 L2
SCR3 R1
to use a common heat sink for their mounting, as
R2
illustrated in1 figure. Resistance
SCR SCR2 compensation used for
SCR2
dc circuits is shown in figure.

+VCC • In this circuit the resistors Rx and R2 are chosen so as to

I I cause equal voltage drop in both arms. Inductive
Heat
I1 I2 I1 I2 compensation used for ac circuits is shown in figure.
SCR1 SCR2 The difference in characteristics due to different turn-
L1 L2
CR3
on time, delay time, finger voltage, latching current,
R1 R2
SCR1 SCR2 holding current can be minimized by using inductive
compensation. Firing circuits giving high rate of rise
can be used to reduce mismatch of gate characteristics
Fig. 1.46 : SCR Parallel Connection and delay time.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.30) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

• Current sharing circuits must be designed so as to transformer etc. Large voltage spikes for a few
distribute current equally at maximum temperature microseconds may result in permanent damage of device
and maximum anode current. This is done to ensure failure.
that the devices share current equally under worst So to protect the device against overvoltage due to various
operating conditions. Mechanical arrangement of SCRs aspects, low-pass filter (to divert high frequency transient),
also plays an important role in reducing mismatching. diverters (reverse selenium rectifiers, zener diode, varistors,
Cylindrical construction is perhaps the best from this or thyristors) and snubber circuits are used for this
point of view. purpose.
Derating :
Snubber Circuit :
• Even with all the measures taken, it is preferable to
With the help of this circuit, we protect the thyristor
derate the device for series/parallel operation. Another
against overvoltage. Snubber circuit is nothing but series
reason for derating is poor cooling and heat
RC circuit connected across device as shown in Fig. 1.47.
dissipation as number of devices operate in the same LS
branch of the circuit.
C
• Normal derating factors are 10 to 15% for parallel IRR
S R
connection of SCRs depending upon the number of
devices connected in parallel. Higher voltage safety
factor is taken when SCRs are connected in series. Fig. 1.47 : Snubber circuit
Snubber circuit reduces the effect of internal or external
1.18 THYRISTOR PROTECTION [May 16]
voltage.
• For the safety/smooth operation of thyristors, the Internal voltages are generated by interruption of reverse
thyristor is operated within the specified limits or recovery current IRR during turn-OFF device with the help
ratings, this is provided by manufacturer. Thyristors can of snubber circuit, the IRR is diverted through RC. If LS, R and
be protected from overvoltage, overcurrent or fault C are chosen suitably, the voltage across thyristor can be
current. The protection against fault current can be limited to suitable safe value.
avoided by connecting fuse arrangement in series. The At the time of external voltages, the capacitor C charges
effect of di/dt is reduced by connecting an inductor in through R at slow rate, hence does not allow the voltage
series with device. Similarly, transient voltage or change at high rate. Thus transient voltage spikes are
voltage spikes are diverted by snubber circuit or damped and also rate of rise of forward voltage dv/dt
reduced to safe limit absorbing device like varistor, across SCR is reduced.
power zener diode etc. 1.19 TRIGGERING OF SCR USING IC-785
• SCR require different types of protection circuits as : [Nov. 16]
➢ di/dt protection (overcurrent protection). • Generally, control circuit used for thyristor are using
discrete components. So with the help of this
➢ dv/dt protection (overvoltage protection).
triggering circuit, we control the phase from 0° to 180°.
➢ Metal oxide varistors (MOV). But now-a-day in the market ICs are available to
➢ Semiconductor fuse. control the semiconductor switch i.e. TCA 785. With
di/dt Protection (Overcurrent Protection) : the help of this ICs, we can control the phase of single-
phase half-wave as well as single-phase controller. Also
This method of protection is already explained in section
this can be used for power control of three-phase half-
1.9.3 under some important parameters of SCR. wave controlled or full-wave AC voltage controller.
dv/dt Protection (Overvoltage Protection) : Pin Diagram for TCA 785 :
Thyristor family devices are very sensitive to overvoltage • Fig. 1.48 shows the pin diagram of TCA 785. It consists
like semiconductor devices. Overvoltage occurs due to of 16 pins. The IC generates a ramp signal which is
different types of switching e.g. insulation breakdown, synchronized with the AC mains. With the help of TCA
blow of fuse, closing or opening of contactors, switching of 785 IC, we generates triggering pulses.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.31) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.19.1 Block Diagram/Internal Structure of TCA

GND 1 16 VS
785 IC
Q2 2 15 Q2
Q4 3 C12 Pulse
14 Q1
excitation
Q1 4 TCA 13 L 12
Qsync 5 785 14
12 C12 Vsync 5
Synchrono Q1
4 Q1
I 6 11 V11 register
Zero detector 15
Q2 7 Q2
10 V10
Discharge 2 Q2
Vref 8 16 Logic
9 R9 VS + _ monitor
3
QU
Fig. 1.48 : Pin diagram of TCA 785 = _ 7 Q2
=
• This phase control IC is intended to control thyristors, +
TRIACs and transistors. The trigger pulses can be I Control
comparator
shifted within a phase angle between 0° and 180°.
Typical applications include converter circuits. AC GND
1
controllers and three-phase current controllers.
Sr. No. Symbol Function Discharge
resister
1. GND Ground 9 8 10 11 6 13
Inhibit Long pulse
2. – Output 2 inverted Vref commutation
Q2 C10 Control
R9 voltage
3. QU Output U
4. – Output 1 inverted
Q1 Fig. 1.49 : Block diagram of IC 785
5. Vsync Synchronizing input Functional Description :
6. I Inhibit • The synchronization signal is obtained via high-ohmic
7. Q2 Output 2 resistance from the line voltage (voltage VS). A zero
voltage detector evaluates the zero passages and
8. Vref Reference voltage
transfer them to the synchronization register.
9. R9 Ramp resistance
• This synchronization register controls a ramp
10. C10 Ramp capacitance generator, the capacitor C10 of which is charged by a
11. V11 Control voltage constant current (determined by R9). If the ramp
12. C12 Pulse expansion voltage V10 exceeds the control voltage V11 (triggering
angle 'α'), a signal is processed to the logic. Dependent
13. L Long pulse
on the magnitude of control voltage V11, the triggering
14. Q1 Output 1 (main output)
angle a can be shifted within a phase angle of 0° to
15. Q2 Output 2 180°.
16. VS Supply voltage • For every half-wave, a positive pulse of approximately
Features of IC TCA 785 : 30 mSec. duration appears at the output Q1 and Q2.
• Temperature range is large. The pulse duration can be prolonged up to 180° via. a
capacitor C12. If pin 12 is connected to ground, pulse
• Ramp current range is large
with duration between a and 180° will result.
• It is used for so many applications.
– –
• It is used for three-phase applications. • Output Q1 and Q2 supply the inverse signals of Q1 and
• It is used for zero point switch. Q2. A signal of α + 180° which can be used for
• Output current 250 mA. controlling an external logic, is available at pin 3. A
• LSL compatible. signal which corresponds to the NOR link of Q1 and Q2
• Reliable recognition of zero passage. is available at output Q2.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.32) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.19.2 Triggering Circuit for Single-Phase • By varying the DC control voltage at pin 11 it is
Controller using IC TCA 785 possible to change the firing angle (α). If firing angle
• Fig. 1.50 shows the triggering circuit of single-phase
'α' is minimum voltage is maximum and vice versa.
controller using IC TCA 785. The input AC voltage is
step down by transformer and is given to the pin 5 of • The pulse train at pin 6 (inhibit) will ensure the multiple
IC. pulse output, the frequency of this pulse is adjusted
+ G1
+ VS (15 volt)
between 2 to 5 kHz.
C16
• The outputs Q1 and Q2 will be inhibited when pin 6
K1
555 16
14
receives a low voltage.
astable
6
1 • The IC 785 is synchronized with AC supply by means of
5
+ a step down transformer. The diode D1 and D2
12 G2
AC V connected back to back will not allow the voltage at
supply TCA
785 pin 5 to exceeds ± 0.7 V and the 220 K resistance in
K2
15
series with diodes will limit the current through them.
+V
• The capacitor Co and the resistance connected
9
11
10 between pin 9 and ground will decides the slopes of
P1
a control C
the ramp. The variable resistance R9 can be used to
Ramp Ramp
capacitor very the slop of the ramp.
register
• The ramp is generated in synchronization with AC
supply Fig. 1.51 shows the waveforms for IC TCA 785.
Fig. 1.50 : AC phase control using TCA 785 in
single-phase AC controller

AC supply V

0 wt

V10 Synchronized ramp (V10)

Voltage at
pin 10
0 wt

V15(Q1) V14(Q2) V15(Q1)

Voltage V15 &
at pin V14
14 and15
0 wt

VGK Triggering pulses at the o/p of

pulse amplifier
0 wt
a

Load voltage Vo

SCR OFF
2p
0 p wt
3p
SCR ON

Fig. 1.51 : Waveforms of IC TCA 785

POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.33) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.20 APPLICATION OF POWER DEVICES AS A device that controls ac power whereas an SCR controls
SWITCH dc power or forward biased half cycles of ac in a load.
• TRIAC is a three terminal AC switch which is different
Power devices suitable as a switch are SCR, IGBT and
from the other silicon controlled rectifiers in the sense
MOSFET. All these power devices shows ON – OFF
that it can conduct in both the directions that is
operation same as a switch. As per their device
whether the applied gate signal is positive or negative,
characteristics they are suitable for various applications.
it will conduct. Thus, this device can be used for AC
Solid state switches used to control the flow of electrical
systems as a switch. This is a three terminal, four layer,
current. Power device selection for a particular switching
bi-directional semiconductor device that controls AC
application depends on
power. The triac of maximum rating of 16 kw is
• Switching time ( turn On and Turn off time ) available in the market.
• Current capacity MT2

• Maximum voltage across the device

• Triggering Mechanism
• Unipolar /bipolar nature
• Device complixity and availability
Applications of SCR as a Switch
• DC power control
• Inverter circuit G
• Temperature control
• Low frequency switching applications MT1

Applications of IGBT as a Switch Fig 1.52 (a) : TRIAC symbol

• High frequency heating • Fig. 1.52 (a) shows the symbol of triac, which has two
main terminals MT1 and MT2 connected in inverse
• AC and DC Drives
parallel and a gate terminal.
• High frequency switching applications
1.21.1 Construction of Triac
• Suitable for high current rating applications
• Two SCRs are connected in inverse parallel with gate
• Suitable for bipolar signal switching terminal as common. Gate terminals is connected to
Applications of MOSFET as a Switch both the N and P regions due to which gate signal may
• Suitable for High current and voltage switching be applied which is irrespective of the polarity of the
signal. Here, we do not have anode and cathode since
applications
it works for both the polarities which means that
• Traction system device is bilateral. It consists of three terminals namely,
• AC drives main terminal 1(MT1), main terminal 2(MT2), and gate
• Multiphase inverter terminal G.
MT2
1.21 TRIAC CONSTRUCTION OPERATION
AND APPLICATIONS OF TRIAC N4
• TRIAC is a combination of TRIode and AC. Which is P1
used to control the AC voltage. The triac is another
three-terminal ac switch that is triggered into N1
conduction when a low-energy signal is applied to its P2
gate terminal. Unlike the SCR, the triac conducts in
N3 N2
either direction when turned on. The triac also differs
from the SCR in that either a positive or negative gate
signal triggers it into conduction. Thus the triac is a MT1
three terminal, four layer bidirectional semiconductor Fig. 1.52 (b): Construction of Triac
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.34) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

• Fig. 1.52 (b) shows the construction of a triac. There • First Quadrant Operation of Triac
are two main terminals namely MT1 and MT2 and the Voltage at terminal MT2 is positive with respect to
remaining terminal is gate terminal. terminal MT1 and gate voltage is also positive with
Operation of Triac respect to first terminal.
• The triac can be turned on by applying the gate • Second Quadrant Operation of Triac
voltage higher than break over voltage. However, Voltage at terminal 2 is positive with respect to
without making the voltage high, it can be turned on terminal 1 and gate voltage is negative with respect to
by applying the gate pulse of 35 micro seconds to turn terminal 1.
it on. When the voltage applied is less than the break • Third Quadrant Operation of Triac
over voltage, we use gate triggering method to turn it
Voltage of terminal 1 is positive with respect to
on.
terminal 2 and the gate voltage is negative.
• There are four different modes of operations, they are-
• Fourth Quadrant Operation of Triac
1. When MT2 and Gate being Positive with Respect to
Voltage of terminal 2 is negative with respect to
MT1
terminal 1 and gate voltage is positive.
When this happens, current flows through the path
Ff
P1-N1-P2-N2. Here, P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward IMT21 on state
biased but N1-P2 is reverse biased. The triac is said SCR1conducting
to be operated in positively biased region. Positive MT positive
2
IH
gate with respect to MT1 forward biases P2-N2 and
VBO Off State
breakdown occurs. Blocking state
VMT21
2. When MT2 is Positive but Gate is Negative with Off State
SCR2 conducting IH
Respect to MT1 MT2 positive
on state
The current flows through the path P1-N1-P2-N2. MT2
Negative
But P2-N3 is forward biased and current carriers
V-I Characteristic of aTriac
injected into P2 on the triac.
Fig. 1.52 (c) : V-I Characteristics of Triac
3. When MT2 and Gate are Negative with Respect to
MT1 When the device gets turned on, a heavy current flows
Current flows through the path P2-N1-P1-N4. Two through it which may damage the device, hence in order to
junctions P2-N1 and P1-N4 are forward biased but limit the current a current limiting resistor should be
the junction N1-P1 is reverse biased. The triac is connected externally to it. By applying proper gate signal,
said to be in the negatively biased region. firing angle of the device may be controlled. The gate
4. When MT2 is Negative but Gate is Positive with triggering circuits should be used for proper gate
Respect to MT1
triggering. We can use diac for triggering the gate pulse.
P2-N2 is forward biased at that condition. Current
For firing of the device with proper firing angle, a gate
carriers are injected so the triac turns on. This
pulse may be applied up to a duration of 35 micro
mode of operation has a disadvantage that it
should not be used for high (di/dt) circuits. seconds.
Sensitivity of triggering in mode 2 and 3 is high Advantages of Triac
and if marginal triggering capability is required,
• It can be triggered with positive or negative polarity of
negative gate pulses should be used. Triggering in
gate pulses.
mode 1 is more sensitive than mode 2 and
mode 3. • It requires only a single heat sink of slightly larger size,
1.21.2 Characteristics of a Triac whereas for SCR, two heat sinks should be required of
smaller size.
The triac characteristics is similar to SCR but it is applicable
to both positive and negative triac voltages. The operation • It requires single fuse for protection.
can be summarized as follows. • A safe breakdown in either direction is possible but for
Following figure shows that the characteristics if Triac SCR protection should be given with parallel diode.
 A A

G P-MCT N-MCT
G
K K
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.35) CHARACTERISTICS
(a) OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

Disadvantages of Triac iA iA
Turn-off on
• They are not much reliable compared to SCR.
• It has (dv/dt) rating lower than SCR. off
Turn-on
• Lower ratings are available compared to SCR. VAK uAK
• We need to be careful about the triggering circuit as it
can be triggered in either direction.
Uses of Triac
(b) (c)
• They are used in control circuits.
Fig. 1.53 : An MCT : (a) circuit symbols, (b) i-v characteristic,
• It is used in High power lamp switching.
(c) idealized
• It is used in AC power control.
1.23 POWER INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (PIC)
1.22 MOS-CONTROLLED THYRISTORS SMART POWER
• The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is a new device
1.23.1 Introduction
that has just appeared on the commercial market. Its
circuit symbol is shown in Fig. 1.53 (a), and its i-v • From their humble beginnings as audio amplifiers,
characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.53 (b). The difference Power Integrated Circuits (PIC) are now moving
between the two arises from the different locations of towards a more prominent role in many power
the control terminals, a subject discussed in detail in electronic systems. Today an increasing number of
chapter 26. applications make use of these devices.
• Usually power integrated circuits are designed for
• From the i-v characteristic it is apparent that the MCT
specialized applications in the lower power range.
has many of the properties of a GTO, including a low
Their concept represents the natural continuation of IC
voltage drop in the one state at relatively high currents
evolution, realizing a complete system on one chip.
and a latching characteristic (the MCT remains on even
• The power limit arises from the amount of heat that
if the gate drive is removed). The MCT is a voltage-
can be dissipated by a silicon surface of approximately
controlled device like the IGBT and the MOSFET or an
one square centimeter in size. When most of the
IGBT. silicon real estate is devoted to power devices the
• The MCT has two principal advantages over the GTO, chips are usually called "smart power." However, the
including much simpler drive requirements (no large terminology applied is more often based upon
negative gate current required for turn-off like the institutional rather than technical reasons.
GTO) and faster switching speeds (turn-on and turn-off • What constitutes a power integrated circuit varies from
times of a few microseconds). manufacturer to manufacturer, depending on their
• The MCTs have smaller on-state voltage drops product portfolios and point of view; that is, whether
compared to IGBTs of similar ratings and are presently they approach the market from a discrete-transistor or
an IC perspective. Some define power ICs by their
available in voltage ratings to 1500 V with current
functions--whether the IC actually includes the power
ratings of 50 A to a few hundred amperes. Devices with
transistor itself, others, by the IC's voltage and current
voltage ratings of 2500 – 3000 V have been
levels, and still others by the IC's general involvement
demonstrated in prototypes and will be available soon.
in controlling power.
The current ratings of individual MCTs are significantly
• Smart power is cost-effective today in many
less than those of GTOs because individual MCTs
applications because additional functions can be
cannot be made as large in cross-sectional area as a combined on the chip at low cost, which would be
GTO due to their more complex structure. expensive or impractical to add using discrete
A A components. These functions include drive circuitry,
G thermal protection, over and under voltage protection,
P-MCT G N-MCT
current limiting, and diagnostics.
K K • Many smart power products were originally developed
(a)
to meet the demanding environmental and cost
iA iA
Turn-off on

off
Turn-on
VAK uAK
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.36) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

constraints of the automotive and consumer and compact size. The InnoSwitch family of integrated
electronics industries. As a result, industrial circuits combines primary, secondary, and feedback
applications, where numbers produced are lower, also circuits in a single surface-mounted off-line flyback
have made use of these devices in the recent past. The switching IC. The InnoSwitch IC incorporates the
technology is steadily progressing towards much more primary FET, the controller on the primary side, a
complex devices such as Smart Power Hybrids, Smart controller on the secondary side for synchronous
Power ICs, Smart Power Microcontrollers, etc., all of rectification, and a new innovative FluxLink™
which could be generally grouped as Intelligent Power technology that eliminates the need for an
Modules (IPM). optocoupler.
1.23.2 MOSFET Technology • Power Integrations’ FluxLink communication
• A MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect technology allows you to provide feedback
Transistor) is a semiconductor device used in the field information across an isolation barrier without the use
of power electronics. A semiconductor does not act of magnetic materials.
either as an insulator or as a conductor. The • FluxLink offers a very high communication bandwidth
semiconductor material of which devices such as that allows a much faster transient response of the
MOSFET are built has both insulation properties and load, is highly reliable and does not suffer from the
conduction properties. From the design point of view, typical degradation mechanisms of optocouplers. It is
the semiconductors are designed in such a way that built into the package and, by eliminating the bulky
the conduction or isolation properties can be optocouplers, saves space and increases power
controlled. The transistor is probably the most well- density, which is particularly advantageous for
known semiconductor device and is an example of a adapters and chargers. Furthermore, this technology
bipolar device. MOSFET technology is an improvement meets all global standards of noise immunity.
of bipolar technology, in fact, both N and P materials • The devices of the InnoSwitch3-EP family incorporate
are still used, but metal oxide insulators are added to multiple protection functions, including line
provide some performance and functionality overvoltage and under voltage protection, output
improvements. The MOSFET transistor is a overvoltage limitation and overcurrent protection and
semiconductor device widely used for switching and overtemperature shutdown. In particular, the 900 V
amplifying electronic signals in electronic devices. The InnoSwitch3-EP flyback switching integrated circuits
MOSFET is a core of the integrated circuit, it can be provide a detection function for overvoltage protection
designed and manufactured in a single chip thanks to on the line without losses, which automatically
its very small size and is used both in analog and interrupts the switching when the line voltages exceed
digital circuits. The main purpose of the MOSFET is to a selected threshold, preventing damage to the power
control the flow of voltage and current between the supply during situations of considerable line
source and the discharge, similar to a switch. overvoltage.
1.23.3 InnoSwitch™3-EP Integrated Circuit • The devices are available with standard and peak
• InnoSwitch3-EP is an integrated CV/CC QR flyback power delivery options and commonly used automatic
switching circuit with integrated 725 V/900 V MOSFET, restart or latching protection behaviors. In particular,
synchronous correction and FluxLink feedback for this integrated circuit has a highly integrated compact
applications up to 45 W. The InnoSwitch3-EP flyback footprint, very high efficiency across full range,
switch integrated circuit has feedback, rectification incorporates multi-mode Quasi-Resonant (QR)/CCM
synchronous and integrated MOSFETs. The flyback controller, 725 V or 900 V MOSFET, secondary-
revolutionary design of InnoSwitch3-EP allows side sensing and synchronous rectification driver
excellent cross-regulation and reduced losses by 30% regulation (SSR) feedback and synch FETs, integrated
to 35%. The InnoSwitch3-families of integrated circuits FluxLink the HIPOT-isolated feedback link, adjustable
include InnoSwitch3-Pro, InnoSwitch3-CE, accurate current sense applied via an external resistor.
InnoSwitch3-CP, InnoSwitch3-EP, InnoSwitch3-MX and • From the point of view of energy efficiency, designs
simplify the design and production of flyback power with InnoSwitch-3 ICs easily meets all global energy
converters, especially those that require high efficiency efficiency regulations and is characterized by low heat
dissipation. It is also equipped with advanced shoot-
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.37) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

thru and cross conduction prevention mechanisms 1.23.4 LinkSwitch™-TN2 Integrated Circuit
thanks to the integration of the SR FET gate driver. It is
• LinkSwitch-TN2 is a Highly Energy Efficient Off-line IC
equipped with full safety and regulatory compliance,
Switcher with Integrated 725 V or 900 V MOSFET and
excellent noise immunity and has reinforced insulation
System Level Protection for Low Component-Count
and an insulation voltage > 4000 VAC.
Power Supplies. The LinkSwitch-TN2 family of ICs for
non-isolated off-line power supplies provide
dramatically improved performance compared to
SRFET
traditional linear solutions.
• Designs using the highly integrated LinkSwitch-TN2 ICs
are more flexible and feature increased efficiency,
FWD

GND
BPS
SR

FB

comprehensive system level protection, and higher

VOUT
D V
InnoSwitch3-EP Optional reliability. The device family supports buck, buck-
Primary FET Current
and Controller Sense boost, and flyback converter topologies. Each device
S BPP IS Secondary incorporated at 725 V or 900 V power MOSFET,
Control IC
oscillator, On/Off control for highest light load
Fig. 1.54 : Typical application scheme efficiency, high-voltage switched current source for
[Source: Power Integration] self-biasing, frequency jittering, fast (cycle-by-cycle)
• The InnoSwitch-EP architecture is highly innovative, the current limit, hysteretic thermal shutdown, and output
devices integrate into a single integrated circuit both and input overvoltage protection circuitry into a
the primary and secondary controllers, with the monolithic IC.
detection elements and a feedback mechanism while • MOSFET current limit modes can be selected through
meeting safety. The close proximity of the the bypass pin capacitor value. The high current limit
components and the innovative use of the integrated level provides maximum continuous output current
communication link allow precise control of the while the low level permits using low cost and small
synchronous rectification MOSFET on the secondary surface mount inductors. The implementation of
side and the optimization of the switching on the protection functions allows the protection of the
primary side to maintain the high efficiency over the
device and the system from input and output
entire load range.
overvoltage failures, device overtemperature failures,
• Furthermore, the minimum DC biasing requirements of regulation loss, and power supply overload or power
the connection allow the system to reach values below supply failures to be safely and reliably powered.
ten mW in the absence of load to maximize efficiency • IC LinkSwitches are used in several applications such as
in standby mode. The InnoSwitch3-EP integrated Chargers, adapters, large and small equipment,
circuit easily meets all global energy efficiency consumer audio/video systems, meters and a wide
regulations and integrates flyback controllers, 725/900 range of industrial consumables. LinkSwitch-XT2 and
V MOSFETs, secondary side detection and synchronous LinkSwitch-TN2 are available with 900 V primary
rectification drivers. The devices achieve unmatched MOSFETs for three-phase industrial power supplies
efficiency values up to 94% across line and load and high-quality consumer products destined for
conditions, reducing losses at the power supply. Thus it regions with high and unstable mains grids, high-
is possible to obtain compact power supplies, up to 35 energy ring-waves and surges are prevalent.
W, without the need for heat sinks. • The LinkSwitch families of ICs are low power offline
• InnoSwitch3 ICs are highly configurable and require a switchers that incorporate both high-accuracy
code to specify all configurable features, such as controllers and high voltage MOSFETs into a single low
automatic restart threshold or fault response. The pin-count package. They are devices that use simple
function codes consist of the letter H followed by three ON/OFF controllers, which are highly suitable for
numbers and are added to the end of the base part applications where light/no load efficiency is a key
number. The main applications of InnoSwitch-EP requirement for the specifications. They are optimized
integrated circuits are in domestic appliances, in the for isolated flyback power supplies and, in a non-
industrial sector, motor drive/control, intelligent isolated variant, for low-current buck offline
lighting, smart meters, and utilities. applications.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.38) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

➢ Current Rating : Upto 1000 A

➢ Voltage Rating : 50 V to 3 kV
➢ Frequency : 10 kHz
Applications :
FB BP/M • DC to DC converters i.e. choppers.
+ D S + • DC to AC converters i.e. inverters.
LinkSwitch-TN2 1.25 CONCEPT OF SCHOTTKY DIODE
Dc
Wide range
output
High-Voltage • The symbol and V-I characteristics of Schottky diode
DC input
– – are very similar to that of low power, p-n junction
diode. But only difference is that forward voltage drop
Fig. 1.55 : A typical application of the buck converter
across it is very small (0.3 V to 0.4 V only) and in the
[Source: Power Integration]
reverse biased condition of diode, the Schottky diode
Conclusions have large reverse leakage current.
• The advanced safety and reliability features of the 900 • Schottky diode is formed by depositing a thin metal
V integrated switching circuits guarantee auto-restart film on a semiconductor as shown in Fig. 1.56. The
for short circuits and faults, overvoltage and metal film acts as a anode of diode and semiconductor
overtemperature protection. acts as a cathode.
• The MOSFET 725 V value guarantees excellent Anode
Aluminium
resistance to overvoltages. Devices are extremely contact
SiO2
energy efficient and meet all global energy efficiency
regulations.
16 -3
n 10 cm
• The applications are many: three-phase industrial
power supplies with voltage up to 480 VAC and high- 3+
n
quality products for the consumer sector destined to 10
19
cm
-3

geographic regions with unstable voltage electrical

networks, tropical regions with thunderstorms, and
Cathode
therefore lightning, frequent or any area where high Fig. 1.56 : Schottky diode
energy surges and oscillations are common. • In Fig. 1.56, there is no p-n junction, so the charge
• All models of the 900 V product families feature both storage problem of p-n junction diode can be
internal control motors optimized to ensure high eliminated in a Schottky diode. These diodes have very
efficiency at the head of the load, and a variety of load small turn-off time because storage time is absent.
and line protection systems to further improve system The recovered charge of a Schottky diode is much less
reliability. than that of a equivalent p-n junction diode.
1.24 FAST RECOVERY DIODE / CONCEPT OF ➢ Current Rating : 1 to 300 A
➢ Voltage Rating : 1 to 300 A
FAST RECOVERY DIODE
➢ Upper Frequency : 20 kHz
• The diodes are with low recovery time, of about 5 µsec. Applications
or less, as compared to file general purpose diodes.
• High frequency and low voltage instrumentation.
Therefore they are turned off more quickly and hence
• Switching power supplies.
can be used in the high frequency applications such as
Advantages of Schottky Diode :
DC to DC converter and DC to AC converters.
Unlike conventional semiconductor diodes, which consist
• The epitaxial process is used for diode fabrication, for of a PN junction, the Schottky diode is made from a metal
voltage rating below 400 V. These diodes have fast semiconductor junction. This offers a number of
recovery time as low as 50 nsec. For voltage rating advantages in some circumstances as the diode has a very
above 400 V, diffusion technique is used for fabrication low forward-voltage drop, and secondly it has a very fast
of diode. To reduce the reverse recovery time, switching speed. Both of these properties make it ideal for
platinum or gold doping is carried out. But this type of many RF applications as well as giving it uses in many
doping increases the forward voltage drop in diode. other areas.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.39) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.26 FREEWHELING DIODE / FLYBACK DIODE • For better understanding of how freewheeling diode
prevents such occurrences of over voltages and when
• A freewheeling diode is basically a diode connected
it come into play, let us focus on the working principle
across the inductive load terminals to prevent the
and circuit diagram of flyback diode.
development of high voltage across the switch. When
Working Principle of Freewheeling Diode:
the inductive circuit is switched off, this diode gives a
short circuit path for the flow of inductor decay current • In Fig. 1.59, inductive load RL is connected to the DC
and hence dissipation of stored energy in the inductor. source through switch SW and diode D. When this
This diode is also called Flywheel or Flyback diode. switch SW is closed at t = 0 sec, current starts to flow
through the load. This current builds up in the inductor
• The main purpose of freewheeling or flyback diode is
and reaches its steady value after some time (roughly
to free wheel the stored energy in inductor by
2-3 time constant).
providing a short circuit path. This is necessary else a
R
sudden decay in circuit current will give rise to high
i =
V [1 – e –
 R
( )]
L
t

voltage across the switch contacts and diode.

• For better understanding, let us consider the Fig. 1.57 Final or steady value of current,
below. V
I =
S D
R
• When the switch SW is opened at t = 0 (say), current in
R the circuit tends to decay through the load. This decay
+ of current through inductor results in development of
V L a reverse voltage equal to L(di/dt) across the inductor
terminals. This reverse voltage across inductor terminal
makes freewheeling diode forward biased. Thus
Fig. 1.57 freewheeling diode behaves like a closed switch as
• When switch S is closed, the steady state current I shown in Fig. 1.59 below.
through the circuit is (V/R) and hence the stored
SW
energy in inductor is (LI2)/2. When this switch S is D
R
opened, the current will suddenly decay to zero from + V
steady value I = (V/R). – FD
L
• Due to this sudden decay of current, a high reverse
voltage (as per lenz’s law) equal to L(di/dt) will appear
across the inductor terminals and hence across the
Fig. 1.59
diode and switch. This will lead to sparking across the
switch contacts. If this reverse voltage exceeds the • Thus, the main circuit current is transferred to the
Peak Inverse Voltage of diode, then it may get circuit consisting of freewheeling diode FD, R and L as
damage. shown in above Fig. 1.59. In this new circuit, the current
• To avoid such occurrences, a diode, called will exponentially decay to zero. This decaying current
freewheeling or flyback diode is connected across the in the circuit is given as below.
inductive load RL as shown in Fig. 1.58 below. R
i =
V – e –
 R
()
L
t

SW
D R
• Thus we see that, freewheeling diode dissipates the
+ V
– FD
stored energy in inductor by providing a short circuit
L path. It also provides a shorted path for exponentially
decay of circuit current. Thus high voltage is not
induced. Therefore, the switches and diode is
Fig. 1.58 protected from the high voltage.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.40) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

1.27 FEEDBACK DIODE (i) Storage charge QRR : From equation (1.8),
1 di 2
• Load current may not reverse at the same instants as QRR = ×t
2 dt rr
does the load voltage. Current may lead or lag the
output voltage due to the presence of capacitance 1 6 2
= × 30 × 10 × (3 × 10−6)
and/or inductance in the load circuit. Diodes D1 and D2 2
in anti-parallel with each transistors permit load QRR = 135 µC … Ans.
current to flow if necessary. (ii) Peak reverse current IRR : From Equation (1.11),
SOLVED EXAMPLES IRR = 2 QRR (di/dt)
6
Example 1.1 : The reverse recovery time of power diode is 5 = 2 × 135 × 10−6 × 30 × 10
µsec. and rate of fall of diode current is 80 A/µsec. If the IRR = 90 A … Ans.
softness factor is 0.5, determine : Example 1.3 : The reverse recovery time of power diode is
(i) Storage charge trr = 3 µsec, rate of fall of current is di/dt = 50 A/µsec.
(ii) Peak reverse current Determine :

Solution : Given data : (i) Storage charge QRR.

(ii) Peak reverse current.
trr = 5 µsec = 5 × 10−6 sec
6 Solution : Given data : trr = 3 µsec, di/dt = 50 A/µsec = 50
di/dt = 80 A/µsec = 80 × 10 A/sec
× 10−6 A/sec
tb
S.F. = = 0.5 Reverse recovery time trr is given by Equation (1.10),
ta
2 QRR
∴ ta = 2tb trr =
di/dt
From equation (1.3).
(i) Storage charge QRR is :
∴ trr = ta+ tb = 5 × 10−6 2
−6
trr (di/dt) (3 × 10−6)2 (50 × 106)
2 tb + tb = 5 × 10 QRR = =
2 2
tb = 1.66 µsec
∴ QRR = 225 µC … Ans.
ta = 3.33 µsec
(ii) Reverse recovery current (IRR) :
2QRR
(i) trr ⋅ ta = from Equation (1.8) storage charge D: From Equation (1.10),
di/dt
IRR = 2QRR (di/dt)
−6 2 × QRR
−6
5 × 10 × 3.33 × 10 = 6
= 2 × 225 × 10−6 × 50 × 10
6
80 × 10
∴ QRR = 66.6 µC … Ans. IRR = 150 A … Ans.
(ii) From Equation (1.6), reverse recovery current D : Example 1.4 : A SCR is gated by suing relaxation oscillator
2 QRR which has UJT with characteristics η = 0.63, Ip = 0.7 mA,
IRR =
trr Vp = 16 V, normal leakage current with emitter open
−6
2 × 66.6 × 10 = 4 mA, Vv = 1.2, Iv = 7 mA, RB1 B2 = 5.5 kΩ. The firing
=
5 × 10−6 frequency = 1.5 kHz. If C = 0.1 µF, calculate values of R1, R2,
IRR = 26.64 A … Ans. Rmax and Rmin.

Example 1.2 : The reverse recovery time of a diode is trr = 3 Solution : Given data : η = 0.63, Ip = 0.7 mA, Vp = 16 V,
µsec and the rate of fall of diode current is di/dt = 30 Ileakage = 4 mA, Vv = 1.2 V, Iv = 7 mA, RB1 B2 = 5.5 kΩ, Firing
A/µsec. Determine : frequency f = 1.5 kHz, C = 0.1 µF.
(i) Storage charge QRR. (i) Vp = η Vbb + VD :
(ii) The peak reverse current. VD is not given, assume VD = 0.5 V
Solution : Given data : Vp − VD 16 − 0.5
∴ VBB = η =
trr = 3 µsec = 3 × 10 sec −6 0.63
6
di/dt = 30 A/µsec = 30 × 10 A/sec = 24.6 V ≅ 25 V … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.41) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

(ii) From equation (1.39), Solution : Given data : η = 0.7, Ip = 0.7 mA, Vp = 16.5 V,
RBB − Vp 25 − 16 Iv = 6 mA, Vv = 10 V, Ileakage = 3.7 mA, RB1 B2 = 5.6 kΩ,
Rmax = =
Ip 0.7 × 10−3 C = 0.1 µF, R1 = 500 Ω, R2 = 200 Ω
= 12.86 kΩ … Ans. VBB = Ileakage (R1 + RB1B2 + R2)
(iii) From Equation (1.40), = 3.7 × 10−3 (500 + 5500 + 200)
VBB − Vv 25 − 1.2 = 22.94 V
Rmin = = = 3.4 kΩ … Ans. + VBB
Iv 7 × 10−3
(iv) The time period of pulses is given by, R R2

1
τ = = 0.67 × 10−3 sec
f
This time period is approximately equal to changing time C
R1 To SCR gate
of capacitor.
∴ T = τ
Fig. 1.60
From Equation (1.32),
For turning on UJT, capacitor must change to Vp. The
T = RC ln
 1  maximum value of R is determined by the peak point
1 − η
values Vp and Ip. When capacitor voltage reaches to Vp, the
T 1
∴ R = = voltage across R is VBB − Vp.
C ⋅ ln
 1  f ⋅ C ⋅ ln
 1  VBB − Vp 22.94 − 16.5
1 − η 1 − η ∴ Rmax = = = 9200 Ω
Ip 3.7 × 10−3
1
= The corresponding maximum changing time of capacitor is
−6
1500 (0.1 × 10 ) ln
 1  given by,
1 − 0.63
∴ R = 6.703 kΩ … Ans. Tmax = Rmax ⋅ C ln
 1 
1 − η
(v) The resistor R2 can be obtained approximately by
Equation (1.36), = 9200 (0.1 × 10−6) ln
 1 
10
4
10
4 1 − 0.7
R2 = = = 0.108 × 10−3 sec
η VBB (0.63) (25)
= 634.92 Ω ≅ 635 Ω … Ans. The maximum value of R is governed by the valley
(vi) The resistor R1 can be obtained from Equation point values Iv and Vv.
(1.38), At valley point, capacitor voltage is Vv and emitter
VBB = Ileakage (R1 + RB1 B2 + R1) current is Iv.
VBB VBB − Vv 22.94 − 10
∴ R1 = − R2 − RB1 B2 ∴ Rmin = =
Ileakage IR 6 × 10−3
25 ∴ Rmin = 2156.67 Ω … Ans.
= − 635 − 5500
4 × 10−3
The corresponding minimum charging time of
R1 = 115 Ω … Ans.
capacitor current is given by,
Example 1.5 : An SCR is to be gated by using relaxation
oscillator which has UJT, as shown in Fig. 1.60, with UJT Tmin = Rmin ⋅ C ⋅ ln
 1 
1 − η
having following characteristics :
η = 0.7, Ip = 0.7 mA, Vp = 16.5, normal leakage current with = (2156.67) (0.1 × 10−6) ln
 1 
emitter open = 3.7 mA
1 − 0.7
Vv = 10 V, Iv = 6 mA, RB1 B2 = 5.5 kΩ. Capacitance C = 0.1 = 0.26 × 10−3 sec … Ans.
µF, R1 = 500 Ω, R2 = 200 Ω. Thus for pulse generation, R must have values in the
Calculate the firing frequency of SCR by varying R. Obtain range from 2156.67 Ω to 9200 Ω.
maximum and minimum values of R and corresponding The width of trigger pulse (tg) can be approximately
frequencies. Calculate 'α' at which SCR gate gets a pulse for taken as equal to R2C.
firing SCR. tg = 200 × 0.1 × 10−6 = 20 × 10−6 sec
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.42) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

The maximum time period is given by, 1.3

RC ≥
τmax = Tmax + tg = 1.108 × 10 + 20 × 10 −3 −6 2f
= 1.128 × 10−3 sec 1.3
≥ ≥ 0.013
2 × 50
The corresponding minimum frequency is given by
1 1 The capacitor voltage is,
fmin = = = 886.52 Hz
τmax 1.128 × 10−3 VC = VGT + VD1 … (1)
The SCR will turn-ON when,
VS ≥ IGT R + VC … (2)
t
0 When above equation is satisfied, sufficient gate drive will
T tg
be given to the SCR and it will turn-ON. Putting expression
R 2C for VC from Equation (1) in above Equation (2),
VS ≥ IGT R + VGT + VD1
VS − VGT − VD1
t t t R ≥ … (3)
0 IGT
Fig. 1.61 Here VGT should be minimum and IGT should be maximum
The minimum time period is given by, to get maximum value of R. Putting values in above
τmin = Tmin + tg = 0.26 × 10−3 + 20 × 10−6 equation,
= 0.28 × 10−3 sec 220 − 5 − 0.7
R ≤
30 × 10−3
The corresponding maximum frequency is given by,
Here VD1 = 0.7 V (voltage drop a/c diode)
1 1
fmax = = = 3571.43 Hz 0.013
τmin 0.28 × 10−3 C ≥
R
At fmax, the firing angle α is given by,
0.013
α = ω ⋅ Tmin = 2πfmax ⋅ Tmin C ≥
7143.33
= 2π (3571.43) (0.28 × 10−3) C ≥ 1.82 µF … Ans.
α = 5.83 rad or 167.14° … Ans. Example 1.7 : The average gate power dissipation for an
At fmin, the firing angle α is given by, SCR is 0.5 W. The allowable gate voltage variation is from a
α = ω Tmax = 2πfmin ⋅ Tmax minimum of 2 V to a maximum of 10 V. Taking average
= 2π (886.52) (1.108 × 10−3) gate power dissipation constant, plot allowable gate voltage
as a function of gate current.
α = 6.17 rad or 176.81° … Ans.
Solution : Here,
Example 1.6 : Design a suitable RC triggering circuit for a
Vg Ig = 0.5 W
thyristor network operating on 220 V, 50 Hz, supply. The
Vg = 2 volt
specifications of the SCR are VGT (min) = 5 V, IGT (max) = 30 mA.
0.5 0.5
Solution : Consider this as half-wave RC triggering circuit ∴ Ig = = = 0.25 A
Vg 2
shown in Fig. 1.62. Vg = 10 volt
Given data : VS = 220 V, f = 50 Hz, VGT (min) = 5 V, IGT (max) 0.5
= 30 mA. Ig = = 0.05 A
10
Load Vg(volt)

D2 R
D1 IGT
_ 10
+ +
Vs VD1 8
VGT VC +
_C 6
_ 4
2
Fig. 1.62
Ig(Amp)
The RC time constant of the half-wave RC firing circuit 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
is given by Equation (1.24). Fig. 1.63 : Pertaining of example 1.7
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.43) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

Example 1.8 : For an SCR, the gate-cathode characteristics Example 1.10 : For an SCR, gate-cathode characteristics is
has a straight-line slope of 130. For trigger source voltage of given by Vg = 1 + 10 Ig. Gate source voltage is a rectangular
15 volt and allowable gate power dissipation of 0.5 watts, pulse of 15 volt with 20 µsec duration. For an average gate
compute the gate-source characteristics. [Feb. 16] power dissipation of 0.3 W and a peak gate-drive power of
Solution : Here, 5 W, compute

Vg Ig = 0.5 W (a) the resistance to be connected in series with the SCR

gate
Vg
= 130 (b) the triggering frequency, and
Ig
(c) the duty cycle of triggering pulse.
∴ Vg = 130 Ig
Solution : (a) Here,
130 Ig × Ig = 0.5
1/2 Vg = 1 + 10 Ig
This gives :Ig =
 0.5  = 0.062 = 62 mA For pulse triggring of SCRs.
130
(Peak gate voltage) (Peak gate current) during pulse on
∴ Gate voltage,
period = Peak gate drive power, Pgm
Vg = 130 × 62 × 10−3 As the gate pulse width is 20 µsec (less than 100 µsec), the
Vg = 8.06 volt dc data does not apply. Had the gate pulse width been
For the gate circuit, more than 100 µsec, the relation (1 + 10 Ig) Ig = 0.3 W will
Es = Ig Rs + Vg hold good. But as the DC data does not apply, we have
here,
Es = 0.062 Rs + 8.06 V = 15
(1 + 10 Ig) Ig = 5 W
15 − 8.06 2
∴ Rs = 10 Ig + Ig − 5 = 0
0.062
Rs = 111.94 Ω … Ans. Its solution gives,

Example 1.9 : The trigger circuit of a thyristor has a source Ig = 0.659 A

voltage of 15 V and the load line has a slope of − 120 volt ∴ Amplitude of current pulse = 0.659 A
per ampere. The minimum gate current to turn-ON the SCR During the pulse on period,
is 25 mA. Compute : [Feb. 17] Es = Rs Ig + Vg
(a) Source resistance required in the gate circuit. 15 = Rs Ig + 1 + 10 Ig
(b) The trigger voltage and trigger current for an 15 − 1
average gate power dissipation of 0.4 watts. ∴ Rs = − 10 = 11.244 Ω … Ans.
0.659
Solution : (a) The slope of load line gives the required Pgav
gate source resistance. From the load line, series required (b) Pgm =
f⋅T
in the gate circuit is 120 Ω. Here, T = 20 µsec
(b) Here,Vg Ig= 0.4 watt Triggering frequency,
For the gate circuit, 0.3 × 10
6
f = = 3 kHz … Ans.
Es = Rs Ig + Vg 5 × 20
0.4 (c) Duty cycle,
15 = 120 Ig +
Ig 3
δ = fT = 3 × 10 × 20 × 10−6 = 0.06 … Ans.
2
120 Ig − 15 g + 0.4 = 0 Example 1.11 : Latching current for an SCR, inserted in
Its solution gives, between a DC voltage source of 200 volt and the load, is 100
Ig = 38.56 mA o r 86.44 mA mA. Compute the minimum width of gate-pulse current
required to turn-ON this SCR in case the load consists of
0.4
Vg = = 10.37 volt
38.56 × 10−3 (a) L = 0.2 H.
0.4 (b) R = 20 Ω in series with L = 0.2 H and
or Vg = = 4.627 volt … Ans.
86.44 × 10−3 (c) R = 20 Ω in series with L = 2.0 H.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.44) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

Solution : (a) When the load consist of pure inductance L, 0.7 (RB2 + RB1)
∴ R2 =
the voltage equation is, ηVBB
3
di E 0.7 (7.5 × 10 )
E = L or di = dt = = 276.3 Ω
dt L 0.63 × 30.15
E VBB = Ileakage (R1 + R2 + RB1 + RB2)
or i = t
L 30.15 = 3 × 10−3 (R1 + 276.3 + 7.5 × 10 )
3

200 ∴ R1 = 2390.3 Ω
0.100 = t
0.2
or R1 = 239 kΩ … Ans.
0.1 × 0.2 (ii) Calculation of timing resistor :
t = = 100 µsec … Ans.
200
Here f = 60 Hz, therefore ω = 2πf = 2π × 60 = 377
Thus, minimum gate-pulse width is 100 µsec.
rad/sec.
(b) The voltage equation for R-L load is,
α = ωRCC ln
 1 
di
E = Ri + L 1 − η
dt
For α = 20° i.e. 0.349 radians,
E − t
R
L
i = 1 − e 
0.349 = 377 × RC × 0.1 × 10−6 ln
 1 
R
1 − 0.63
200 100t
or 0.100 = (1 − e− ) RC = 9312.5 Ω
20
or RC = 9.312 kΩ
t = 100.503 µ second … Ans.
For α = 160° i.e. 2.792 radians,
E  − t
R
L
(c) i =
R
1 − e   1 
2.792 = 337 × RC × 0.1 × 10−6 ln
1 − 0.63
200 10t
0.1 = (1 − e− ) ∴ RC = 74.486 kΩ … Ans.
20
or t = 1005.03 µsec … Ans. Example 1.13 : A SCR is connected in series with a RL load
Example 1.12 : A line synchronized UJT relaxation and is fed from 115 V, 60 Hz, AC supply. The load resistance
oscillator, using a timing capacitor of 0.1 µF is to be is 25 Ω and load inductance is 0.25 H. If a firing pulse of 60
designed for triggering a SCR in a 115 V, 60 Hz circuit. The µsec is applied at a firing angle of 45°, what is the maximum
UJT has the following data η = 0.63, Vp = 19.5 V, Ip = 0.1 permissible latching current of the SCR to ensure turn-ON.
mA, Vv = 1.5, Iv = 5 mA, RBB = 7.5 kΩ, VD = 0.5 V normal Solution : Given data : VS = 115 V, fS = 60 Hz, R = 25 Ω, L
leakage current with emitter open = 3 mA. = 0.25 H, t = 60 µsec, α = 45°
Calculate :
Supply voltage,VS = Vm sin ωt
(i) values of external resistance to be connected in base
= 2 × 115 sin 45 = 115
1 and base 2.
(ii) values of timing resistor if firing angle is to be Thus, the input voltage as the time of turning on is 115
varied from 20° to 160°. V, current through RL circuit is given as,
−t 25
Solution : Given Data : C = 0.1 µF, η = 0.63, Vp = 19.5 V, VS 115 0.25
Ip = 0.1 mA, Vv = 1.5 V, Iv = 5 mA i(t) = (1 − e−tR/L) = (1 − e )
R 25
RB1 + RB2 = 7.5 kΩ = 4.6 (1 − e−100t)
VD = 0.5 V, Ileakage = 3 mA
Since the firing pulse is of 60 µsec, therefore, the
(i) Calculation of R1 and R2 : current at the end of firing pulse is,
Vp = ηVBB = VD −6
60 × 10
i(t) = 4.6 (1 − e−100 × )
Vp − VD
VBB = η = 27.5 mA … Ans.
19.5 − 0.5 Thus the maximum latching current must be 27.5 mA
= = 30.15 V
0.63 to ensure turn on.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.45) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

Example 1.14 : Calculate the values of snubber components Vg = 120 × Ig … (ii)

R and C in Fig. 1.64 to protect SCR from reapplied dv/dt, if Put equation (ii) in (i), we get,
dv/dt of SCR is 100 V/µsec. 0.4 = 120 × Ig × Ig
0.1 mH 25 W
0.4 2
= Ig
120
+ R
500 V _ Ig = 57.73 mA
∴ Ig(total) = Ig(min) + Ig
–3 –3
Fig. 1.64 = (25 × 10 ) + (57.73 × 10 )
Solution : Vm = 500 V ∴ Ig(total) = 82.73 mA
6
dv/dt = 100 V/µsec = 100 × 10 V/sec By putting the value of Ig in equation (i), we get,
2
1 0.564 Vm ∴ 0.4 = Vg × (82.73 × 10 )
–3
C =
2L  dt/dt  0.4
2 Vg = –3

C =
1 0.564 × 500 (82.73 × 10 )
2 × 0.1 × 10−3  100 × 106  ∴ Vg = 4.83 V
C = 0.04 µF The value of Ig = 82.73 mA, Vg = 4.83 V
∴ R = 2σ L/C SUMMARY
−3
0.1 × 10
= 2 × 0.65 ↔ • Power diode is a two terminal p-n semiconductor
0.04 × 10−6
device. The main difference between power diode
assuming σ = 0.65 and low power p-n junction device is that then layer
+ +
= 65 Ω called drift layer is placed between p and n layers.
Out of this, 25 Ω is already present in the circuit. Therefore this is done to support larging blocking
Hence, voltage.

R = 64 − 25 = 40 Ω … Ans. • All power devices prefer vertical oriented structure,

therefore it provides more surface area for the
Example 1.15 : For an SCR, the gate triggering circuit has a
forward current and reduces the on-state resistance
source voltage of 15 V and load line slope of – 120 V/A. The
and power dissipation during on state.
minimum gate current to turn on the SCR is 25m A. If
average gate power dissipation is 0.4W, calculate triggering • Soft recovery diodes are preferred in most of the
voltage and triggering current. [Feb. 17, 4M] applications.

Solution : Given : • Power transistor can be used in active mode or

switching mode.
Es = 15 V
• In active mode, transistor has more power loss,
Vg
= 120 V/A
Ig Ploss = VCE × IC
Igmin = 25 mA • In switching mode transistor has low power loss,
Pg(avg) = 0.4W Ploss = VCE (sat) × IC = 0.3 IC
To Find, • Turn-on time and turn-off time of power transistor
Vg = ? are important, when it is to be used in high
Ig = ? frequency applications.
We know that, • Power darlingtons provide high current gain.
Pg = Vg Ig • N-channel enhancement MOSFET is normally off, it
0.4 = Vg Ig … (i) can be turned on by positive gate pulse.
Vg • N-channel depletion MOSFET is normally on. It can
but = 120
Ig be turned on by negative gate drive.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.46) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

• During conduction, drain source resistance of 4. With the help of circuit diagram and relevant
MOSFET Rds (ON) has positive temperature coefficient. waveforms, explain UJT triggered ramp and
This provides inherent temperature regulating ability pedestral control method for SCR.
to MOSFET. 5. Draw the vertical cross section of an IGBT and
• When MOSFETs are used at high frequencies, active explain the reason for the body short in the IGBT
turn-off methods are used. structure.
• Power loss in MOSFET is more than in power
6. Sketch the forward biased SOA of an IGBT and
transistor.
explain how it is superior to that of a power BJT.
• Once triggered by gate pulse, thyristor latches into
7. The Thevenin's equivalent of an IGBT gate drive
conduction. It can then be turned off only by reverse
biasing anode-cathode. circuit is a DC source of 10 V in series with a
resistance R. The IGBT parameters are CGS = 1000 pF,
• Reverse bias should be applied to thyristor for a time
larger than its turn-off time rating; so that thyristor CGD = 150 pF and VGS (Th) = 3 V. Calculate the value of
can regain its forward blocking capability. R so that the turn-on delay i.e. time taken for VGS to
• In resistance triggering, firing angle can be rise from zero to VGS (Th) is 5 nsec.
controlled between α = 0° to α = 90°. 8. Write a short note on methods of isolating control
• In resistance capacitance (RC) triggering, firing angle and power circuits in power converters.
can be controlled between α = 0° to α = 180°. 9. Write short notes on the following :
• UJT is a voltage ratio activated device. (i) Repetitive and non-repetitive rating of SCR.
• UJT can provide narrow gate pulses thereby reducing
(ii) Fast recovery and Schottky diodes.
power loss in gate cathode circuit.
10. Explain the two transistor analogy for an SCR and
• In load sensitive cathode pulse turn-off method,
commutation capacitor acquires higher energy at derive an expression for the anode current in terms
increased load. This ensures reliable SCR turn-off on of the current gains and leakage currents of the
heavy load. transistor.
• Gate turn-off thyristor can be turned-off by negative 11. Write short note on snubber circuits.
gate pulse. 12. Draw the forward and reverse characteristics of a
• TRIAC works like a combination of two anti-parallel TRIAC clearly indicating the latching and holding
thyristors. currents.
• TRIAC is bidirectional device, it conducts in both
13. Draw the circuit diagram of a line synchronized ramp
directions.
and pedestal UJT triggering circuit for SCRs and
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS explain its operation with the help of relevant
1. Describe following ratings as applicable to SCR with waveforms.
the help of neat diagram. 14. What are the limitations of RC triggering for an SCR?
(i) Surge current rating. With the help of circuit diagram and waveforms
2
(ii) i t rating. explain UJT trigger method for controlling firing
di angle of an SCR. Enumerate its advantages as high
(iii) rating.
dt frequency coming gating.
dv
(iv) rating. 15. Write short notes on : Modes of operation of TRIAC
dt
and TRIAC applications along with DIAC as a trigger
2. Explain two transistor analogy of an SCR and derive device.
an expression for anode current in terms of 2
16. Write a short note on : Surge current and i t ratings
transistor parameters.
of an SCR.
3. Draw the vertical section and V-I characteristics of
IGBT. Also explain latch up in IGBT and how to avoid 17. Write a short note on : Cooling methods of power
it. devices.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.47) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

18. What are the advantages of IGBT over power 36. Draw and explain driver circuits for IGBT.
MOSFET and power BJT ? 37. What are the advantages of IGBT over power
19. Write a short note on MCT. MOSFET and power BJT ?
20. Draw the vertical cross section and V-I characteristics 38. What are power devices ? Explain with V-I
of an IGBT. characteristics of SCR. State its specifications.
21. Why snubber circuits are required ? Explain the 39. What is latch up in IGBT ? Explain with characteristics.
snubber circuit. 40. What are different stress demand on power device ?
22. Draw forward and reverse characteristics of SCR. How can we achieve higher blocking voltage and
Show IL, IH and VBO and VBR on the characteristics. dv/dt capability of SCR.
23. Draw the typical driver circuit for the IGBT. What are 41. What is necessity of driver circuits ? Explain in brief.
the advantages of IGBT over power MOSFET and 42. Draw vertical cross-section and input and output
power BJT ? characteristics of power MOSFET.
24. Draw vertical structure of power MOSFET. Explain its 43. Draw the vertical cross-section and V-I characteristics
operation. Compare MOSFET with other power of IGBT. Also explain latch up in IGBT and how to
devices. avoid it ?
25. Why MOSFET is used at high frequency application. 44. Draw the internal structure of SCR. Also explain the
26. Justify – parallel operation of MOSFET can be done advantages and disadvantages of SCR over diode.
more easily as compare to thyristors. EXERCISE
27. Explain with the help of equivalent circuits, causes of
1. Compare power device and low power pn junction
latch ups in IGBT.
device.
28. Describe the following ratings as applicable to SCR :
2. What are types of power diode ? Explain.
(1) Surge current.
3. Explain power diode with layer diagram. Show that ID
(2) di/dt ratings. +VD/ηVT
= IS (e − 1).
2
(3) i t rating.
4. Explain following terms :
(4) dv/dt rating.
(i) Reverse recovery time
29. Explain two transistor analogy for an SCR and device
(ii) Storage charge
an expression for the anode current in terms of the
(iii) Softness factor
current gains and leakage current of the transistors.
(iv) Forward recovery time
30. With the help of circuit diagram and relevant
waveforms explain UJT trigger ramp and pedestal 5. Compare Schottky diode with normal rectifier diode.
control method of SCR. Give its advantages. 6. What are the types of power transistor ? Explain
31. Draw the vertical cross-section of power MOSFET power BJT.
and explain. 7. Explain MOSFET and switching characteristics of
32. Draw the vertical cross-section and V-I characteristics MOSFET.
of SCR. Also explain the two transistor analogy of an 8. Explain IGBT and its transfer characteristics.
SCR. 9. Compare MOSFET with BJT.
33. Draw the vertical cross-section and input and output 10. What are different safe operating areas of BJT ? What
characteristics of power MOSFET. is the necessity of FBSOA ?
34. What are the requirements of triggering circuits ? 11. How latch up occurs in IGBT and how to avoid this ?
Explain any one type.
12. Explain the operating modes of SCR with V-I
35. Explain with circuit diagram, working of IGBT with its characteristics.
characteristics and specifications.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (1.48) CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR …

13. Define latching current, holding current, surge 18. Explain the working of SCR as a relaxation oscillator.
2
current, di/dt rating, I t rating and dv/dt rating. 19. What do you mean by triggering ? What are the
14. Explain TRIAL with different operating modes. different types of triggering ? Explain RC triggering
15. Why GTO is better than SCR ? in detail.

16. How does GTO differ from conventional SCR ? Give 20. What are the different protection circuits used for
the circuit symbol and V-I characteristics. SCR ? Explain dv/dt protection.

17. What is the necessity of protection circuits ? What 21. Explain with the circuit causes of latch ups in IGBT.
are different types of protection circuit used for
IGBT? Explain any one.
 UNIT II

CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

2.1 INTRODUCTION first as well as in the fourth quadrant of the output

Vo − io characteristic plane. However, it operates in the
• In the diode rectifiers (converters), the average output
fourth quadrant only for an active R-L-E load
voltage (Vo) is constant for a given supply voltage or
(e.g. forward blocking of DC motor) or R-L-E (negative)
mains voltage (V) and load. So these rectifiers are also
load in inversion or DC to AC mode (e.g. from DC
called as "uncontrolled rectifiers". To obtain a
source). While the semi or half-converters operate in
controlled or variable output voltage using diode
the first quadrant.
rectifier, an autotransformer is used. But this becomes
bulky and costly. Alternate method is to obtain 2.3 CONCEPT OF LINE AND FORCE
controlled output voltage, phase controlled thyristors COMMUTATION [Feb. 15, 16]
are used instead of diode. A thyristor is turned ON by applying a signal to its gate-
• By controlling the delay or firing angle of thyristor, the cathode circuit. For the purpose of power control or power
average output of phase controlled converter is varied. conditioning, a conducting thyristor must be turned OFF as
Thyristor is turned ON by applying a positive voltage at desired. As stated before, the turn-off of a thyristor means
gate-cathode junction and are turned OFF due to bringing the device from forward conduction state to
natural commutation or line commutation. In case of forward-blocking state. The thyristor turn-off requires that
inductive load, it is turned OFF by firing another its anode current falls below the holding current and a
thyristor. reverse voltage is applied to thyristor for a sufficient time
• The average output voltage can be controlled by to enable it recover to blocking state.
controlling the firing or delay angle (α) of thyristors. "Commutation is defined as the process of turning-off a
Such rectifiers are called "controlled rectifiers". The thyristor".
efficiency of these rectifiers is high and generally above Classification :
95%. Construction of this is simple and less expensive. Commutation technique

2.2 CLASSIFICATION
• Phase-controlled converters are mainly classified into Natural Commutation Forced Commutation
(AC source) (DC source)
two classes :
1. Single-phase converter.
2. Three-phase converter. Current Commutation Voltage Commutation
• Each of these are again classified into : • Current Commutation : If the SCR is turned OFF by
➢ Half-wave converter. reducing its anode current below the holding current
➢ Full-wave converter. value, then the commutation is called as current
commutation.
➢ Half-controlled (semiconductor) converter.
• Voltage Commutation : If the conducting SCR is
➢ Fully-controlled converter.
turned OFF by applying a large reverse voltage across
➢ Dual converter.
it then the commutation is called as voltage
• The half wave or 1-pulse type (power control is done in commutation.
the positive half-cycle only) and full-wave or 2-pulse
2.3.1 Line Commutation or Natural Commutation
type (power control is done in both half cycles). The
supply positive average output voltage (half or semi • "Commutation is nothing but turning OFF a thyristor
converter) as well as both positive and negative from its on state."
average output voltage (full converters). • Line commutation is also called as "natural
• A full-wave, 2-pulse, full converter is also called a full- commutation". When the source voltage or supply
wave, fully controlled converter. It may operate in the voltage of power circuit (thyristor circuit) is AC, the
alternating current flowing through the thyristor goes
(2.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.2) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

through a natural zero value and natural reverse of 2.3.2 Forced Commutation
supply voltage appears across the thyristor. Therefore • When the SCRs operate on pure DC input voltage, their
thyristor is automatically turned OFF. This is known as forward current cannot be reduced below holding
natural commutation or line commutation. current naturally. Therefore the SCRs must be
• In this type of commutation, no any external commutated forcibly by using additional commutation
commutating component is required to turn-off the circuit. This external commutation circuit will turn OFF
thyristor. In the converter circuit (rectifier circuit), the the SCRs by either current or voltage commutation.
supply voltage is AC, there is occurrence of natural • In the voltage commutation, the conducting SCR is
zero and thyristor automatically turned OFF. This turned OFF by applying a reverse voltage across it
commutation of thyristor is called linear or natural whereas in current commutation, an externally
commutation. produced reverse current pulses is forced through the
➢ The line commutation is simple, reliable and conducting SCR to bring down its forward current
employed in applications where AC source is below the holding current value.
available, such as AC to DC converter, AC regulator • Normally the forced commutation will be used in
and cycloconverters. thyristorised inverters or choppers circuit.
➢ When the SCR is turned OFF, due to its forward 2.3.3 Requirements of Successful Commutation
current going below the holding current, naturally
it is said to be naturally commutated. Natural • Forward current of SCR must be reduced to zero.
commutation usually takes place in the • Reverse voltage must be applied across the SCR for the
thyristorised circuits powered by an alternating duration more than the turn-off time of the device.
current (AC) supply. • dv/dt rating applied voltage should not be too large.
2.4 SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE CONVERTER
Vs = Vmsinwt Vo Single-phase half-wave converter is simplest form of
converter. It consists of single thyristor feeding DC power
to the resistive-inductive load and resistive-inductive load
(a) Circuit diagram
Vs
with free-wheeling diode.
Vm 2.4.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Converter (Rectifier)
0 wt with Resistive Load (Principle of Operation
p 2p
of Phase Control)
• Fig. 2.2 (a) shows the simple circuit of single-phase
T1 ON
0 p 2p
wt wave converter with resistive load. The supply voltage
T1 OFF is AC (Vs = Vm sin ωt) as shown in Fig. 2.2 (a). If positive
gate voltage is applied to gate-cathode junction and
(b) Waveform
anode voltage is positive then only SCR conducts. The
Fig. 2.1
operation of this converter is in two modes.
➢ Above Fig. 2.1 (a) shows that it consist of AC VT
source voltage and a resistive load. Therefore the io +
load voltage and current will have same shape and AC Mains V= Vs = R Vo
they will be in phase with each other. V = Vmsinwt Vmsinwt Vmsinwt
_
➢ The current flowing through the SCR, T1 is same as
that flowing through R. As shown in Fig. 2.1 (b), the (a) Single-phase half-wave circuit with R load
Vo
SCR current passes through a natural zero and a
reverse voltage appears across the SCR. The Vdc
conducting SCR is then turned OFF due to the
natural behaviour of the source voltage. Hence it is Idc

known as natural commutation. (b) Quadrant operation

POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.3) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Vs
Mathematical Analysis :

0
p 2p 3p wt Generally, average value of output voltage is given by,
T
1
ig Vo (av) =
T
⌠
⌡ Vo (ω) ⋅ dωt … (2.1)
io Firing pulse 0

0 wt For single-phase half-wave converter with R load, in one

a

Vo complete cycle T = 2π, one pulse/ output wave is obtained.

Vm
i.e. in α to π, Vo = Vm sin ωt and 0 to α, Vo = 0. Therefore,
0 a p wt
2p 2p + a 3p average value of output voltage is,
io π
Vmsina 1
Vdc = Vo (av) = ⌠ V sin ωt ⋅ dωt
2π ⌡ m
α
wt
π
VT Vmsina
Vm
= [− cos ωt]
2π α

0 wt Vm
Vdc = [1 + cos α] … (2.2)
2π

(c) The average output voltage becomes maximum when α =

(c) Voltage and current operation
0° and the maximum output voltage Vdm is,
Fig. 2.2
Operation : Vm
Vdm = π … (2.3)
Mode 1 : (αα to π) :
During positive half cycle of AC input voltage, the thyristor The rms value of output voltage is given by,
1/2
anode is more positive with respect to cathode and 1 π 2 2 
=  ⌠ V sin ωt ⋅ dωt
2π ⌡ m
thyristor conducts (said to be forward biased). Thyristor Vrms … (2.4)
fired (conduct) at ωt = α (α is called as delay angle or firing  α 
angle), the load is directly connected to supply i.e. Vp = Vs. V2m π 1 − cos 2ωt 1/2
Thyristor conducts upto ωt = π and commutation takes =  ⌠
⌡ dωt
place at ωt = π. The average value of output voltage and  2π α  2  
current is positive. The converter operates in the first V2m π 1/2
quadrant of Vo − io characteristics. =  ⌠
⌡ (1 − cos 2ωt) ⋅ dωt
Mode 2 : (π π to 2π
π) :  4π α 
π 1/2
During negative half-cycle of AC input voltage, the cathode V2m  sin 2ωt 
of thyristor is more positive with respect to anode, the =  ωt − 
thyristor is said to be reverse biased condition (OFF state).  4π  2 
α
1/2
Therefore the average Vo = 0. V2m  sin 2α
For resistive load, the current io is in phase with Vo as =  π−α+ 
 4π  2 
shown in Fig. 2.2 (c). Firing angle of a thyristor is measured 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α 
from the instant at which SCR starts conducting. If thyristor ∴ Vrms =  π − α + 2 
2 π 
… (2.5)
is replaced by diode, it would begin conduction at ωt = 0, 
2π, 4π etc., firing angle is measured from this instant. "A The power transferred to the load will be,
firing angle is defined as the instant at which SCR 2
conducts". Vdc
Po (av) = Pdc = … (2.6)
Fig. 2.2 (c) shows the output and input current waveforms, R
where thyristor conducts from ωt = α to π, (2π + α) to 3π From Equation (2.2) and Equation (2.6), we conclude that,
and so on. Over the firing angle delay α, load voltage the average output voltage and average power delivered
Vo = 0 but during conduction angle (π − α), Vo = Vs. As
by the controlled rectifier can be controlled by phase
firing angle is increased from 0 to π, the average load
control. (i.e. α).
voltage decreases from the largest value to zero.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.4) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

2.4.2 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier with RL inductive load, thyristor continues to conduct in negative
Load half cycle for some period i.e. from π + α (or β).
• A single-phase half-wave rectifier with RL load is as In this mode, load voltage becomes negative and load
shown in Fig. 2.3 (a). It consists of single thyristor and current continues to be positive. Both load voltage and
feeding DC power to the inductive load. The operation load currents are opposite in polarities. So the energy
of this consists of three steps. stored in inductive load will return back to the supply
VT again.
+ Mode 3 : (β
β to 2π
π) :
T io
In this mode, supply reverses its polarities or during
R
negative half cycle of AC input voltage, the anode of
AC Vs = Vo
Mains thyristor T is more positive with respect to cathode, so
Vmsinwt
L thyristor T is reverse biased and average output voltage is
_ zero. i.e. Vo = Vs.
(a) Circuit diagram Mathematical Analysis :
Vs Vmsinwt The average value of output voltage is given by,
Vm
β
p 2p 3p 4p 1
0 wt Vdc = Vo (av) =
2π
⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
⌡
α
Vo Vm β
Vmsina
Vm = [− cos α]
a 2π α
0 wt
Vm
b Vdc = [cos α − cos β] … (2.7)
io g 2π
The average load current is,
0 wt
VT
Vdc Vm
Idc = = [cos α − cos β] … (2.8)
b
R 2πR
The rms value of load voltage,
0 wt
1/2
1 β 2 2 
Vrms =  ⌡
2π
⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
(b) Voltage and current waveforms  α 
Fig. 2.3 : Single-phase half-wave rectifier with RL load
Vm2 β
1/2
Operation : =  ⌠ (1 − cos 2ωt) dωt
⌡
Mode 1 : (α
α to π) :  4π α 
β 1/2
During positive half-cycle of AC input voltage, anode of Vm 1  
 ωt − 2 
sin 2ωt
=
2 π

thyristor T is more positive with respect to cathode,
 
α
thyristor is fired at ωt = a (the value of firing angle varied 1/2
Vm 1
(β − α) − (sin 2β − sin 2α)
from 0° to 180°) and it conducts upto ωt = π. The load 1
Vrms = … (2.9)
2 π 2 
voltage is equal to the instantaneous supply voltage
Vs i.e, Vo = Vs as shown in Fig. 2.3 (b). But the inductance L From Equation (2.7) and Equation (2.9), we can conclude
forces the load or output current io to rise gradually. After that the average value of output voltage and rms value of
sometime io reaches maximum value and then begins to output voltage depend only on firing angle α.
decrease. As seen from Fig. 2.3 (b) both load voltage and 2.4.3 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier with RL
load current are positive, so the inductive load will store Load and Free-Wheeling Diode [Feb. 16]
energy in its magnetic field.
Role of Free-Wheeling Diode in Rectifier :
Mode 2 : (π
π to π + α or β ) :
• Free-wheeling diode is a power diode connected
In this mode of operation, at the instant ωt = π, supply
goes through zero after π, it becomes negative or supply across the load in reverse bias mode. This diode is also
reverses its polarity. Thyristor T tries to turn-off due to called as "commutating diode" or "bypass diode", its
reverse polarity of supply. But due to stored energy in main function is to commutate or transfer the load
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.5) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

current away from the rectifier when the load voltage load current io is immediately transferred from SCR to FD
is reversed. as Vs tends to reverse. Power flows from the input only
when the thyristor conducts. In case there is no free-
➢ The load current waveform io can be improved by
wheeling diode, during negative half cycle, the thyristor
connecting a free-wheeling diode across the load.
sends back the energy stored in the inductance to supply.
➢ Input power factor improved. However, with the free-wheeling diode, stored power in
➢ The problem of half waving can be overcome by the inductance is not returned to the source.
including free-wheeling diode D across the load. Mathematical Analysis :
The average output voltage is given by,
• Fig. 2.4 (a) shows a half-wave rectifier with RL load and π
1
free-wheeling diode connected across the load. Vdc =
2π
⌠
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
VT _ α
+
π
+ Vm
T = ⌠ sin ωt ⋅ dωt
2π ⌡
R α
AC L π
FD Vo Vm Vm
Vs = = [− cos ωt] = [− (− 1) + cos α]
N 2π α 2π
Vmsinwt L
Vm
_ Vdc = [1 + cos α] … (2.10)
2π
(a) Circuit diagram The average value of load current is given by,
Vs Vmsinwt Vdc Vm
Vm Idc = = (1 + cos α) … (2.11)
R 2πR
p 2p 3p 4p
0 wt 2.4.4 Comparison between Free Wheeling Diode
Vo and Feedback Diode [Feb. 15, 17]
Sr. Free Wheeling Feedback Diode
0 wt No.
a p 2p 2p + a 3p 4p 1. Used to circulate load Used to transfer load
io
energy. energy
Io 2. Normally used in controlled Normally used in inverters.
0 wt rectifier.
T FD T FD 3. Used to prevent damage the Used to prevent damage of
FD circuit. circuit.
(b) Voltage and current waveforms 4. Improves the Do not improve the
Fig. 2.4 : Single-phase half-wave rectifier with manufacturability manufacturability.
RL load and free-wheeling diode 5. Free wheeling diodes have Feedback diodes carry full
to carry full load currents load current sometimes
Operation : 6. These diodes are slower. Feedback diodes should be
The operation of single-phase half-wave rectifier consists fast.
of two modes as follows : 2.4.5 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier with RLE
Model 1 : (α
α to π) : Load (Active Load)
During positive half cycle of AC input voltage, the anode of • A single-phase half-wave rectifier with RLE or active
thyristor T is more positive with respect to cathode. At load (either a battery or a DC motor) is shown in
Fig. 2.5 (a). Let us assume that the counter emf is E due
some delay angle α, forward biased thyristor T is triggered
to active load. The minimum value of the firing angle is
and source voltage Vs appears across load as Vo, i.e. Vo =
obtained for the conduction when E = Vm sin ωt.
Vs. Conducting thyristor commutates at ωt = π because
Assuming α1 to the minimum firing angle, α1 = sin−1
supply voltage goes through zero. In this mode of
 E .
operation, the inductor L will store energy.
Vm
Mode 2 : (π
π to 2π
π) : • If the firing angle α of the thyristor is less than
At ωt = π, the supply goes through zero and after π, the α1, E > Vs. This keeps the SCR reverse biased and SCR
supply reverses its polarities (i.e. during negative half cycle will not turn on. On the other hand, maximum value of
of AC input voltage), free-wheeling diode FD is forward the firing angle is α2 = (π − α1).
biased through the conducting thyristor. As a result, the
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.6) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
+ _
VT Advantages of Half-Wave Rectifier :
• Circuit designing is very simple.
T
R • Only one diode is needed.
AC • The circuit occupies less area on the board.
Mains Vs =
Vs = Vmsinwt L Disadvantages of Half-Wave Rectifier :
Vmsinwt • Ripples are large at output and the ripple frequency is
E low (50 Hz). So design of filter becomes difficult,
complex and heavy weight.
(a) Circuit diagram
Vmsinwt • The value of average output voltage is low due to the
Vs
half rectification, therefore, it is not suitable for most of
0a p 2p 3p the applications.
a2 wt
1
• The input power factor is poor.
a
• Input current contains harmonics and distorted.
Vdc
Vm
2.5 SINGLE-PHASE FULL-WAVE CONTROLLED
0 E E wt CONVERTER (RECTIFIER)
io The single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier can be
classified depending on their circuit configuration :
0 wt
b 1. Mid-point rectifier.
a
g
2. Bridge-type rectifier.
(b) Voltage and Current waveforms 2.5.1 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier
Fig. 2.5 : Single-phase half-wave rectifier with RLE load with R Load [Mid-Point Converter or Single-
• Fig. 2.5 (b) represents the profile of output voltage and Phase Two Pulse Converter] [May 16]
current across the thyristor. It may be noted that • Fig. 2.6 (a) shows schematic circuit of single-phase full-
during the period of non-conduction, id =0 and the wave converter with R load, where a single-phase
load voltage Vo = E. When id ≠ 0, the output voltage transformer with centre tap at secondary is used to
follows the input. The firing angle being α, β is the feed a R load using two thyristors.
conduction angle and γ is the extinction angle.
Obviously, (γ − α) = β. T1
Vs = Vmsinwt
Expression of Average Current and Voltage :
AC
• Since the average voltage across the inductance is Supply +
+
zero, thus the average value of load is given by, R V
T2 Load o
1  
γ
Idc =
2πR  ⌠
⌡ (Vm sin ωt − E) dωt _
_
α 
(a) Circuit diagram
1 Vs = Vmsinwt
= [V (cos α − cos γ) − E(γ − α)] Vs
2πR m
Vm
Conduction angle being β, β = γ − α. Thus γ = α + β, p 2p 3p wt
0
1
∴ Idc = [V {cos α − cos (α + β)} − Eβ]
2πR m Vdc
or
Idc = 2πR 2Vm sin α + 2 sin 2 − Eβ
1 β β
or
 ( ) 
… (2.12) Vo
0
T1 T2
a p p+a 2p
T3
2p + a 3p
wt
since cos A − cos B = 2 sin A + B sin B − A io
 2 2 
However,Vdc = E + IdR 0
T1 T2 T3
a p p+a 2p wt
1  2p + a 3p
2V sin α +  sin − Eβ
β β
= E+
2π  m  2 2  Voltage across
Voltage T1 and T2
Vdc = E1 −  + π sin α +  sin
β V m β β A /C T1 and T2
or
 2π  2 2
0 wt
… (2.13) (b) Input, output voltage and current waveforms
Fig. 2.6 : Single-phase full-wave rectifier with R load
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.7) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
1/2
Operation :  1 π − α + sin 2α
= Vm  
The operation of this rectifier consists of mainly three 2π  2 
modes : 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α 
Mode 1 : (α α to π) : Vrms = π π − α + 2  … (2.16)
At instant ωt = 0, the supply goes through zero, after ωt = 2   
0, the supply becomes positive. During positive half cycle 2.5.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier
of AC input voltage, the anode of thyristor T1 is more with RL Load (Mid-Point Converter with RL
positive with respect to cathode, so T1 is fired at ωt = α (T1 Load) [May, Nov. 15, Feb. 16]
can be turned on at any firing angle α between 0° to 180°).
• Fig. 2.7 (a) represents the circuit diagram of single-
Therefore, the average output voltage is equal to the
phase full-wave controlled rectifier with RL load. The
instantaneous supply voltage (i.e. Vo = Vs). At instant ωt = π
radians, SCR T1 is turned off due to natural or line voltage and current waveforms for the mid-point
commutation. configuration with highly inductive load is as shown in
Mode 2 : (π π to π + α) : Fig. 2.7 (b).
a
At ωt = π; supply goes through zero, and after π it +
becomes negative. During π to π + α, in this mode, no any T1

SCR conducts. Therefore, the average output voltage is

AC
zero (i.e. Vo = 0). Supply b
+
Mode 3 : (π π + α to 2π
π) : R
T2 Vdc
After ωt = π radians, the supply becomes negative i.e. _
during negative half cycle of AC input voltage, the anode c L
_
of SCR T2 becomes more positive with respect to cathode,
therefore, T2 is fired at ωt = π + α, so the average output (a) Circuit diagram
voltage becomes instantaneous supply voltage (i.e. Vo = Vs = Vmsinwt
Vs
Vs). The SCR T2 conducts upto ωt = 2π radians. At ωt = 2π Vm
radians, SCR T2 is turned off due to natural commutation. p 3p 4p
wt
2p
In this way, the operation is repeated. Vo
Mathematical Analysis :
1. Expression for Average Output Voltage (Vdc) : p+a 2p+a 3p+a
π a p wt
2p 3p 4p
1
Vdc = π⌠⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
α
T1 T2 T3
π ON ON ON
Vm Vm
= π [− cos ωt] = π [1 + cos α] volts io
α
Vm wt
or Vdc = π [1 + cos α] … (2.14)
(b) Input and output waveforms
2. Expression for Average Load Current (Idc) :
Vdc Vm Fig. 2.7 : Single-phase full-wave controlled
Idc = = [1 + cos α] Amperes … (2.15) rectifier with RL load
R πR
3. Expression for RMS Load Voltage (Vrms) : Operation :
1/2
1 2
π
 The operation of this circuit is as follows :
Vrms = π ⌠
2
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
 α  Mode 1 : (α
α to π) :
1/2
1 π
 During positive half cycle of AC input voltage, the terminal
⌠ sin ωt ⋅ dωt
= Vm  π ⌡
2
'a' becomes more positive with respect to 'b'. T1 is fired at
 α  ωt = α, at the same instant T2 is reverse biased due to
1/2
1 π (1 − cos 2ωt)  natural or line commutation. The load voltage is thus
= Vm  π ⌠
⌡ ⋅ dωt
 α
2  
positive and equal to the instantaneous supply voltage.
π 1/2 In this mode of operation, the load voltage is positive and
1  sin 2ωt 
= Vm  ωt −  load current is continuous positive as that of the supply
2π  2 
α current. Therefore, the inductive load will store energy.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.8) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

V2m π + α 1 − cos 2ωt 

1/2
Mode 2 : (π
π to π + α) :
= π ⌠ ⌡  ⋅ dωt 
At ωt = π, the supply voltage goes through zero after ωt =
 α
2  
π it becomes negative. Therefore, the conducting thyristor π+α 1/2
Vm2

T1 tries to turn-off due to natural or line commutation. But
=
  sin 2ωt
⋅ dωt

due to stored energy in inductive load, thyristor T1  2π ωt − 2  
 α 
continues to conduct in negative half cycle for some time. (‡ sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A ⋅ sin B)
Thus, load voltage becomes negative and it is equal to the 1/2
Vm  sin 2α 
2

supply voltage. In this mode of operation, the load voltage =  2π π + α −

sin (2π + 2α)

2 
−α+
2
and load current have opposite polarities, therefore, stored
V2m  sin 2α sin 2α
1/2
energy in inductive load is returned back to supply again. =  π− + 
Mode 3 : (π
π + α to 2π
π) :
 2π  2 2 
Vm
At instant ωt = π + α, the supply voltage becomes Vrms = … (2.19)
2
completely negative, i.e. during negative half cycle of AC
2.5.3 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier
input voltage, the terminal 'b' becomes positive with
with RL Load and Free-Wheeling Diode
respect to 'a', thyristor T2 is fired at ωt = π + α, so the
• If a free-wheeling diode be connected across the load
average output voltage is equal to the supply voltage (i.e.
as shown in Fig. 2.8 (a), it is evident that the supply
Vo = Vs). Load voltage and load current both (positive)
voltage goes through zero at ωt = π, the load voltage
have same polarity, the load stores energy in this mode.
cannot be negative as free-wheeling diode FD starts
Mode 4 : (2π
π to 2π
π + α) : conducting and clamps the load voltage to zero
At instant ωt = 2π, the supply goes through zero, after voltage. Load current remains constant by free-
ωt = 2π the supply voltage becomes positive, the wheeling action. The stored energy in the inductance
conducting thyristor T2 tries to turn-off due to reverse of of the load circulates the current through diode. The
polarities of supply voltage. The load voltage is negative load voltage and load current waveforms of single-
and equal to instantaneous supply voltage. The load phase full-wave controlled converter areas shown in
current is continuous and always positive. As polarities of Fig. 2.8 (b).
a
load voltage and load current are opposite, the stored
T1
energy in inductive load will return back to supply. In this
way, operation is repeated itself. AC b
Supply
Mathematical Analysis : R
1. Expression for Average Output Voltage : T2 FD
π+α c L
1
Vdc = π ⌠
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
α (a) Circuit diagram of single-phase
π+α full-wave controlled rectifier with
Vm
= π [− cos ωt] RL load and free-wheeling diode
α Vs
(‡ cos (A + B) = cos A ⋅ cos B − sin A ⋅ sin B) Vm
p 2p 3p wt
0
Vm
= π [cos α − cos π ⋅ cos α + sin α ⋅ sin π]
Vo Vdc
2Vm
Vdc = π cos α … (2.17)
0 wt
2. Expression for Average Load Current (Idc) :
io Idc
Vdc 2Vm
Idc = = cos α … (2.18)
R πR wt
0
3. Expression for the RMS Load Voltage (Vrms) : (b) Output voltage and current waveforms of
1/2 single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier
1 π + α 2 2 
Vrms = π ⌡⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt with RL load and free-wheeling diode
 α  Fig. 2.8
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.9) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Mathematical Analysis : • Thus, the fully controlled converters are bidirectional

1. Expression for Average Load Voltage and Average converters or two quadrant, converters and can
Load Current : operate both rectifying mode (power flows from AC
π side to DC side) and inverting mode (power flows from
1
Vdc = π⌠⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt DC side to AC side). In quadrant operation, all the
α conducting devices must be thyristors and control is
Vm achieved by switching action of thyristors. Fig. 2.9
= π (1 + cos α) volts
represents the quadrant operation.
Vm
Vdc = π (1 + cos α) … (2.20) 2.7 SINGLE-PHASE FULL-WAVE,
CONTROLLED BRIDGE (CONVERTER)
Vdc Vm
and Idc = −
R πR
(1 + cos α) … (2.21) RECTIFIER
Since the free-wheeling diode FD conducts for the period a This converter is similar to diode bridge rectifier but only
(when the thyristors are no conducting), the free-wheeling difference is that diodes are replaced by thyristors. The
diode current is given by, controlled bridge type converters are classified into two
classes :
α Vm α
IFD = Idc π = + (1 + cos α) π Amperes
πR  1. Fully-controlled converter (Full converter).
Vm 2. Half-controlled converter (Semi converter).
IFD = 2 (α + α cos α) … (2.22)
πR 2.7.1 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge
2.6 QUADRANT OPERATION OF Rectifier with R Load
CONVERTERS • Fig. 2.10 (a) shows the typical circuit diagram of single-
phase fully controlled bridge converter. It consists of
• Diode rectifiers (uncontrolled) and half-wave
four SCRs T1 to T4 and they are connected in bridge
controlled converters allow power flow in one direction
type configuration driving the resistive load.
only i.e. from AC side to DC side. The operation of
these converters is thus called single-quadrant
T1 T3
operation. On the other hand, for full-wave controlled
+L
full converter, it is possible to allow power flow from AC R
supply N
AC side to DC load or from DC side into AC system. -N
st
+ Vdc 1 Quadrant
operation T4 T2

(a) Single-phase fully controlled rectifier

with R load circuit diagram
- Idc + Idc
Vs

p 2p 3p wt
- Vdc 0
a
(a) Converter is either diode circuit
or thyristor + diode circuit Vo Load voltage
st
1 Quadrant
+ Vdc operation p+a 2p+a
(rectifier) a p wt
2p 3p
io
Load current

- Idc + Idc wt

T1T2 T3T4 T1T2

nd
2 Quadrant conducts conducts conducts
- Vdc operation
(b) Input and output voltage
(inverter)
and current waveforms
(b) Converter is fully thyristorised circuit
Fig. 2.9 : Quadrant operation of converters Fig. 2.10
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.10) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
1/2
Operation : V2m π 
The operation of single-phase fully controlled converter =  ⌠
⌡ (1 − cos 2ωt) ⋅ dωt 
consists of three modes :
 2π α 
1/2
Mode 1 : (α
α to π) : Vm 
2
sin 2ωt 
π
=  ωt − 
At ωt = 0 instant, the supply voltage goes through zero,  2π  2 α
1/2
Vm 1  sin 2π sin 2α 
π π − α − 2 + 2 
after ωt = 0, the supply goes towards positive. i.e. during
=
positive half cycle of AC input voltage, thyristors T1 and T2 2 
are fired at ωt = α, thus the average output voltage is 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α 
equal to the supply voltage (i.e. Vo = Vs). The current flows Vrms = π π − α + 2  … (2.25)
from point L through thyristor T1 through load resistance 2  
through T2 to point N. The load current is positive and has 4. Expression for the Average rms Current (Irms) :
the same shape as that of AC mains input voltage. The load Vrms
Irms =
voltage and load current are in phase. At ωt = π instant, R
the supply voltage goes through zero, the conducting SCRs Vm 1 π − α + sin 2α
∴ Irms =  
T1 and T2 are turned off due to natural commutation. At 2 R π  2 
this instant, both load voltage and load currents are zero.
2.7.2 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge
Mode 2 : (π
π to π + α) :
Rectifier with RL Load [Feb. 15, 16, 17, May 17]
At ωt = π, the supply becomes zero, after ωt = π the supply
voltage reverses polarities. Therefore, in this mode of • Fig. 2.11 (a) shows the circuit of single-phase fully
operation, no any SCR conducts. Both load voltage and controlled bridge rectifier with highly inductive load. It
load currents are zero. consists of four thyristors T1 to T4 and they are
Mode 3 : (π
π + α to 2π
π) : connected in bridge configuration driving a highly
At instant ωt = π + α i.e. during negative half cycle of AC inductive load.
input voltage, the SCRs T2 and T4 are fired at ωt = π + α.
Therefore, the load is directly connected to supply voltage T1 T3 R
and average output voltage is equal to the instantaneous AC + L
supply voltage (i.e. Vo = Vs). The load voltage is positive Mains
_
N
and load current is continuous positive. L
T4 T2
The SCRs T2 and T4 continue to conduct upto 2π. At ωt =
2π, the supply goes through zero, so conducting thyristors
T2 and T4 will turn-off at ωt = 2π, due to line natural (a) Circuit diagram
commutation. Vs

Mathematical Analysis : 0 p 2p 3p wt
1. Expression for the Average Output Voltage (Vdc) : a
π π Load
1 V Vo
Vdc = π ⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt = πm [− cos α]
⌡ voltage
α
α
p+a 2p+a wt
Vm a p 2p 3p
= π [1 + cos α]
T1T2 T3T4 T1T2
Vm
Vdc = π [1 + cos α] … (2.23) io
ON ON ON
Load
current
2. Expression for the Average Output Current (Idc) :
Vdc Vm Idc
Idc = = [1 + cos α] … (2.24) wt
R πR
3. Expression for the Average rms Voltage (Vrms) : (b) Input and output voltage and-current waveforms
1/2
1 π
2  Fig. 2.11 : Single-phase fully controlled rectifier
Vrms = π ⌠
2
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt with highly inductive load
 α 
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.11) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Operation : negative and equal to the supply voltage whereas the load
The operation of single-phase fully controlled converter current continues positive. Therefore, load acts as a source
consists of four modes as follows : and the stored energy in inductive load will be returned
Mode 1 : (α α to π) : back to supply again.
During positive half cycle of AC input voltage, leave point L Mathematical Analysis :
is positive with respect to cathode, therefore thyristors T1T2 1. Expression for the Average Output Voltage (Vdc) :
are fired at ωt = α. Thus, the average output voltage is π+α
1
equal to the instantaneous supply voltage. Vdc = π ⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
⌡
In this mode of operation, the shape of load voltage is α
π+α
identical to that of supply voltage. The load voltage is 1
= π [− Vm cos ωt]
positive and constant. The load current is also positive as α

that of the supply current 'is'. Both load voltage and load Vm
= π [cos α − cos (π + α)]
current are positive, the inductive load will store energy.
Mode 2 : (π π to π + α) : Vm
= π [cos α − cos π ⋅ cos α + sin π ⋅ sin α]
In this step of operation, at instant ωt = π, the supply goes
through zero and after π radians supply reverses its 2Vm
Vdc = π cos α … (2.26)
polarities and it becomes negative. Therefore, the
conducting thyristors T1 and T2 will try to turn-off due to 2. Expression for the Average Load Current (Idc) :
natural reversal of supply voltage (i.e. natural commutation Vdc 2Vm
or line commutation). But due to stored energy in inductive Idc = = cos α … (2.27)
R πR
load, it will oppose any change in the current flow through
3. Expression for the rms Load Voltage (Vrms) :
load. So thyristors T1 and T2 will continue to conduct in 1/2
negative half for some period. In this mode of operation, 1 π + α 2 2 
Vrms = π ⌡⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
the load voltage becomes negative and load current is  α 
always positive, continuous and constant. Both load 1/2
Vm2 π

voltage and load currents are opposite in polarities. So the =  ⌠ (1 − cos 2ωt) ⋅ dωt
⌡
stored energy in inductive load will return back to the  2π α 
supply again. 1/2
Vm 1  
π+α
π ωt − 2 
sin 2ωt
Mode 3 : (π π + α to 2ππ) : = 
2   α 
At instant ωt = π + α, the conducting thyristors T1 and T2
1/2
are turned off due to natural or line commutation, at the Vm 1  sin (2π + 2α) sin 2α
= π π + α − −α+
2 

same time other pair of SCRs T3 and T4 are fired at 2  2
ωt = π + α. Therefore, the average output voltage is equal 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α sin 2α 
to the instantaneous supply voltage. The load current is
= π π − 2 + 2 
instantaneously transferred from one pair of SCRs (T1, T2) 2 
to other pair of SCR (T3, T4). Vm
In this mode of operation, both load voltage and load Vrms = … (2.28)
2
currents are positive, the inductive load will again store
energy.
2.8 SINGLE-PHASE HALF CONTROLLED
Mode 4 : (2π π to 2ππ + α) : BRIDGE CONVERTER OR SEMI-
At instant ωt = 2π radians, the input voltage goes through CONVERTER
zero after 2π it becomes positive. i.e. during positive half • In the previous section 2.7, we have discussed the fully
cycle of AC input, the conducting thyristors T3, T4 try to controlled converter. In fully controlled converter, four
turn off, the inductive load will oppose any change in SCRs are used and it is capable of operation with
current through it, in order to maintain the load current positive and negative mean voltages at the output
constant and in some direction, a self-induced voltage terminals corresponding to α < 90° or α > 90°
appears across the load. This maintains conducting respectively. This type of output is not needed in most
thyristors T3 and T4 forward biased, inspite of the change in of the cases, on the other hand, most of commercial
the polarity of supply voltage. The load voltage becomes applications need only controlled rectification and for
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.12) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

this a semi-conductor i.e. half controlled bridge there are two types of configurations of semi-
converter is enough. converter.
• Semi-converter is next step of the half-wave controlled 1. Symmetrical semi-converter.
converter. It has a single-quadrant operation. Generally 2. Asymmetrical semi-converter.
2.8.1 Comparison between Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Configuration of Semi-Converter
Sr. No. Symmetrical Semi-Converter Asymmetrical Semi-Converter
1. Circuit diagram : Circuit diagram :

T1 T2 T1 D2
+ L
AC Load Load
AC
Mains
_
N Mains

D2 D1 T2 D1

Fig. 2.12 Fig. 2.13

2. On the each link (row), one SCR is connected. Both the SCRs are connected on same link.
3. SCRs connected in this configuration conduct longer SCRs connected in this configuration conduct shorter
duration. duration.
4. The free-wheeling action takes place through diode and Free-wheeling action takes place through only diode.
SCR.
5. Average currents of SCR and diodes are same. Average currents of diodes are higher than SCR.
2.8.2 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Operation :
Rectifier (Semiconverter) with R Load The operation of this converter mainly consists of three
[Nov. 15] modes :
• Following Fig. 2.14 (a). shows the circuit diagram of Mode 1 : (α
α to π) :
single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier with R
During positive half-cycle of AC input voltage, thyristor
load. In this rectifier two SCRs and two diodes are
T1 and diode D1 conduct and thyristor T1 is fired at ωt = α.
connected in symmetrical configuration.
+ Therefore the average output voltage is equal to the
instantaneous supply voltage and load current flows
T1 T2
through T1 − R − D1 and back supply again.
AC + L R Vdc
Mains N Mode 2 : (π
π to π + α) :
-N
At instant ωt = π, the supply goes through zero and after
D2 D1 π supply voltage reverses its polarity. Due to reverse supply
_
across conducting devices T1 and D1, they turned off at
(a) Circuit diagram
ωt = π and this type of turn-off is called as "natural" or
Vs
"line commutation". Therefore, the average output voltage
p 2p 3p
0 wt is zero (i.e. V0 = 0 volt) and load current is also zero.
Mode 3 : (π
π + α to 2π
π) :
Vo
At instant ωt = π + α, the supply voltage becomes
p+a 2p+a
completely negative i.e. during negative half cycle of AC
0 a p wt
2p 3p input voltage, thyristor T2 and diode D2 are forward biased,
io
thyristor T2 is fired at ωt = π + α. Thus the average output
is equal to instantaneous supply voltage because due to
2p +a 2p +a
0 wt conduction of T2 and D2, the load is directly connected to
T1D1 T1D1 T1D1 supply (i.e. Vo = Vs). The load current flows through
ON ON ON
T2 − R − D2. Thyristor T2 and diode D2 conduct upto 2π, at
(b) Input, output voltage and current waveforms
ωt = 2π commutation takes place due to natural zero
Fig. 2.14 : Single-phase half-controlled
bridge rectifier with R load
appears across supply.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.13) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Mathematical Analysis : • During positive half cycle of AC input voltage, T1 is

1. Expression of Average Load Voltage (Vdc) : fired at ωt = α, the current flows through load. The
π π
1 V inductance L is assumed to be sufficiently large to
Vdc = π ⌠ Vm cos ωt ⋅ dωt = πm [− cos ωt]
⌡ α produce continuous load current. Thyristors T1 and D1
α
conduct during this period. In this mode of operation,
Vm
= π [1 + cos α] volts the load voltage and load currents are positive, so the
Vm inductive load will store energy.
Vdc = π (1 + cos α) … (2.29)
• At ωt = π; the supply goes through zero, i.e. supply
2. Expression of Average Load Current (Idc) : voltage reverses its polarity. Therefore, the conducting
Vdc Vm thyristor T1 try to turn-off. But due to the presence of
Idc = = (1 + cos α) … (2.30)
R πR inductance at load side, it will try to oppose any
3. Expression for rms Load Voltage (Vrms) : change in currents flowing through load. The self-
1/2
1 π  induced voltage will bring the diode D2 which is
= π ⌠
2
Vrms ⌡ (Vm sin ωt) dωt connected in series with SCR T1, D1 turn-off. In this
 α 
1/2 mode (π to π + α), T1 and D2 conduct. Due to
1 π 1 − cos 2ωt  conduction of T1 D2 the load is short circuited and load
= Vm  π ⌠
⌡ dωt
 α
2   voltage becomes zero. This mode of operation is a
π
1/2 called free-wheeling mode of operation.
1  sin 2ωt 
= Vm  ωt −  • During negative half cycle of AC input, diode D2
 
2π 2 α
1/2 already conducting and thyristor T2 is fired at ωt = π +
Vm 1  sin 2α 
Vrms = π π − α + 2  … (2.31) α and load directly to supply i.e. load voltage is equal
2   to supply voltage. Current flows through T2 through
2.8.3 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier load D2. In this way the operation is repeated.
(Semiconverter) with RL Load Mathematical Analysis :
• Fig. 2.15 shows a half-controlled bridge rectifier 1. Expression of Average Load Voltage (Vdc) :
feeding RL load. The operation of this converter is as π
follows : 1 Vm
Idc
Vdc = π ⌠
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt = π (1 + cos α)
α

T1 T2 L Vm
Vdc = π (1 + cos α) … (2.32)
AC L
Mains
N 2. Expression of Average Load Current (ldc) :
R Vdc Vm
D2 D1
Idc = = (1 + cos α) … (2.33)
R πR
(a) Circuit diagram Advantages of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier :
Vs
• The need of centre tapped transformer is eliminated.
0 p 2p 3p wt
• The output is twice that of the centre tap circuit for the
a
same secondary input.
Vo Load
voltage • The peak inverse voltage is one half that of the centre
tap circuit.
p+a 2p+a wt
S2 a p S1 2p S2 3p Disadvantages of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier :
D1 D2 D1

T2D1 T2D2 T1D1 • It requires four diodes.

io ON ON ON
Load Free wheeling • During each half cycle of a.c. input two diodes will
current conduct that are in series, therefore, voltage drop
Idc across the internal resistance of the rectifying unit will
wt
be twice as great as in the centre tap circuit. This is
(b) Input and output waveforms of load voltage and load current
Fig. 2.15 : Single-phase half-controlled rectifier with RL load operation
objectionable when secondary is small.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.14) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
+
Important Terms : io
• Ripple Factor (r) : The ratio of ripple voltage to the T1 T3 R
d.c. voltage is called as a ripple factor.
Vo
Vrms (a.c.) Vs
Ripple factor r = L
Vdc
• Transformer Utility Factor : It is defined as the ratio D4 D2
E
of d.c. power delivered to the load to the a.c. rating of –
the transformer of secondary. (a)
Pdc (Delivered to load) +
i.e. T.U.F. = io
a.c. rating of the transformer
T1 R T3
Pdc
i.e. T.U.F. = Vo
Pac Vs = Vmsinwt
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) : It is defined as the L
maximum voltage that occurs in the rectifying diode
D4 D2
when it is not conducting. E
–
PIV = Vm → for half-wave rectifier
(b)
PIV = 2Vm → for full-wave tapped
Fig. 2.16 : Half controlled converter
PIV = Vm → for bridge rectifier
Converter Operation
2.8.4 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier
• Since diodes can block only negative voltage, it can be
(Semiconverter) with RLE Load
concluded that diodes D2 and D3 conducts for positive
• Single phase fully controlled bridge converters are two and negative half cycle of the input voltage
quadrant converters having unidirectional current with respectively. For the positive half cycle, when thyristor
both positive and negative voltage polarity. Thus they T1 is red at its ring angle, load current ows through T1
can be operated either as a controlled rectifier or an and D2. When diode D3 starts conduction in the
inverter. But for some applications that do not utilize negative half cycle, T1 is reverse biased and is turned o.
the inverter mode operation, a fully controlled Then load current is transferred to diodes D2 and D3 as
converter with four thyristors and their associated observed in the waveforms.
control and gate drive circuit makes the system • Thyristor T4 will come in once it is red , which turns o
unnecessarily complicated. In such situations, two of diode D2. Thus load current is continuous through out
the thyristors of a single phase fully controlled and this mode of operation is known as continuous
converter has to be replaced by diodes as shown in mode of operation. If load current becomes zero for
Fig. 2.16. some time, then it is known as discontinuous mode of
operation.
• The resulting converters are called single phase half
• The circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single
controlled converters. Half controlled convertors are
phase half controlled converter supplying an R-L-E
single quadrant converters having one polarity of
load is shown in Fig. 2.17. The device currents are
voltage and current at the DC terminals. Input and
shown in Fig. 2.17. Since the output voltage is
output behavior of both circuits (Fig. 2.16 (a) and 1 (b)) +
io
are identical although the device designs difers. In T1 D3 R
Fig. 2.16 (b) the diodes carry current for a considerably
Vo
longer duration than the thyristors. However, in Vs
Fig. 2.16 (a) both the thyristors and the diodes carry L

current for half the input cycle. Operation of circuit in D4 D2

E
Fig. 2.16 (b) will be explained here as it is used in our –
laboratory. (a)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.15) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Vm sin wt
• Fig. 2.18 (a) shows the circuit of single-phase fully
Vs
controlled bridge rectifier with RLE load. It consists of
wt four thyristors T1 to T4 and they are connected in
O p 2p bridge configuration driving a highly inductive load.
Vs Vab Vba

Vm sin a
Vs
E
wt
Vm
wt
O p 2p
(2p +a) (4p +a) T1 T3 T1 T3
(b) T2 T4 T2 T4
Output voltage
Fig. 2.17 : Half controlled converter in continuous mode a Vab Va
of operation (a) Circuit diagram (b) Waveforms Vc
x Vo
1 O wt
• Periodic over half the input cycle, Voav = π ⌠
⌡
0
Vm
vodωt = π (1 + cosα). Thus by varying the firing angle Output voltage
α, average output voltage from the converter can be
controlled and that is applied in most of the dc drives Io wt
p 2p 3p (3p + a)
as a variable voltage dc source for the motor speed a (2p + a)
(p + a)
control. Both armature voltage control and field T3T4
control requires a variable voltage dc source.
• If a fixed dc source is available, by using rheostats, T1T2 T3T4 T1T2 T3T4
variable voltage can be applied to the armature and Source current
field terminals. But this results in poor efficiency due to wt
high copper loss. So nowadays power electronic Is
controllers (half controlled converters) are used in dc
drives to obtain efficient, smooth and flexible speed Fig. 2.18 (b) : Single phase fully controlled
control. rectifier waveforms
Mathematical Analysis : Operation :
1. Expression of Average Load Voltage (Vdc) : The operation of single-phase fully controlled converter
π
1 V consists of four modes as follows :
Vdc = π⌡⌠ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt = πm (1 + cos α)
α Mode 1 : (α
α to π) :
Vm During positive half cycle of AC input voltage, leave point L
Vdc = π (1 + cos α)
is positive with respect to cathode, therefore thyristors T1T2
2. Expression of Average Load Current (ldc) : are fired at ωt = α. Thus, the average output voltage is
Vdc Vm equal to the instantaneous supply voltage.
Idc = = (1 + cos α)
R πR
In this mode of operation, the shape of load voltage is
Single Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RLE Load
iT1 io identical to that of supply voltage. The load voltage is
+ positive and constant. The load current is also positive as
T1 R that of the supply current 'is'. Both load voltage and load
is T3
+
current are positive, the inductive load will store energy.
a
Vs Vo Mode 2 : (π
π to π + α) :
– b L In this step of operation, at instant ωt = π, the supply goes
T2 through zero and after π radians supply reverses its
T4 E
– polarities and it becomes negative. Therefore, the
Fig 2.18 (a) : Circuit diagram of single phase conducting thyristors T1 and T2 will try to turn-off due to
fully controlled rectifier natural reversal of supply voltage (i.e. natural commutation
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.16) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

or line commutation). But due to stored energy in inductive 2. Expression for the Average Load Current (Idc) :
load, it will oppose any change in the current flow through Vdc 2Vm
load. So thyristors T1 and T2 will continue to conduct in Idc = = cos α … (2.91)
R πR
negative half for some period. In this mode of operation,
3. Expression for the rms Load Voltage (Vrms) :
the load voltage becomes negative and load current is
1/2
always positive, continuous and constant. Both load 1 π + α 2 2 
voltage and load currents are opposite in polarities. So the Vrms = π ⌠⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
 α 
stored energy in inductive load will return back to the 1/2
supply again. V2m π 
=  ⌠
⌡ (1 − cos 2ωt) ⋅ dωt
Mode 3 : (π
π + α to 2π
π) :  2π α 
At instant ωt = π + α, the conducting thyristors T1 and T2 1/2
Vm 1  
π+α
π ωt − 2 
sin 2ωt
are turned off due to natural or line commutation, at the = 
same time other pair of SCRs T3 and T4 are fired at 2  α 
1/2
ωt = π + α. Therefore, the average output voltage is equal Vm 1  sin (2π + 2α) sin 2α
to the instantaneous supply voltage. The load current is = π π + α − −α+
2 

2 2
instantaneously transferred from one pair of SCRs (T1, T2) 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α sin 2α 
π π − 2 + 2 
to other pair of SCR (T3, T4).
=
In this mode of operation, both load voltage and load 2   
currents are positive, the inductive load will again store Vm
energy. Vrms = … (2.92)
2
Mode 4 : (2π
π to 2π
π + α) :
2.8.5 Comparison between Full-Controlled and
At instant ωt = 2π radians, the input voltage goes through
Half-Controlled Converter Circuits
zero after 2π it becomes positive. i.e. during positive half
cycle of AC input, the conducting thyristors T3, T4 try to • Full-controlled rectifiers are capable of two quadrant
turn off, the inductive load will oppose any change in operations (i.e. either as rectifier or as inverter) while
current through it, in order to maintain the load current half-controlled rectifiers are suitable for only single-
constant and in some direction, a self-induced voltage quadrant operation.
appears across the load. This maintains conducting • In full-controlled circuit, at every cycle, a portion of
thyristors T3 and T4 forward biased, inspite of the change in negative voltage appears which does not appear for
the polarity of supply voltage. The load voltage becomes half-controlled circuit. This results in reduction in
negative and equal to the supply voltage whereas the load voltage ripple at the output and requires less filtering.
current continues positive. Therefore, load acts as a source • Power factor is improved in half-controlled bridge due
and the stored energy in inductive load will be returned to free-wheeling action in it.
back to supply again. • The supply current from AC side is more distorted due
Mathematical Analysis : to its zero periods with half-controlled rectifiers.
1. Expression for the Average Output Voltage (Vdc) : • Half-controlled converters are cheaper than
π+α
1 corresponding full-controlled circuit as a pair of
Vdc = π ⌠
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ dωt
α
thyristors are replaced by a pair of diodes.
1 π+α 2.8.6 Applications of Rectifiers
= π [− Vm cos ωt]
α
• The primary application of rectifiers is to derive usable
Vm DC power from an AC supply. Virtually all electronics
= π [cos α − cos (π + α)]
except simple motor circuits such as fans require a DC
Vm
= π [cos α − cos π ⋅ cos α + sin π ⋅ sin α] supply but mains power is AC, so rectifiers find uses
inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic
2Vm
Vdc = π cos α … (2.90) equipments.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.17) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

• Rectifiers also find a use in detection of amplitude Operation :

modulated radio signals. The signal may or may not be • During positive half cycle of AC input voltage,
amplified before detection but if unamplified a very thyristors T1 and T2 are conducting. When thyristors T3
low voltage drop diode must be used. When using a and T4 are fired, the conducting SCRs T1 and T2 will
rectifier for demodulation are capacitor and load turn-off due to application of reverse voltage and
resistance must be carefully matched. Too low a current will shift to T3 and T4 instantaneously. This is
capacitance will result in the high frequency carrier possible only when source has no internal impedance.
passing to the output and too high will result in the • When the source inductance 'Ls' is present, thyristors
capacitor just charging and staying charted. T1 and T2 will not turn-off immediately after firing of T3
and T4. Inductance Ls maintains the current flow
• Rectifiers are also used to supply polarized voltage for
through supply voltage through T1 and T2 for some
welding. In such circuits, control of the output current
time more even through supply voltage polarity has
is required and this is sometimes achieved by replacing
been reversed. Therefore, current will shift gradually
some of the diodes in bridge rectifier with thyristors,
from one pair of SCRs to another pair. This duration is
whose voltage output can be regulated by means of
called as overlap period 'µ', during this period output
phase fired controllers.
voltage will be zero.
2.9 EFFECT OF SOURCE INDUCTANCE IN • Hence the effect of source inductance is to delay the
SINGLE-PHASE FULLY-CONTROLLED commutation of current from one pair of SCRs to
CONVERTER (RECTIFIER) another. If source inductance is purely resistive, then
• Fig. 2.19 (a) shows the circuit diagram of single-phase there will be voltage drop across the resistance and
fully-controlled rectifier. In the previous sections, we average output voltage of the converter gets reduced
by an amount Io ⋅ rs.
have seen the effect of load on the operation of single-
phase rectifier. If the load is inductive, it works like a Mathematical Analysis :
source. 1. Expression of the Average Output Current (ldc) :
+ (π + α)/ω
Vm
T1 T3 R
Idc =
Ls
⌠ sin ωt ⋅ dωt
⌡
LS/2
α/ω

AC Supply Vo Vm
∴ Idc = [cos α − cos (α + µ)] … (2.34)
LS/2 L ωLs
T4 T2 ωLs
_ ∴ cos (α + µ) =cos α − I … (2.35)
Vm dc
(a) Circuit diagram
2. Expression of the Average Load Voltage ((Vdc) :
Vs V1 V2 T2
T1 π+α
Firing instant 1
T1, T2 p 2p 3p Vdc = π ⌠
⌡ Vm sin ωt ⋅ ωt
0 wt
µ+α

T3 T4 Vm
Vdc = π [cos α + cos (µ + α)]

wt 2Vm ωLs
∴ Vo = π cos α − π Io … (2.36)

To 2.10 SINGLE-PHASE DUAL CONVERTER

Io If two full converters are connected back to back as shown
0 wt
m
a in Fig. 2.20 (a), both the output voltage and load current
flow can be reversed. The system will provide four
(b) Input, output voltage and Current waveforms
quadrant operation and is called as dual converter. Dual
Fig. 2.19 : Single-phase fully-controlled rectifier
converters are normally used in high power variable speed
with RL load and source inductance
drives. If α1 and α2 are the delay angles of converters 1 and
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.18) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

2 respectively, the corresponding average output voltages two converters. This circulating current will not flow
are Vdc1 and Vdc2. through the load and is normally limited by circulating
Lr/2 Lr/2
current reactor Lr, as shown in Fig. 2.20 (a).

T1 T3 T'2 T'4 The instantaneous circulating current depends on the delay

+ angle for α1 = 0, its magnitude becomes minimum. When
Va Load Vs
_ ωt = nm, n = 0, 2, 4 ... and maximum when ωt = n,

T4 T2 T'3 T'1 n= 1, 3, 5 ...

The dual converters can be operated with or without
Converter 1 Converter 2
Vs circulating current, only one converter operates at a time.
When circulating current is not present however, other
0 p 2p 3p wt
converter is completely blocked by inhibiting gate pulses.
V01
Dual converter: The back to back connection of two fully
Converter 1 output
wt controlled converters across the load circuit is named as
Dual converter.
V02
The single phase full converters allow only two quadrant
Converter 2 output
wt
operation with inductive loads to extent the operation to
Vr(t) four quadrant the dual converters are used.
= V01 + V02 vs
wt
Vm
v = Vmsinwt
(a) Circuit diagram (b) Input and output voltage
waveforms of converter 1 and converter 2 O wt
a p p + a1 2p
Fig. 2.20 : Single-phase dual converter
The delay angles of converters are controlled in such a way
–Vmsinwt
that one converter operates as a rectifier and other vo1
converter operates as an inverter, but both converters Converter 1
produce the same average output voltage. Fig. 2.20 (b) output

shows the output waveforms for two converters, where the O wt

a1 p p + a1 2p
two average output voltages are the same.
Vmsinwt
The average output voltage of converter 1 is,
2Vm –vo2
Vdc1 = π cos α1 … (2.37) –Vmsinwt
Converter 2
2p – a1
and for converter 2, output voltage is, output
O wt
2Vm p – a1 p 2p
Vdc2 = π cos α2 … (2.38) Vmsinwt

Since one converter is rectifying and other one is inverting, vf(t) = vo1 + vo2

Vdc1 = − Vdc2
Circulating current
or cos α1 = − cos α2 = cos (π − α1)
O wt
p – a1 2p – a1
∴ α2 = π − α1 … (2.39)

Since the instantaneous output voltages of two converters

are out of phase, there will be an instantaneous voltage
(b) Waveforms
difference and this will result in circulating current between (a)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.19) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
a
Single Phase Dual Converters
• Dual converters are suitable for high power
applications but not for low power applications.
• The below circuit explains 1-φ dual converters with
O wt
circulating current.
L1 L2

Lr1/2 Lr2/2

Ty1 Ty3 Ty6 Ty8

dc1
TL6006 TL6006 TL6006 TL6006

AC supply Load AC supply

2p + a
Ty4 Ty2 Ty7 Ty5
TL6006 TL6006 TL6006 TL6006 O wt
a p p+a

(b)
dc2
Fig. 2.21
Why circulating current mode operation is efficient?
In circulating current mode O wt
a p
• Load current is continuous and it is fast process
• Two converters are simultaneously operated
E0
• The circuit will protect with current limiting reactors
• Average output load will be more than the load. O wt

• The dual converters consists of two full converters one

with positive and another with negative output
voltages.
• For highly inductive load the dual converters will Fig. 2.22
operate in four quadrant with continuous current For negative half cycle the thyristors T3, T4, T7, T8 are takes
mode. the active position at converter 1 and converter 2.
• For positive half cycle the current direction is given by
• The delay angle varies from 0 to +2Em/π, -2Em/π
For converter 1: P – T1 – Lr1/2 – LOAD – T2 – N
Wave forms: The below Fig. 2.22 shows wave forms
For converter 2: N – T6 – Lr2/2 – LOAD – T5 – P
related to single phase dual converters
• For negative half cycle the current direction is given by
When the circuit is fed with the supply the thyristor T1 and
Converter 1: N – T3 – Lr1/2 – LOAD – T4 – P
T3 conducts positive half cycle at converter 1 and T5, T6
Converter 2: P – T8 – Lr2/2 – LOAD – T7 – N
conducts positive half cycle at converter 2

2.10.1 Summary of Phased Controlled Converters [Nov. 15]

Table 2.2 shows circuits and quadrant operation of all types of single-phase converters.
Table 2.2 : Single-Phase Thyristor Phase Controlled Converter Circuits
Ripple
Circuit Type Typical kW Quadrant Operation
Frequency
T1 idc v dc
+
L Below
Df vdc O Half wave fs
Vfs
A 500 W idc
D
–

Conti…
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.20) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

i dc v dc
+
T1 T3 L
Semi- Upto 15 kW
O converter (75 kW in traction 2fs
Df vdc A
D idc
D4 D2 full wave systems)
–
T1
v dc
V, fs Centre tap
idc (two pulse
LOAD Upto 15 kW 2fs
– vdc +
mid point) idc
V, fs T 2 full wave

v dc
i dc

T1 T3 L Full
O
vdc A Upto 15 kW 2fs
converter idc
D
T4 T2

v dc
idc
T1 T3 + T'2 T'4
L
vdc O
A Dual
D Upto 15 kW 2fs
T'3 converter idc
– T'1
T4 T2

• Based on the control over output voltage, converters are classified as :

1. Half-wave controlled rectifier
2. Full-wave controlled rectifier
• Converters can also be classified as
1. Semi converter : Half of the devices in bridge configuration are diodes.
2. Full converter
3. Dual converter
Table 2.3 shows circuits and quadrant operation of all types of three phase converters.
Table 2.3 : Three-Phase Thyristor Phase Controlled Converter Circuits
Ripple
Circuit Type Typical kW Quadrant Operation
Frequency
T1 v dc
A
T2 idc
B
T3
C +
L 3fs
O Half wave 7.5 – 35 kW idc
vdc A
Supply frequency
fs D
–

N
v dc
i dc
+
T1 T2 T3 L
A O
Semi- 3fs
B Df vdc A Upto 120 kW idc
C
converter
D
D3 D2 D1
–

Conti…
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.21) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

i dc vdc

T1 T3 T5 +
L Full
A
B vdc O 75 to 120 kW 6fs
A converter idc
C D
–
T4 T6 T2
vdc

idc
T1 T3 T5 + T'2 T'5 T'4
L C Dual
vdc
O B 150 - 1500 kW 6fs
A A converter idc
T4 T6 T2 D T'5 T' 3 T'1
–

• A full converter permits power flow from A.C. to D.C. 2.12 DERIVATION OF LOAD RIPPLE FACTOR
and from D.C. to A.C. i.e. it can work as rectifier as well IN SINGLE PHASE RECTIFIERS
as inverter. Semi-converter permits power flow from
What is Ripple?
A.C. to D.C. as a rectifier.
Ripple is the fluctuating AC component present in rectified
• Dual converters are back to back connection of full
DC output. The output of a rectifier may either be DC
converters. These are used in high power variable
current or voltage. In view of this, AC fluctuating
speed drive.
component present in DC output voltage is called voltage
ripple and that in DC current output is called current ripple.
2.11 DERIVATION OF LOAD FORM FACTOR Why Ripple is Present?
IN SINGLE PHASE RECTIFIERS Ripple is always present in the rectifier output. This is
Definition: because of the behavior of circuit elements like diode or
• The ratio of the root mean square value to the average thyristor. Let us consider an example of single phase full
value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage) is wave rectifier to better understand the reason for presence
called Form Factor. of ripple. The output current waveform of single phase full
• The average of all the instantaneous values of current wave rectifier is shown below.
i Actual current output
and voltage over one complete cycle is known as the
average value of the alternating quantities. Expected
Mathematically, it is expressed as DC output
Ir.m.s Er.m.s o p 2p wt
Form factor = or Ripple = Im sinwt - lavg
Iav Eav
Ir.m.s and Er.m.s are the roots mean square value of the Fig. 2.23
current and the voltage respectively, and Iav and Eav are The above Fig. 2.23 is self-explanatory. The expected
the average value of the alternating current and the output from full wave rectifier should be a pure DC but
voltage respectively. actually the output current is different. Since the average
• For the current varying sinusoidally, the Form Factor is value of output current is the pure, therefore the ripple
given as present is equal to the difference of output current or load
Ir.m.s Im/ 2 πIm current minus average current.
Form factor = = = = 1.11 What is Ripple Factor?
Iav 2Im/π 2 2Im
The value of Form Factor is 1.11 Ripple Factor is the ratio of rms value of ac component
present in the rectified output to the average value of
• There is a relation between the peak value, the average
rectified output. It is a dimensionless quantity and denoted
value, and the root means square (R.M.S) value of an
by γ. Its value is always less than unity.
alternating quantity. Therefore, to express the
RMS value of AC component
relationship between all these three quantities, the two
present in rectifier output
factors are used, namely as Peak Factor and Form Ripple factor, γ =
Average value of rectifier output
Factor.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.22) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

I’rms V’rms T
γ = = 1 ⌠ (Idc)2 – 2 (iL) (Idc)] d(ωt)
Idc Vdc 2
T  ⌡
= (Irms) +
where, I’rms and V’rms are the rms value of alternating 0

component of load current and voltage respectively. T T

Ripple Factor Formula 2 1 ⌠ (Idc)2 d(ωt) – 2Idc ⌠ (iL) d(ωt)

T  ⌡  T ⌡
= (Irms) +
The formula for ripple factor is given in terms of rms value 0 0

and average value of rectifier output. Since the average value is given as
2 2
(Irms) – (Idc) T
Ripple factor, γ =
Idc 1 ⌠ (iL) d(ωt)
T ⌡
Idc =
2 2 0
(Vrms) – (Vdc)
=
Vdc Therefore, the second integration will become equal to Idc.
Derivation of Ripple Factor Formula RMS value of Ripple
The ripple factor formula can easily be derived from its T

definition. As per definition, we need to find two 2 1 ⌠ (Idc)2 d(ωt) – 2(Idc)2
T ⌡
= (Irms) +
parameters: rms value of ripple present in rectifier output 0
current or voltage and average value of output of rectifier (Idc)
2
2 2
for one time period T. For calculating rms value of ripple = (Irms) + [ωt – 0] – 2 (Idc)
T
Irms, first we need to find the ripple. Ripple is equal to the
But ωt = T, therefore
difference between the actual output minus expected DC
RMS value of Ripple
output. Thus,
2 2 2
= (Irms) + (Idc) – 2(Idc)
Ripple = iL – Idc = vL – Vdc
2 2
Here, iL and vL are the output current and voltage through = (Irms) – (Idc)

the load connected at the terminals of rectifier. Similarly, Since the ripple factor is equal to the ratio of rms value of
Vdc and Idc are the average value of load voltage and ripple content and average value of rectifier output,
therefore its formula becomes
current.
Ripple factor,
Let us now find the rms value of current ripple. Though rms
2 2
value of voltage ripple can also be used for deriving the (Irms) – (Idc)
γ =
Idc
formula for ripple factor but here we are using current
2 2
ripple. (Vrms) – (Vdc)
=
Vdc
RMS value of Ripple
T 2.13 POWER FACTOR
1 ⌠ (iL – Idc)2 d(ωt) This factor (-1 < cosφ < 1 ) represents the fraction of total
T  ⌡
=
0 power that is used to do the useful work.
T The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form
1 ⌠ [(iL)2 + (Idc)2 – 2(iL) (Idc)] d(ωt) of magnetic energy or electrostatic energy in inductor and
 T ⌡
=
0 capacitor respectively.
But the effective or rms value of load current is given as The total power in this case is,
T Total electrical power = Voltage across the element
1 ⌠ (iL)2 d(ωt) × current through the element
T  ⌡
(Irms) =
0 This is called apparent power and its unit is VA (Volt Amp)
and denoted by ‘S’.
Therefore,
A fraction of this total electrical power which actually does
RMS value of Ripple
our useful work is called as active power. It is denoted as
T
‘P’.
1 ⌠ [(iL)2 + (Idc)2 – 2 (iL)(Idc)]d(ωt)
 T ⌡
= P = Active power = Total electrical power. cosφ and its
0 unit is watt.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.23) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

The other fraction of power is called reactive power. This • Image a power system with an AC source and an
does no useful work, but it is required for the active work electrical load (Fig. 2.25).
to be done. It is denoted by ‘Q’ and mathematically is
given by, Source Load
Q = Reactive power = Total electrical power. sinφ and its
unit is VAR (Volt Amp Reactive).
Fig. 2.25 : Power system with AC source and electrical load
This reactive power oscillates between source and load.
• Now imagine that this load is going to take on one of
To help understand this better all these power are
two basic types: linear or non- linear. The type of load
represented in the form of triangle.
is going to affect the power quality of the system. This
A) is due to the current draw of each type of load. Linear
(kV
er
ow loads draw current that is sinusoidal in nature so they
e nt p
pa r Reactive
generally do not distort the waveform (Fig. 2.26).
Ap power (kVAr)

Power factor
• Most household appliances are categorized as linear
angle loads. Non-linear loads, however, can draw current that
Real power (kW) is not perfectly sinusoidal (Fig. 2.27). Since the current
Fig. 2.24 waveform deviates from a sine wave, voltage waveform
2 2 2
Mathematically, S = P + Q and electrical power factor is distortions are created.
active power / apparent power. Wave form

Current of voltage
Input Power Factor : Supply current is same as output +
current,
Total supply power = Vs (rms) × Io (rms) o
Time
2
Active load power = V dc/R = 5.832 –
Power factor = Active load power / Total supply
power Fig. 2.26 : Ideal sine wave
2.13.1 Displacement Power Factor (DPF) Wave form
• The displacement power factor is the power factor due
Current of voltage

+
to the phase shift between voltage and current at the
fundamental line frequency. For sinusoidal (non- o
distorted) currents, the displacement power factor is – Time
the same as the apparent power factor.
DPF = cos(θ)
Where θ is the phase angle between the fundamental Fig. 2.27 : Distorted wavform
voltage and current. Inductive loads cause current to • As can be observed from the waveform in Fig. 2.27,
lag behind voltage, while capacitive loads cause waveform distortions can drastically alter the shape of
current to lead voltage. the sinusoid. However, no matter the level of
2.13.2 Harmonic Factor complexity of the fundamental wave, it is actually just a
composite of multiple waveforms called harmonics.
Total harmonic distortion, or THD is a common
measurement of the level of harmonic distortion present in • Harmonics have frequencies that are integer multiples
power systems. THD can be related to either current of the waveform’s fundamental frequency. For
harmonics or voltage harmonics, and it is defined as the example, given a 60Hz fundamental waveform, the 2nd,
ratio of total harmonics to the value at fundamental 3rd, 4th and 5th harmonic components will be at 120Hz,
frequency times 100%. 180Hz, 240Hz and 300Hz respectively. Thus, harmonic
What is Total Harmonic Distortion? distortion is the degree to which a waveform deviates
• Total harmonic distortion is a complex and often from its pure sinusoidal values as a result of the
confusing concept to grasp. However, when broken summation of all these harmonic elements. The ideal
down into the basic definitions of harmonics and sine wave has zero harmonic components. In that case,
distortion, it becomes much easier to understand. there is nothing to distort this perfect wave.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.24) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

• Total harmonic distortion, or THD, is the summation of The output AC power,

all harmonic components of the voltage or current PAC = Vrms ⋅ Irms
waveform compared against the fundamental Vrms = 160.27 volt
component of the voltage or current wave Vrms 160.27
Irms = = = 8.013 Amperes
2 2 2 2 R 20
(V2 + V3 +V4+…+ Vn)
THD = × 100% ∴ Pdc = 160.27 × 8.013 = 1284.32 Watt
V1
466.48
• The formula above shows the calculation for THD on a η = = 0.3632
1284.32
voltage signal. The end result is a percentage
% η = 36.32 … Ans.
comparing the harmonic components to the
fundamental component of a signal. The higher the Example 2.2 : A half-wave controlled rectifier circuit is
connected to a purely resistive load when αmin = 10°. The
percentage, the more distortion that is present on the
latching and holding current for thyristor are 10 mA and 5
mains signal.
mA respectively. The circuit is operated from V = 100 sin
SOLVED EXAMPLES 314 t. Find out the angle of conduction of thyristor.
Example 2.1 : A half-controlled rectifier is used for Solution : Given data :
obtaining DC voltage. The rms voltage of AC input voltage is Vs = 100 sin 314 t ∴ Vm = 100 volt
230 V, 50 Hz and firing angle is maintained at π/6 radian Minimum firing angle
with a purely resistive load of 20 0. Find out :
αmin = 10, Latching current IL = 10 mA
(i) Average output voltage (ii) rms value of Output
Holding current IH =5 mA
voltage
Assuming the thyristor to be ideal in the sense that it
(iii) Rectification efficiency (iv) Average load current.
acts as short circuit when it is turned on. At the instant of
Solution : Given data : Vs = 230 V, fs = 50 Hz, α = π/6,
firing, the supply voltage appearing across load is Vs = 100
R = 20 Ω, Vm = 2 Vs = 325.26 V
sin 314 t.
(i) Average output voltage : From Equation (2.2),
∴ Vs = 100 sin 10° = 17.365 volt
Vm 325.26
Vdc = [1 + cos α] = [1 + cos π/6] Vs 17.365
2π 2π ∴ IL = = = 10 mA
R R
325.26
= × 1.8660 = 96.59 V … Ans. ∴ Maximum value of R is,
2π
(ii) rms value of output voltage : From Equation (2.5), 17.365
R =
1/2 10 × 10−3
Vm 1 π − α + sin 2α
Vrms = π 
2   2  = 1736.5 Ω … Ans.
1/2
325.26 1  sin 2π/6 
 π − π/6 + 2 
One thyristor is latched into on state, it remains on till its
=
2 π   current is greater than holding Current IH. Therefore at the
= 160.27 V … Ans. instant of turn-off thyristor carries current IH = 5 mA. The
(iii) Rectification efficiency : supply voltage that is appearing across load at turn-off is
Pdc given by,
η =
Vdc
Vs = R ⋅ IH = 1736.5 × (5 × 10−3) = 8.8625 V
The average output power,
∴ Angle of turn-off,
Pdc = Vdc × Idc
β = 351 t = sin−1
8.8625 = 175.02°
∴ Vdc = 96.59 volt … Ans.  100 
(iv) Average load current :
∴ Angle of conduction
Vdc 96.59
Idc = = = 4.82 Amperes = γ = β − αmin = 175.02° − 10°
R 20
Pdc = 96.59 × 4.82 = 466.48 watt = 165.02° … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.25) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Example 2.3 : A single-phase 230 V, 1 kW heater is Example 2.4 : A single-phase half-wave converter is
connected across single-phase 230 V, 50 Hz supply through operated from a 120 V, 50 Hz supply and load resistance R
= 20 Ω. If the average output voltage is 20% of the
an SCR. For firing angle delays of 45° and 90°, calculate the
maximum possible average output voltage, calculate
power absorbed in the heater element.
(i) Delay angle (α).
Solution : Given data : Heater power P = 1000 W, (ii) The rms and average output currents.
Vs = 230 V, fs = 50 Hz
(iii) The rms and average thyristor currents.
Calculate power absorbed by heater at α1 = 45° and (iv) The input power factor.
α2 = 90°. Solution : Given data : Vs = 120 V, fs = 50 Hz,
2
P = IR Vm = 2 Vs = 2 × 120 = 169.7 V,

V = IR Load resistance
RL = 20 Ω
∴ I = V/R
2 Average output voltage
V
∴ P = Vdc = 20% Vdm (maximum output voltage)
R
(i) Delay angle :
Heater resistance,
2 2
The average output voltage of half-wave rectifier from
V (230) equation,
R = = = 52.9 Ω
R 1000
Vm
Vdc = (1 + cos α)
From Equation (2.5), the rms value of output voltage for 2π
α = 45°. Vdc will be maximum at α = 0. Hence above equation
1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α Vm 169.7
∴ Vrms = 
2  π π−α+
2 
 Vdc = π = π = 54 V

1/2 It is given that average output voltage is 20% of its

2 230 1  sin 2 × 45
= π π − α +  maximum value i.e.,
2  2
Vdc = 20% of Vdm
= 155.071 V … Ans.
= 20% of 54
The rms value of current, = 0.20 × 54 = 10.8 V
Vrms 155.071 From Equation (2.2), of average output voltage,
Irms = =
R 52.9
Vm
Vdc = (1 + cos α)
= 2.93 V … Ans. 2π
Power absorbed by heater is, 169.7
10.8 = (1 + cos α)
2π
P = Vrms × Irms = 155.071 × 2.93
0.4 = 1 + cos α
= 454.57 watt … Ans. cos α = − 0.6
For α = 90°, the rms voltage is, α = cos−1 (− 0.6)
1/2
2 230 1 π − π/2 + sin 2 × 90 α = 126.8 ≅ 127° … Ans.
π 

Vrms =
2  2 (ii) Average output current :
= 115 V … Ans. Vdc 10.8
Idc = = = 0.54 A
R 20
The rms value of current
The rms value of output voltage is given by Equation (2.5),
Vrms 115 1/2
= = = 2.173 Amperes Vm 1  sin 2α 
R 52.9 Vrms =  π − α + 2 
2 π  
Power absorbed by heater for α = 45° is, 1/2
169.7 1 π − 127 + sin 2 × 127
= π  
P = Vrms × Irms = 115 × 2.173 2  2
= 250 Watt … Ans. = 45.83 V
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.26) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Vrms 45.83 di
Irms = = di = Vs sin ωt
R 20 Ls
t
= 2.29 A … Ans. Vm V
∴ I = ⌠ sin ωt d(ωt) = ωLm (1 − cos ωt)
Ls ⌡
(iii) rms and average thyristor current : s
0
In the half-wave rectifier only one thyristor and output
Commutation is complete when i = Id and at ωt = µ (µ
current flow through this thyristor. Hence the thyristor
being overlap angle).
current is same as output current. Therefore, rms and
Vm V Vm
average values of thyristor current will be same as that of This gives Id = (1 − cos µ) = − cos µ
ωLs ωLs ωLs
output current i.e.,
Vm
IT av = Idc = 0.54 A −I
ωLs d Vm − ωLs Id
IT rms = Irms = 2.29 A … Ans. cos µ = =
Vm Vm
(iv) Input power factor : Supply current is same as output ωLs
current,
µ = cos−1 1 −
 ωLs Id
… Ans.
∴ Is (rms) = Io (rms) = 0.54 A  Vm 
Total supply power =Vs (rms) × Io (rms)
Example 2.6 : A single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier
= 120 × 2.24
supplies a resistive load. Neglecting transformer leakage
= 274.8 VA
reactance and device voltage drops, find the rectifier average
2
Vdc (10.8)2 value of the load current when α = 90°. Assume that the
Active load power = =
R 20 transformer secondary voltage is 15 V and load (R) is
= 5.832 0.013 Ω.
Active load power 5.832 Solution : Since the load has no inductance while the
Power factor = =
Total supply power 274.8
transformer leakage reactance is also negligible, the load
= 0.021 (lagging) … Ans. current waveform is identical to the voltage applied to the
Example 2.5 : A rectifier circuit with high source inductance load.
is shown in Fig. 2.28. Assuming the load current to be
The average output voltage is given by,
continuous, find the expression for the overlap angle for
π
transfer of current from a conducting thyristor to the free- 1
Vdc = π ⌠
⌡ 2 Vsupply sin (ωt) dωt
wheeling diode. a
LS Id
a b
= 0.9 Vsupply (1 + cos α)/2
Tn
For α = 90°, Vdc = 0.9 × 15 (1 + cos 90)/2 = 6.75 volts.
+ Load i.e. the average output voltage is 6.75 V.
V DFW
_
The load current is given by,
π
1
c Id = π ⌠
⌡ [ ]
2 Vsupply/R sin (ωt) dωt
d
a
Fig. 2.28
6.75 6.75
Solution : At the time of commutation, the polarity of V For α = 90°, Id = = = 519 A … Ans.
R 0.013
gets reversed and application of KVL in the loop abcd
yields, Example 2.7 : A single-phase fully-controlled bridge is fed
di from 230 V AC (rms) while the load current for the RL load
− V + Ls = 0
dt resistance is 10 A and the firing angle is 60°. Calculate the
di active and reactive power inputs. If any of the SCR gets open
V = Ls
dt circuited, obtain the average DC output voltage and current
di for same firing angle. How you can ensure that the load
Vs sin ωt = Ls
dt current would be continuous ?
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.27) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
π
2Vm 1
Solution : Vd = π cos α Solution : Vd = π ⌠
⌡ 2 Vs sin ωt dωt
a
2× 2 × 230
= π cos 60° = 103.57 V 2 2 Vs
= π (1 + cos α)/2
∴ P (active power input) = Vdc × Idc = 1035.7 W
[Since Idc = 10 A] i.e. Vd = 0.9 Vs (1 + cos α)/2
2Vm (i) As the load inductance is much greater than the load
Q (reactive power input) = π sin α × Idc
resistance, it may be assumed that the load current
2× 2 × 230 does have negligible ripple.
= π sin 60° × 10
Vdc 201.5
∴ Vdc = = = 50.38 A
= 2197.3 VAR R 4
Here load resistance can be calculated as (Vdc/Idc). Once a = 50.40 A … Ans.
thyristor in the bridge gets open circuited, the
i.e. the steady-state current through load is 50.4 A.
corresponding lag of the bridge circuit is inactive and the
Obviously, this value of 50.4 A may be represented as both
bridge circuit then behaves as half-wave circuit.
π rms and average values.
1 Vm
∴ Vdc =
2π
⌠
⌡ Vm sin ωt dωt =
2π
(1 + cos α) (ii) Current is conducted by thyristors Th1 and Th2 for π − α
a
interval.
π 230 2 Id 
= π− 
For α = , Vdc = (1 + cos 60°0 = 77.68 volts π 50.4
3 2π ∴ Ith (av) = (π − α) × = 21 A
2π  6 2π
Vdc 77.68
Id (load current) = = i.e. average thyristor current is 21.0 A.
Rload 10.38
The rms thyristor current is then,
Since R = 103.57 = 10.36 Ω
 1
10  Ith (rms) = Id (π − α)/2π
The load current can be made continuous by connecting a
= 50.4 π − π/2π = 33 A … Ans.
free-wheeling diode across the load.  6  
Example 2.8 : Show that Vd = 0.9 Vs (1 + cos α)/2. If R = 4
∴ rms value of thyristor current is 33 A.
Ω, L = 500 mH and α = 30°, Vs = 240 volts, for supply
frequency of 50 Hz, find (iii) The diode current flows during the free-wheeling
period only (i.e. between π and π + α). This is repeated
(i) Rms and average value of output currents
for every half cycle.
(ii) Average and rms values of thyristor currents
α
(iii) Average and rms values of diode currents and ∴ Idiode = π ⋅ Id (average value)
(iv) Power factor for AC input waves.
Id 1
= × 50.38 = 8.4 A … Ans.
6
+
Idiode (rms) = Id α/π = 50.4/ 6 = 20.6 A … Ans.

Th1 Th3 (iv) Id flows from ωt = α to π and again from (π + α) to 2π.

L
Also, while Is flows its value is equal to the load current
Vd
(50.4 A).
FWD 180 − 30
R
π−α
Is (rms) = 50.4 π = 50.4
V = 2 Vssin wt 180
Th4 Th2 = 46 A
_ 201.5 × 50.38
Power input = Vd Id =
240 × 46

Fig. 2.29 = 0.92 (lag) … Ans.

POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.28) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Example 2.9 : A full-wave, full-controlled, single-phase Example 2.10 : A six-pulse thyristor converter, connected to
bridge rectifier feeds a load resistance R and inductance L a 400 V, three-phase, 50 Hz AC system is supplying power to
from a 50 Hz AC source of rms voltage Vs. Assuming high a 420 V, 110 A DC motor. Calculate the firing angle of the
load inductance, if R = 4 Ω, L = 500 mH, α = 300, Vs = 240 converter if the terminal voltage at the output of the
V, calculate the average and the rms current outputs, the thyristor converter is 420 V. Also calculate the terminal
thyristor average and rms current, power factor of the AC power (AC).
input. Neglect source transformer leakage reactance drop Solution :
and thyristor forward voltage drop. AC input rms voltage
Solution : For α = 30°, Vrms = 420 V, DC output voltage Vdc = 420 V
2 2 Vs Average load current
Vdc = π cos α = 0.9 × 240 × cos 30 = 187.1 volts
Id = 110 A
Vdc 187.1
Id = = = 46.80 A … Ans. Firing angle of converter
R 4
α = ?
∴ Output current =46.8 A
AC terminal power
Due to high circuit inductance, the ripple is negligible and
PAC = ?
hence the average and rms values are equal.
New for six-pulse converter,
Since each pair of thyristors conduct for half cycle, hence,
when particular thyristor conducts, they are in series with Vdc = 1.35 Vrms cos α
each other.  3 3 
VDC = 
∴ Average thyristor current,  π Vrms cos α = 1.35 Vrms cos α
1 46.8 420
Ith = I = = 23.4 A or cos α = = 0.77 ⇒ α = 38.94
2 d 2 1.35 × 400

1 46.8 The AC input rms current,

Ith (rms) = 2 Id = = 33.1 A … Ans. Irms = 0.817 Id = 0.817 × 110 = 89.87 A
2 2
The AC terminal power is given by
The output power to the load is,
2 2 PAC = 3 Vrms Irms = 3 × 400 × 89.87
Id R = 46.8 × 4 = 8753 Watt
PAC = 62.264 kVA … Ans.
This is also input power to thyristor.
The current drawn from the supply is Id and it is positive Example 2.11 : A six-pulse thyristor converter, connected on
while thyristors th1 and the conduct. Current is negative the secondary of 11 kV/700 V, 50 Hz transformer is
when thyristors Th3 and Th4 conduct. supplying to 750 V, 200 A DC load. Calculate :
∴ Current drawn from the supply has square waveform (i) Converter firing angle
and hence, the MIS value of Is is equal to Id. (ii) DC power delivered by converter
(iii) Branch current through the device
Th1 Th3
(iv) AC terminal power
AC (v) AC line current.
Supply To load
Solution : Given data :
Th4 Th2 AC input rms voltage Vrms = 700 V
Average load current Id = 200 A
Fig. 2.30 AC output voltage Vdc = 750 V
The supply power in VA is,
(i) Converting firing angle α = ?
Is Vs = Id Vd = 46.8 × 240 = 11232 VA
∴ The power factor is given by, Vdc = 1.35 Vrms cos α
Power 8753 Or cos α = Vdc/1.35
PF = = = 0.7796 … Ans.
VA 46.8 × 240 750
Vrms = ⇒ α = 37.47° … Ans.
i.e. the power factor is 0.78 (lag). 1.35 × 700
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.29) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

(ii) DC power delivered by converter Pdc = ? Solution : Given data : Vs = 230 V, Io = 10 A, α = 60°.
Pdc = Vdc Id = 750 × 200 = 150 kW … Ans. Single-phase semi-converter
(iii) AC terminal power Pac = ?
Average output voltage :
Pac = 1.05 Pdc = 1.05 × 150
Vm 230 2
= 157.5 kVA … Ans. Vdc = π (1 + cos α) = (1 + cos 60°)
π
(iv) AC line current Irms = ?
PAC 1.05 × 150 × 1000 Vdc = 155.3 volt … Ans.
Irms = =
3 Vrms 3 × 700 rms supply current :
1/2 1/2
= 129.9 A … Ans.
Irms = Io  π 
π−α
= 10
π − π/3
(iv) Branch current through device    π 
= 0.58 Id = 0.58 × 200 = 116 A … Ans. Irms = 8.165 A … Ans.
Example 2.12 : A six-pulse thyristor connected to the main 2 (1 + cos α) 2 (1 + cos 60°)
through a transformer of 10% reactance. If the rms value of Power factor : PF = 1/2 = 1/2
[π (π − α)] [π (π − π/3)]
the voltage of the secondary of the transformer is 415 V,
PF = 0.827 lagging
calculate the voltage regulation. Neglect resistance in
rd
converter. The full load DC current is 100 A. What is the rms value of 3 harmonic component current :
value of commutation angle ?
I3 rms =
2 2 Io
cos
nα
Solution : Given data : π 2
AC input rms voltage Vrms = 415 V
=
2 2 × 10
cos
3 × π
Full load DC current Id = 100 A π 2 × 3
Commutation angle µ = ?
20 2
Irms = 0.817 Id [where Irms ∴ I3 rms = cos [π/2] = 0
π
= AC input arms current and
1/2 I3 rms = 0 … Ans.
Irms =
 1 ⋅ 2I2 ⋅ 2π = 0.817 Id]
2π d 3  Example 2.14 : A single-phase fully-controlled bride
Irms XT operating from the 240 V, 50 Hz mains is used to charge a
Also, × 100 = 10 [Given data] 144 V DC battery bank through a smoothing reactor and
Vrms
where, XT → Transformer reactance, current limiting resistor. The internal resistance of the
10 Vrms 10 × 415 battery bank is 0.25 Ω and the winding resistance of the
or XT = = = 0.508 Ω
Irms × 100 81.7 × 100 reactor is 0.25 Ω.
Id XT
Now cos µ = 1 (i) Calculate the value of the current limiting resister
2 Vmax sin π/3 required fora nominal charging current of 15 A if
100 × 0.508
= 1− the firing angle is 30°. (4 Marks)
2 × 2 × 415 × ( 3/2)
(ii) Calculate the maximum and minimum firing angle
= 0.9293
or µ = cos−1 (0.9293) = 21.67° to maintain the current constant if the mains supply
1 − cos µ voltage varies by + 10% to − 10%. (4 Marks)
Inductive voltage regulation =
2 (iii) The above bridge is now operated in the inverting
1 − 0.9293 mode by reversing the battery polarity and
= = 0.0354 p.u … Ans.
2 adjusting the firing angle approximately. Calculate
Example 2.13 : A single-phase semi-converter operates the firing angle such that the battery discharges
with 230 V, 50 Hz input and supply level load current of 10 current of 10 A with nominal mains supply voltage.
A and α = 60° (heavily inductive load).
A also obtain the power supplied by the battery and
Calculate supply rms current, average output voltage, supply
rd power fed back to mains. Neglect all devices drops.
power factor, rms value of 3 harmonic current.
[Dec. 2006, 10 Marks] (8 Marks)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.30) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Solution : Given data : VS = 240 V, F = 50 Hz, Power fed back to them mains,
RS = 0.25 Ω, r = 0.25 Ω, E = 144 V. Pf = P −Power lost in resistors
(i) Current limiting resistance (R) : 2 2
= P − I (R + r + RS) = 1440 − (10)
Given : (2.375 + 0.25 + 0.25)
Charging current I = 15 A, α = 30°
Pf = 1440− 287.5 = 1152.5 W
2Vm 2× 2 × 240
Vdc = π cos α = cos (30°) Pf can also be calculated as follows :
π
Vdc = 187.13 volts Pf = Vdc × I = 115.25 × 10 = 1152.5 W
Vdc − E … Ans.
Charging current I =
R + (r + Rs)
Example 2.15 : A single-phase half-controlled bridge
187.13 − 144 rectifier operates from 115 V, 60 Hz mains and supplies a
∴ 15 =
R + 0.5
resistive load of 250 Ω for firing angles of 45° and 135°.
∴ R = 2.375 Ω … Ans.
Calculate :
(ii) αmax and αmin to keep I constant :
(i) Average output voltage
Given : VS (max) = 240 + (10% of 240) = 240 + 24
(ii) rms output voltage
= 264 V
VS (min) = 240 − (10% of 240) = 240 − 24 = 216 V (iii) Load power
I = 15 A, Vdc = 187.13 V (iv) rms supply current
αmin : αmin corresponds to VS (min). (v) Peak supply current (Dec. 2004, 18 Marks)
2 2 VS (min) Solution : Given data : Vs = 115 V,
∴ Vdc = π cos (αmin)
∴ Vm = 2 Vs = 2 × 115 = 162.6 V
2 2 × 216
187.13 = cos (αmin) R = 250 Ω, α1 = 45° or π/4, α2 = 135° or 3π/4
π
∴ αmin = 15.79° … Ans. (i) Average output voltage :

αmax : αmax corresponds to VS (max). For α = π/4,

2 2 VS (max) Vm 162.6
∴ Vdc = cos (αmax) Vdc = π (1 + cos α) = π (1 + cos π/4)
π
2 2 × 264 Vdc = 88.35 volt … Ans.
∴ 187.13 = π cos (αmax)
For α = 3π/4,
∴ αmax = 38° … Ans. 162.6
Vdc = π (1 + cos 3π/4)
(iii) Inverting mode :
Vdc = 15.16 volt … Ans.
E = Vdc + I (R + r + RS)
(ii) RMS output voltage :
144 = Vdc + 10 (2.375 + 0.25 + 0.25) 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α
∴ Vdc = 115.25 V Vrms =  π−α+ 
2 π  2 
Note that due to inverting mode, we have to treat Vdc
negative. For α = π/4,
1/2
2Vm 162.6 1  sin π/2
Vrms =  π − π/4 + 
Find α : Vdc = π cos α 2 π  2 

2 2 × 240 Vrms = 109.63 volt

− 115.25 = π cos α
For α = 3π/4,
1/2
∴ α = 122.23° … Ans. 162.6 1  sin 6π/4
Vrms =  π − 3π/4 + 
Power supplied by battery : 2  π 2 
Pf = E × I = 144 × 10 = 1440 W Vrms = 34.65 volts
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.31) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

(iii) Load power : (ii) Overlap angle for 50% load :

2
Vdc If load is reduced by 50% then,
Po = Idc = 10 A
R
For α = π/4,  2 × 100π × 2.5 × 10−3 × 10
∴ µ = cos−1 cos π/3 −  − π/3
(88.35)
2  230 2 
Po = = 31.22 watt
250 ∴ µ = 0.0549 radians or 3.14° … Ans.
For α = 3π/4, Example 2.17 : A single-phase half-controller bridge
2
(15.16) rectifier supplies a ripple free load current of 10 A and
Po = = 0.919 watt … Ans.
250 operates from the 110 V, 60 Hz mains. If the average output
(iv) rms supply current : voltage is 75 V, calculate
For single-phase bridge inverter with resistive load, (i) Firing angle
Vrms (ii) rms output voltage.
Is = I0 =
R (iii) rms-supply current.
th
For α = π/4, (iv) rms 7 harmonic supply current.
109.63 (v) Supply power factor. [Dec. 2003, 16 Marks]
∴ Is = = 0.438 A … Ans.
250 Solution : Given data :
For α = 3π/4, Idc = 10 A ripple free
34.65 Vs = 110 V,
∴ Is = = 0.1386 A … Ans.
250
Vm = 2 VS = 2 × 110 = 155.56 volt
(v) Peak supply current :
Vdc = 75 volt
The supply current will be maximum when output
(i) Firing angle :
current is maximum i.e. IS = Io.
Vm
Vm 162.6 Vdc = π (1 + cos α)
For α = π/4, IS (peak) = = = 0.65 amperes
R 250
155.56
Vm sin 3π/4 162.6 × 0.7071 75 = π (1 + cos α)
For α = 3π/4, IS (peak) = =
R 250
∴ α = 1.03 radians or 59° … Ans.
IS (peak) = 0.46 A … Ans.
(ii) rms output voltage :
Example 2.16 : A single-phase fully-controlled bridge with 1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α 
230 V, 50 Hz supply feeds continuous ripple free current of Vrms = π π − α + 2 
2 
20 A. If source inductance is 2.5 mH. 1/2
(i) Calculate overlap angle for firing angle of α = 60°. 155.56 1  sin (2 × 1.03)
π π − 1.03 +

=
(iii) What will be new value of overlap angle for same 2  2
firing angle if load is reduced by 50% ? Vrms = 99.15 V … Ans.
[Dec. 2001, 8 Marks] (iii) rms supply current :
Solution : Given data :
π−α π − 1.03
VS = 230 V, Vm = 2 VS = 230 2 volt IS (rms) = Idc π = 10 π
f = 50 Hz, ω = 2πf = 2π × 50 = 100π
= 8.198 A … Ans.
Idc = 20 A th
(iv) rms 7 harmonic supply current :
L = 2.5 mH
C7
(i) Overlap angle for α = 60°° or π/3 : CS7 =
2

µ = cos−1 cos α −
2ωLs ⋅ Idc
−α
 Vm 
4
Idc
cos
7α 4 × 10
cos
7 × 1.03

−3
2 × 100π × 2.5 × 10 × 20 7 2 7π  2 
= cos−1 cos π/3 −  − π/3 = =
 230 2  2 2
µ = 0.1083 radians or 6.2° … Ans. = − 1.15 A … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.32) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

(v) Supply power factor : Since, SCRs are triggered at α = π/3, the supply peak
8 2 α
voltage occurs at α = π/2.
PF = ⋅ cos
π (π − α) 2 Therefore, load current will be at its peak when ωt = π/2.
8 2 1.03 Vm sin ωt
= cos Io (peak) =
π (π − 1.03)  2  R
PF = 0.83 (lagging) … Ans. 325.27 sin π/2
=
Example 2.18 : A single-phase half-controller bridge 100
converter operated from 230 V, 50 Hz mains feeds a resistive Io (peak) = 3.25 A … Ans.
load of 100 Ω. If the firing angle is 60°, calculate :
Example 2.19 : A single-phase fully-controlled bridge
(i) Average output voltage
operates with 230 V, 50 Hz AC input and supplies
(ii) rms output voltage
continuous ripple free output current of 5 A. If bridge is
(iii) Total output power
operated at a firing angle of 45°, find :
(iv) DC output power
(i) Average output voltage
(v) Load current at instant of turn-on i.e. ωt = α.
(ii) rms supply current
(vi) Peak load current. [May 2003, 12 Marks]
Solution : Given Data : (iii) Harmonic factor
rd
For a single – phase half – controlled converter (iv) rms value of 3 harmonic of input current.
Vs = 230 V, [May 2001, 6 Marks]
Vm = 2 Vs = 2 × 230 = 325.27 V Solution : Given data :
R = 100 Ω, α = 60° or π/3 Single-phase fully-controlled bridge converter.
(i) Average output voltage : VS = 230 V,
Vm
Vdc = π (1 + cos α) Vm = 2 VS = 2 × 230

325.27 = 325.27 V
= π (1 + cos π/3) = 155.3 volt … Ans. Idc = 5 A, α = 45° or π/4 radians
(ii) rms output voltage : (i) Average output voltage :
1/2
Vm 1  sin 2α 
Vrms = π π − α + 2  Vdc =
2Vm
2   π cos α
1/2
325.27 1  sin 2π/3  2 × 325.27
= π π − π/3 + 2  = cos π/4
2   π

= 206.3 volts Vdc = 146.42 V … Ans.

(iii) Total output power : (ii) rms supply current :

2 IS (rms) = Idc
Vrms (206.3)2
Po (total) = = = 426 Watts = 5A … Ans.
R 100
(iv) DC output power : (iii) For single-phase FCB converter with highly
2 2 inductive load, HF is constant i.e.
Vdc
(155.3)
Po (DC) = = = 241.18 Watt … Ans. HF = 0.4834 or 48.34% … Ans.
R 100
rd
(v) Load current at the instant of turn-on : (iv) rms value of 3 harmonic :
Vm sin ωt 325.27 sin π/3 Cn 4Idc/ηπ
io = = 2.816 A ISn = =
R 100 2 2
(vi) Peak load current : 2 2 Idc 2 2 × 5
IS3 = ηπ =
Vo (peak) Vm sin ωt 3π
Io (peak) = =
R R IS3 = 1.5 A … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.33) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Example 2.20 : A single phase half controlled bridge Example 2.21 : A single phase semi converter is operated
converter operates from 115 V, 60 Hz mains and supplies a from 230V, 50 Hz AC supply. The load is resistive having
resistive load of 250 Ω for firing angle of 45° and 135°. resistance of 10Ω. If the firing angle (α) is 60° calculate.
Calculate : (i) Average o/p voltage
(i) Average output voltage. (ii) Rms o/p voltage. [4, Feb. 15]
(ii) rms output voltage. Solution : Given : Vs = 230 V, Ro = 10 Ω , α = 60°
(iii) Load power. (i) Average output voltage :
(iv) rms supply current. [Nov./Dec. 2012, 8 Marks) Vm
Vdc = π (1 + cos α)
Solution : Vs = 115 V, R = 250 Ω, α = π/4 and α = 3π/4.
(i) For α = π/4 230 2
= π (1 + cos 60°)
Vm
Vdc = π (1 + cos α)
= 155.3 V
= 88.35 V (ii) RMS output voltage :
For α = 3π/4 Vm 1  sin 2α
1/2

Vrms =  π–α+ 
Vm
Vdc = π (1 + cos α) 2 
π 2 

230 2 1  π sin (2 × 60)

= 15.16 V =  π– + 
2  
π 3 2 
(ii) Vrms = rms output voltage 1 
1/2

1/2 = 230 π × 120.43

Vm 1  sin 2α  
=  π−α+ 
2 
π 2  = 1424 volt
For α = π/4 Example 2.22 : A single phase semi converter is operated
Vrms = 109.63 volt from 120V, 50Hz AC supply. The load is resistive having
resistance of 15 Ω. If the average output voltage is 25% of
For α = 3π/4
the maximum possible average output voltage, determine
Vrms = 34.65 volt the firing angle (α) [3, Feb. 16]
(iii) Load power, Solution : Given : Vs = 120 V, fs = 50 Hz, Vm = 2 × 120
2 = 169.7 V, RL = 15 Ω
Vdc
Po = Average output voltage
R
Vdc = 25% Vdm (max. output voltage)
For α = π/4,
Vm
Po = 31.22 watt Vdc = (1 + cos α)
2π
For α = 3π/4, Vdc will be maximum at α = 0.
Po = 0.919 watt Vm
Hence Vdc = π
(iv) rms supply current,
169.7
Vrms = π = 54 V
Is = Io =
R
Average output voltage is 25% of its maximum value.
For α = π/4,
Vdc = 25% of Vdm
Is = 0.438 A
= 25% of 54
For α = 3π/4,
= 0.25 × 54
Is = 0.1386 A = 13.5 V
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.34) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Example 2.23 : A single phase full controlled converter is • In single-phase SCR full converter with DC motor
fed from 230v, 50 Hz supply. The load is highly inductive load, consuming continuous armature current, the
find the average load voltage and current if the load period of conduction of each SCR pair is a to
resistance is 10Ω and firing angle α = 45°. [8, May 16] 180° + α.

π • In single-phase SCR full converter with DC motor

Solution : Given : Vs = 230 V, α = or 45°, highly
4 load,
inductive load, α → (0° to 90°) Converter mode/motoring mode.
R = 10Ω. α → (90° to 180°) Inverter mode/Regenerative mode.
(i) Average load voltage • Advantages of regenerative action in single-phase
2Vm full converter are as follows :
Vo (av) = π cos α 1. Energy saving.
2 × 230 2 2. Fast response.
= π cos 45°
• Regenerative action takes place during deceleration
= 146.42 V (slow down) of the motor.
(ii) Average load current • Regenerative action is based on line commutation.
Vo (av) During the process if mains fails, then supply fuse
Io (av) =
R will blow, as SCRs do not turn-off.
146.42 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
=
10
1. With the help of neat circuit diagram and relevant
= 14.642 A
waveform explain operation of circulating current
SUMMARY type single phase dual converter. Derive expression
for average output voltage.
• In single-phase SCR semi-converter, period of
conduction of SCR pair is from α = 0° to 180°. 2. Explain the effect of source impedance on the
performance of single phase full wave converter,
• Free-wheeling diode is a power diode connected
derive the expression for average output voltage.
across load in reverse biased mode. This diode is
3. What are the different types of triggering methods
also called as commutating diode or bypass diode.
for phase controlled rectifiers ? Explain any one in
The load current waveform io can be improved by
detail.
connecting a free-wheeling diode across load. Input
4. With the help of circuit diagram and waveforms,
power factor is improved. Problem of half-waving
explain working of 1-φ full wave converter with
can be overcome by including free-wheeling diode D
inductive load. Draw output voltage waveforms for
across load.
the variation in α from 0 to π. Also explain its
• The effect of source inductance in single-phase and
inverter mode of operation.
three-phase converter is to delay the commutation
5. Give the deviation for Fourier analysis of supply,
of current from one pair of SCR to another pair.
current for single phase semiconverter with highly
• Single-phase SCR semi-converter with DC motor inductive load.
load provides one quadrant operation (converter
8. Draw the diagram of triggering circuit for single
mode/motoring mode).
phase AC voltage controller using TCA 785. Explain
• Single-phase full converter is used when its operation with the help of waveforms.
regenerative action is desired during stop/reversal of
9. Write a short note on "effect of source impedance
DC motor.
on the working of 1-φ converter".
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.35) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

10. Draw the circuit diagram and device expressions for 3. What is the role of free-wheeling diode in single-
the average output voltage and overlap angle for phase full-wave converter with RL load. Derive an
single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with expression of average output voltage and rms
source inductance, with waveforms. output voltage.
13. Draw the circuit diagram of symmetrical and
4. Compare symmetrical and asymmetrical semi-
asymmetrical 1-φ half controlled bridge rectifier and
converter. Explain single-phase half-controlled
sketch the SCR and diode current waveform.
converter with RL load. Derive an expression of
14. With the help of a neat circuit diagram and relevant
average output voltage.
waveforms, explain the two quadrant operation of
single phase fully controlled bridge converter. Derive 5. For single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier, sketch
the expression for average output voltage and the waveform for load voltage and load current of R
output current. load.

16. Define triggering circuit. What are the different types 6. Explain with circuit and waveform working of single-
of triggering methods ? Explain any one in detail. phase fully-controlled converter and derive an
18. What is necessity of dual converters ? Explain with expression for input power factor.
circuit diagram, working of 1-φ dual converter with 7. Explain source inductance effect on the operation of
highly inductive load. Deduce the equation for Icr. single-phase converter.
19. Explain source inductance effect on the operation of
8. Explain single-phase dual converter.
single phase converter. Derive the equation of
average output current (Idc) and average load 12. Write a short note on two-quadrant operation of
voltage. full-converter.

21. What are the different methods of triggering circuit 13. With the help of circuit diagram and waveform,
for 1-φ controlled rectifiers ? Explain microcontrolled explain the operation of three-phase semi-converter.
based firing circuit for 1φ converter. 'R' load for α = 0°, 30°, 60°, 90°.
22. What are AC to DC converters ? Explain with circuit
14. Compare the following :
diagram working of 1-φ LCC base half controlled
converter with RL-load. Deduce the equation of (i) Symmetrical and Asymmetrical configurations.
output load voltage. (ii) Free-wheeling diodes and Feedback diodes.
23. What are phase controlled converters ? Explain with 15. With the help of neat circuit diagram, mode
circuit diagram and waveforms, working of 1-φ fully
equivalent circuit and waveforms of supply voltage,
controlled converter with highly inductive load.
supply current, output voltage output current,
Assume α = 90°.
explain the operation of a single- phase half-
Comment on rectification and inversion mode. controlled bridge feeding a load (highly inductive)
24. What is effect of free-wheeling diode in FCC ? Justify, load.
it improves power factor.
16. Derive an expression for the rms value and phase
EXERCISE angle of the n
th
harmonic of supply current for the
1. Define commutation. What is the necessity of single-phase half-controlled bridge.
commutation ? Explain the concept of line 17. For fully-controlled bridge operating with continuous
commutation.
ripple-free constant current, explain effect of source
2. Explain single-phase half-wave converter. Derive an inductance and its second quadrant operation.
expression of average output voltage and rms
18. Explain different configurations of semi-converters
output voltage.
and compare them.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (2.36) CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

19. Draw the circuit diagram and relevant waveforms of 20. With the help of circuit diagram and eleven
output voltage, input current and fundamental waveforms, explain effects of source inductance on
component of input current for fully-controlled the operation of line commutated converter. Derive
bridge feeding a continuous ripple free current. an expression for output voltage in terms of firing
th
Derive an expression for n harmonic current (rms) angle, source inductance Ls and output current.
and power factor.
 UNIT III

CHOPPERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION [Nov. 15] BJT, power MOSFET, GTO or thyristors". In general
these devices can be represented by switch 'SW'. The
• Different types of DC to DC converters are used for
industrial applications. It is used for DC drives in power semiconductor derives ON-state voltage drop
traction (electric trains), electric cars, trolley cars and of 0.5 V to 2.5 V across them.
Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Many industrial Basically, there are two methods to obtain variable DC
applications require power from DC voltage sources, voltage. These methods are given below :
several of these applications, however, perform better 1. AC Link Chopper :
in case these are fed from variable DC voltage source.
This method is costly, bulky and less efficient. In this
• Variable DC voltage can be obtained from AC supply method, DC is first converted into AC through the use of
through the use of phase-controlled converters or inverter. AC is then stepped-up or stepped-down by a
motor generator set. "Chopper is a device which transformer, which is then converted back to DC by a diode
converts fixed DC voltage to adjustable DC voltage rectifier shown in Fig. 3.1
through the use of semiconductor devices like power
Vo Vo
VS
t
t t

DC AC Diode DC
Inverter Transformer rectifier

Fig. 3.1 : AC link chopper

2. DC Chopper : • DC chopper can offer regenerative breaking of DC
The function of a DC chopper is similar to the function of motor, resulting in energy saving.
an auto-transformer in an AC circuit, whereas adjustable Applications :
(variable) output voltage is obtained from a fixed AC • Since the chopper provides high efficiency, fast
voltage. The basic principle of a DC voltage control can be dynamic response and regenerative breaking facility, in
understood with the help of Fig. 3.2. By closing and
the future, electric automobiles are likely to, use
opening of the switch, the DC voltage supply reaches the
choppers for their speed control and breaking.
load in pulse form, hence the output DC voltage is
controlled. • All over the world, choppers are being used in
Vs Vo transport systems.
Vo (avg)
• Choppers are widely used for traction motor control in
t DC - DC converter t
or electric automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists and
Fixed voltage Chopper circuit Adjustable DC
DC source VS voltage, Vo fork lift trucks.
Fig. 3.2 : DC chopper • DC choppers are used in DC voltage regulators.

3.2 GENERAL FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS • Choppers are used in conjunction with an inductor to
OF DC CHOPPERS generate a DC current source, for current source
inverter.
Features :
• DC chopper can be designed using power BJT, power
3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
MOSFET, GTO or forced commutated thyristors as a • The choppers are also called as "DC transformers". Like
semiconductor switch. AC transformers, basically there are two configurations
• DC chopper can provide smooth control for motors. of choppers.
• DC chopper is highly efficient. 1. Step-down choppers.
• DC chopper has fast dynamic response. 2. Step-up choppers.
(3.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.2) CHOPPERS

• Choppers are also classified into five classes according Step 2 : During period Toff :
to the direction of output voltage and current When the switch 'SW' is turned OFF, the decaying io results
They are in a negative or reverse voltage [L (dio/dt)] to appear across
1. Type A chopper (First quadrant chopper) the inductor. The cathode of D1 becomes negative and D1
2. Type B chopper (Second quadrant chopper) turns ON. It provides a free-wheeling path to io. The
waveforms of the output voltage and current are shown in
3. Type A or Type C chopper (Two quadrant chopper)
Fig. 3.3 (b) As diode D1 is ON, load terminals are short
4. Type B or Type D chopper (Two quadrant chopper)
circuited and load voltage is therefore, zero during Toff. In
5. Type E chopper (Four quadrant chopper). this manner, a chopped DC voltage is produced at the load
3.4 PRINCIPLE OF CHOPPER OPERATION terminals.
(STEP-DOWN CHOPPER/CLASS A Mathematical Analysis :
CHOPPER) 1. Expression of Average Output Voltage (Vo) :
• In general, DC choppers consist of power The average output voltage is given by,
semiconductor devices (thyristor, power BJT, power Ton
Vo = V … (3.1)
MOSFET, IGBT etc., which work as a switch), input DC Ton + Toff s
supply, circuit elements (R, L, C etc.) and output load T = Ton + Toff = chopping period
shown in Fig. 3.3 (a). Chopper connects load to source Putting this equation in (3.1).
and disconnects the load from source at fast speed. In
Von
this manner, a chopped load voltage as shown in ∴ Vo = V … (3.2)
T s
Fig. 3.3 (b) is obtained from a constant DC supply of
Ton
magnitude Vs. In Fig. 3.3 (a), chopper is represented by α = = Duty cycle
T
switch 'SW' inside a dotted rectangle, which may turn
∴ α = f ⋅ Ton … (3.3)
ON and turn OFF as desired.
Chopper Putting equation (3.3) in equation (3.2), we get
Vo = f ⋅ Ton ⋅ Vs … (3.4)
ii L
+
1
SW Where, f = = chopping frequency,
io T
+ Ton = ON-period of switch (SW)
VS _ FD Vo Load
Toff = OFF-period of switch (SW)
_ α = Duty cycle or duty ratio.
(a) Step-down chopper circuit 2. Expression of Output Current (Io) :
Vo
TOFF Vo
VS ∴ Io =
TON R
Vo (avg) α Vs
0 t Io = … (3.5)
io R
IP 3. Expression of rms Output Voltage :
1/2
IV
1 αT 2 
=  ⌠ V ⋅ dt
T ⌡ s
Vrms
0 t  0 
(b) Output voltage and current waveform Solving this equation, we get,
Fig. 3.3 Vrms = α ⋅ Vs … (3.6)
Operation : 4. Expression of RMS Thyristor Current (Irms) :
Step 1 : During Period Ton : 1/2
1 αT V2s 
When the switch 'SW' is turned on by applying a gate  ⌠ 2 ⋅ dt
Irms =
T ⌡ R 
signal, the input current (ii) and the output or load current  0 
(io) start building up exponentially due to the presence of Solving above equation, we get
inductor (L). The load directly connected to supply i.e. load Vs
voltage is equal to the supply voltage (Vo = Vs). Irms = α … (3.7)
R
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.3) CHOPPERS
Ig
5. Average Free-Wheeling Diode Current :
For R load, FD does not come into play, so average
current of free-wheeling diode is zero. 0 t
io
6. Expression of Ripple Voltage (Vr) : Imax Imax

AC ripple voltage is used to know the harmonic content of Imin

Imin
waveform without calculating its harmonic components.
0 t
2 2 2 2 2
Vr = Vrms − Vo = α V s − α Vs Vo TOFF
2
Vr = Vs α−α … (3.8) VS
TON
7. Expression of Ripple Factor (RF) :
2 2
0 t
Vr Vs α − α α−α T
RF = = = α
Vo α ⋅ Vs
(b) Continuous load current
1−α Ig
RF = α … (3.9)

8. Expression of Form Factor (FF) :

0 t
io
RMS voltage Vrms α Vs
From factor = = =
Average voltage Vo α Vs
1
∴ RF = … (3.10)
α 0 t
3.4.1 Continuous and Discontinuous Condition of Vo

Step-Down Chopper or Type A Chopper VS

TON
For the step-down or type A chopper of Fig. 3.4 (a) with E
0 t
RLE load, the waveforms for gate signal ig, load current io TON
T
and load voltage Vo are as shown in Fig. 3.4 (b) for
(c) Discontinuous load current
continuous conduction and in Fig. 3.4 (c) for discontinuous
Fig. 3.4
conduction. In Fig. 3.4 (c), periodic time T is more than that
Step 1 :
in Fig. 3.4 (b). The determination of load current expression
When chopper is ON at t = 0, then
is useful for knowing :
Vo = Vs
• The current profile over periodic time T For this 0 ≤ t ≤ Ton,
• The current ripple and Also at t = 0, i = Imin
• Whether the current is continuous or disconti- ∴ Vs = VR + VL + E … (3.11)
nuous. di
∴ Vs = iR + L + E
dt
The object of this article is to study the type A chopper
Taking Laplace transform,
with RLE load for current variation over T current ripple and
Vs − E
also for the Fourier analysis of output voltage. RI (s) + L (sI (s) − Imin) = … (3.12)
s
Chopper
Vs − E Lmin
∴ I(s) = + … (3.13)
Ls (s + R/L) R
s+
L
SW
L Taking inverse of above equation (3.13),
+ Vs − E
VS _
i(t) = [1 − e−R/Lt] + Imin ⋅ e−R/Lt … (3.14)
FD Vo R
R
When t = Ton then i(t) = Imax
E Vs − E
Imax = (1 − e−Ton/Ta) + Imin ⋅ e−Ton/Ta … (3.15)
R
(a) Circuit of step-down or Type A chopper with RLE load Where, Ta = L/R
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.4) CHOPPERS

Step 2 : 1. Constant Frequency System :

When chopper is OFF, In this scheme, the on-time Ton is varied but chopping
Ton ≤ t ≤ T frequency f is kept constant. Variation of Ton means
adjustment of pulse width, therefore, this scheme is called
∴ VR + VL + E = 0 … (3.16)
as "Pulse Width Modulation" (PWM). This scheme is also
di referred to as Time Ratio Control (TRC).
iR + L +E = 0 … (3.17)
dt
Following Fig. 3.5 illustrates the principle of pulse width
Chopper is OFF at t = ton ∴ i = Imax modulation. In Fig. 3.5 (a) Ton = 1/4 T so that α = 0.25 or α
Taking Laplace transform of above equation (3.17), = 25%. In Fig. 3.5 (b), Ton = 3/4 T so that α = 0.75 or α =
75%. Ideally α can be varied from zero to infinity.
E
RI (s) + L [s I(s) − Imax] = − Therefore, output voltage Vo can be varied between zero
s
and source voltage Vs.
E Imax Vo
I(s) = − + … (3.18)
Ls (s + R/L) s (s + R/L) TON Load voltage
Taking Laplace inverse of above equation (3.18), VS
TOFF
E t' t'
i(t') = − [1 − e−R/L ] + Imax ⋅ e−R/L
R 0 t
T
Where t' = T − Ton = Toff
(a)
t' = Toff, i(t') = Imin TOFF
−E
Imin = [1 − e− (T − Ton)/Ta] TON
R
0 t
+ Imax ⋅ e− (T − Ton)/Ta) … (3.19)
(b)
Solving equation (3.15) and equation (3.19), we get
Fig. 3.5 : Principle of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Vs 1 − e− (T − Ton)/Ta E
Imax =
R
  − … (3.20) 2. Variable Frequency System :
 1 − e−T/Ta  R
In this scheme, the chopping frequency 'f is varied and
Vs e− (T − Ton)/Ta − 1 E either :
Imin = 
R  eT/Ta − 1  R
− … (3.21)
• on- time Ton is kept constant or
When CH1 is conducting continuously, • off-time Toff is kept constant. This method of
Ton = T controlling α is also called as frequency
Vs − E modulation scheme.
Imax = Imin = … (3.22)
R Fig. 3.6 (b) illustrates the principle of frequency
The new duty cycle i.e. discontinuous, modulation. In Fig. 3.6 (b), Ton is kept constant but T is
Ta varied. In this diagram, Ton = 1/4 T so that α = 0.25 or
α' = ln [1 + m (eT/Ta − 1)] α = 25%. In the lower diagram, Ton = 3/4 T so that α = 0.75
T
or 75%.
Where, m = E/Vs
Vo
If α > α', operation is continuous
If α < α', operation is discontinuous TON TOFF
3.5 CONTROL STRATEGIES/TECHNIQUES FOR
0 t
CHOPPER [May 15, 17] T

It is seen from equation Vo = αVs, the average value of TOFF

Vo
output voltage Vo can be controlled through duty cycle 'α'
TON
by opening and closing the semiconductor switch 0 t
periodically. The various control strategies for varying duty
(a) ON-time Ton constant
cycle a are as follows :
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.5) CHOPPERS

Vo TON Step 1 :
TOFF When the chopper CH is ON, the current flowing through
0 t the circuit rises and inductor stores energy during the
T period Ton. Therefore voltage across the inductor is equal
Vo to the input DC voltage Vs.
Step 2 :
TOFF TON
0
When the chopper is OFF, the inductor current does not
t
T die instantaneously, this current is forced to flow through
(b) OFF-time Toff constant the diode and load for time OFF. As a result, the load
Fig. 3.6 : Principle of Frequency Modulation (FM) voltage across the load is given by,
3.5.1 Performance Parameters Vo = Vs + L (di/dt) … (3.23)
Following parameters are used for chopper selection. 'This voltage exceeds the source voltage Vs. In this manner,
circuit acts as step-up chopper and energy stored in the
1. Average output voltage (Vo)
inductor is released to the load.
2. Output frequency (f)
Mathematical Analysis :
3. Chopping element time response (ts)
When CH or SW is ON, current through load would
4. Efficiency (η)
increase from I1 to I2 as shown in Fig. 3.7 (b). When CH is
5. Input battery rating (An) OFF, current would fall from I2 to I1. With CH is ON, source
6. Chopping element position – step up / step down voltage is applied to L i.e. VL = Vs. When CH is OFF, KVL is
7. Output controlling method PWM/FM applied to L i.e. VL = Vo − Vs.
8. Quadrant operation – Single/Two/four quadrant. During period Ton, the energy input to inductor from
source,
3.6 STEP-UP CHOPPER [May 15]
io
Won = (Voltage across L) (Average current
L D
through L) Ton
io
Won = Vs
I1 + I2 T … (3.24)
+
 2  on
VS CH
_ or Vo Load During period Toff, energy released by inductor to load is,
SW Woff = (Voltage across L) (Average current
through L) Toff

= (Vo − Vs)
I1 + I2 T … (3.25)
(a) Circuit of step-up chopper  2  off
i Considering the system to be lossless, these two energy
I2 I2 equations (3.24) and (3.25) will be equal.
DI Vs
I1 + I2 T = (V − V ) I1 + I2 T
I1  2  on o s
 2  off
I1
TON TOFF TON Vs Ton = (Vo − Vs) Toff … (3.26)
t
Rearranging above equation (3.26), we get
Vs (Ton + Toff) = Vo Toff
(b) Current waveform of step-up chopper
Vs ⋅ T = Vo ⋅ Toff
Fig. 3.7 T
∴ Vo = V
We discussed in previous section, the average output Toff s
T
voltage is less than the supply voltage Vs, i.e. Vo < Vs, this Vo =
T − Ton
configuration is therefore, called step-down chopper.
1
Average output voltage Vo greater than supply voltage Vs Vo = V
1 − Ton/T s
can, however, be obtained by a chopper called step-up
1
chopper. Fig. 3.7 (a) shows the basic form of step-up Vo = V … (3.27)
1−α s
chopper. The operation of step-up chopper consists of two It is seen from nation (3.27) that, average voltage across
steps. the load can be stepped up by varying the duty cycle.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.6) CHOPPERS

3.7 TYPES OF CHOPPER thus seen that average values of load voltage and
current i.e. Vo and io are positive.
• We already discussed the classification of chopper
depends on the output voltage level in section 3.3. In • The power flow in type A or first quadrant chopper is
this section we have to discuss the types of chopper always from source to load. This chopper is also called
according to the directions of output voltage and as step-down chopper as average output voltage is
current. Generally, in chopper circuit power less than input DC voltage Vs.
semiconductor devices are used and these devices are 3.7.2 Type B Chopper (Second Quadrant Chopper)
unidirectional, polarities of output voltage and the • Fig. 3.9 (a) shows the elementary circuit diagram of
direction of output current are therefore restricted. type B chopper. The operation of this circuit is in
• A chopper can however operate in any one of the four second quadrant. So it is called as second quadrant
quadrants by an appropriate arrangement of chopper. The average output voltage of this chopper is
semiconductor devices. greater than supply voltage therefore, it is called as
• Therefore, choppers are classified into five types or step-up chopper. The load contains a DC source E, like
classes as shown below : a battery (or a DC motor).
D2
1. Type A chopper (First quadrant chopper)
+ io
2. Type B chopper (Second quadrant chopper)
3. Type A or Type C chopper (Two quadrant chopper) + CH2 L
VS _ Vo
4. Type B or Type D chopper (Two quadrant chopper)
5. Type E chopper (Four quadrant chopper). E
3.7.1 Type A Chopper (First Quadrant Chopper) _
CH1 (a) Elementary circuit diagram
io
Vo
+

CH2, D2
+
VS _ FD Load Vo

Io
_ -Io

(a) Circuit diagram of type A chopper (b) Second quadrant operation

Vo Fig. 3.9 : Type B chopper
Operation :
When CH2 is switched ON, the output voltage Vo = 0 but
CH1, FD
load voltage E drives current through L and CH2.
Inductance L stores energy during Ton of CH2.
Io When CH2 is OFF, the average output voltage Vo = E + L
0
di/dt exceeds source voltage Vs. As a result, diode D2 is
(b) First quadrant operation forward biased and begins conduction, thus allowing
Fig. 3.8 : Type A chopper power flow to the source. Chopper CH2 may be on or OFF,
• Above Fig. 3.8 (a) shows the circuit arrangement of current io flows out of the load, current io is therefore
type A chopper and is similar to that of a step-down treated as negative. Since Vo is always positive but Io is
chopper circuit. As shown in Fig. 3.8 (b), both load negative due to the flow of power is always from load to
voltage and load current are positive. source.
• When CH1 is ON, the load voltage is equal to the 3.7.3 Type A or Type C Chopper (Two Quadrant
supply voltage i.e. Vo = Vs and current io flows in the Chopper)
arrow direction shown. When CH1 is OFF, Vo = 0 but • This chopper is a combination of type A and type B
due to presence of inductance at load this maintains choppers in parallel as shown in Fig. 3.10 (a). The
the current flow through FD (free-wheeling diode). It is average output voltage is always positive because of
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.7) CHOPPERS

the presence of free-wheeling diode FD across the Vo

TON TOFF
load. When chopper CH2 is ON or free-wheeling diode
FD conducts, output voltage Vo = 0 and in case CH1 is
ON or diode D2 conducts, output voltage Vo = Vs. t
• The load current io, can however reverse its direction,
current io flows in the arrow direction marked in
Fig. 3.10 (a) i.e. load current is positive when CH1 is ON
or FD conducts. Load current is negative if CH2 is ON (c) Vo is positive, Ton > Toff
Vo
or D2 conducts. TON TOFF

CH1 D2
L t
+
VS _
io
CH2 FD E
(d) Vo is negative, Ton < Toff
Fig. 3.11 : Type D chopper
(a) Circuit diagram
Vo
• The power circuit diagram of two quadrant type B or
type D chopper is as shown in Fig. 3.11 (a). The output
voltage Vo = Vs, when both CH1 and CH2 are ON and
CH2, D2 CH1, FD
Vo = – Vs when both choppers are OFF but both diodes
Io D1 and D2 conduct. Average output voltage Vo is
positive when choppers turn-on time Ton is more than
turn-off time Toff as shown in Fig. 3.11 (c). Average
output voltage is negative when Ton < Toff. See Fig. 3.11
(b) Quadrant operation (d). The direction of load is always positive because
Fig. 3.10 : Type C chopper choppers and diodes can conduct current only in the
• Average load voltage is always positive but average direction of arrows shown in Fig. 3.11 (a).
load current may be positive or negative as explained. 3.7.5 Type E Chopper or Four Quadrant Chopper
Therefore power flows from source to load or from [May, Nov. 15, 16]
I1
load to source.
3.7.4 Type B or Type D Chopper (Two Quadrant CH1 CH3
D1 D3
Chopper) + L E
VS _
io _
+ Vo
CH1 D2 CH2 D2 CH4 D4
+
VS _ Load
io (a) Circuit diagram
D1 CH2 Vo
CH2 Operated
CH2, D4 : ON CH1 Operated
(a) Circuit diagram L - store energy CH1, CH2 : ON (Vo = Vs)
Vo CH2 : OFF CH1 : OFF
then D1-D4 conduct then CH4, D2 conduct
-Io Io
CH3 Operated CH4 Operated
CH3, D4 : ON (Vo - VS) CH4, D2 :ON
Io CH3 : OFF L - store energy
-Io CH4 : OFF
then CH2, D4 conduct
then D2, D3 conducts

-Vo
-Vo
(b) Quadrant operation
(b) Quadrant operation Fig. 3.12: Type E or Four quadrant chopper
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.8) CHOPPERS

Fig. 3.12 (a) shows the power circuit diagram of class E or 2. Phase Shifted Operation Mode :
four quadrant chopper. It consists of four semiconductor • In this mode, different choppers are ON and OFF at
devices or switches CH1 to CH4 and four diodes D1 to D4 in different instants of time. The advantage of multiphase
antiparallel. The load voltage and load current is either choppers are as follows :
positive or negative ' as shown in Fig. 3.12 (b). ➢ Due to increase in phases, total output current is
Operation : sum of currents of all choppers.
The operation of this circuit consists of four steps : ➢ Frequency of ripple in output becomes higher, so
Step 1 : First Quadrants : filtering is easy to filter OFF ripple currents.

For first quadrant operation of Fig. 3.12 (a), CH4 is kept ON, ➢ Peak-to-peak amplitude of ripple is reduced.
CH3 is kept OFF and CH1 is operated. With CH1 and CH4 • Following Fig. 3.13 (a) shows the power circuit of
ON, load voltage Vo = Vs and load current io begins to flow. multiphase chopper L1 and C is the input source filter.
L1
Here both io and Vo are positive, giving first quadrant
operation. When CH1 is turn-off, positive current free- S1 S2 S3
wheels through CH4, D2. In this manner, both Io, Vo can be L2 R
controlled in the first quadrant. L2 R
Step 2 : Second Quadrant :
VS C L2 R LS
Here, CH2 is operated and CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept OFF
reverse current flows through L, CH2, D4 and E. Inductance RS
L stores energy, during the time CH2 is ON. When CH2 is D1 D2 D3 +
turned OFF, current is fed back to source through diodes M
_
D1 and D4. Note that here (E + L di/dt) is more than that
the source voltage Vs. As load voltage Vo is positive and Fig. 3.13 (a) : Multiphase chopper
load current Io is negative, it is second quadrant operation. • Here, in this circuit, three choppers S1, S2 and S3 are
connected in parallel. Each chopper has a separate but
Step 3 : Third Quadrant :
identical output smoothing inductance L2. An
For third quadrant operation, CH1 is kept OFF, CH2 is kept
additional common inductance Ls is present in the
ON and CH3 is operated. Polarity of load emf E must be
load circuit.
reversed for this quadrant working. With CH3 ON, load gets
• Each chopper will have the same switching frequency
connected to source Vs, so that both io, Vo are negative
and duty cycle. However, starts of the switching period
leading to third quadrant operation. When CH3 is OFF,
of chopper S2 will be delayed with respect to start of
negative current free-wheels through CH2, D4.
switching period of chopper S1 by an interval equal to
Step 4 : Fourth Quadrant :
T/3 seconds will correspond to a phase of 120° in
Here CH4 is operated and other devices kept OFF. Load angular measure. Similarly chopper 3 i.e. S3 will have a
emf must have its polarity reversed to that shown in phase shift of 120° with respect to chopper S2.
Fig. 3.12 (a) for operation in the fourth quadrant. With CH4 • The effect of this phase shift on the currents of the
ON, positive current flows through CH4, D2, L and E. individual choppers and on the load current is shown
Inductance L stores energy during the time CH4 is ON. in Fig. 3.13 (b).
When CH4 is turned OFF, current fed back to source
• Voltage V1, V2 and V3 are voltages at output terminals
through D2, D3. Here load voltage is the negative but load of choppers S1, S2 and S3 respectively. I1, I2 and I3 are
current is positive. currents supplied by three choppers S1, S2 and S3
3.8 MULTIPHASE CHOPPER respectively. From output current waveform it is
observed that, output current of a multiphase chopper
A multiphase chopper is a chopper which consists of two
is sum of all currents supplied by individual chopper.
or more choppers connected in parallel. A multiphase
Also it is calculated that ripple frequency of resultant
chopper may be operated in two modes. outputs current is there times of the chopper
1. In Phase Operation Mode : frequency. Therefore, output load elements require low
• In this mode of operation, all parallel connected values of L and R. Since load is inductive, diodes D1, D2
choppers are on and off at the same time. and D3 perform free-wheeling action.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.9) CHOPPERS
Voltage
I1 3.9.1 Voltage or Impulse Commutated Chopper
V1
• One of the earliest chopper circuit which has been in
0
wide use is the voltage commutated chopper. This
t
V2
I2 chopper is generally used in high-power circuits where
load function is not very large. This chopper is
generally used in high-power circuits where load
0 t
fluctuation is not very large. This chopper is also
V3 I3
known as parallel capacitor turn-off chopper, impulse-
commutated chopper or classical chopper shown in
0 t
Fig. 3.14 (a).
Io= I1 + I2 + I3 • In this circuit, thyristor T1 is the main thyristor and
commutation circuitry for this chopper contains an
t
auxiliary thyristor T2, capacitor C, diode D and inductor
Lm. Df is the free-wheeling diode connected across
Fig. 3.13 (b) : Output voltage and Current waveforms load.
Advantages : • At the beginning of operation, thyristor T2 is fired to
charge commutating capacitor C through load to
• The main advantage of this chopper over single
voltage Vc which should be Vs in first cycle, capacitor is
chopper is that its input current has reduced ripple
charging with polarities as shown in Fig. 3.14 (a).
amplitude and increased ripple frequency.
Assume that the load current is constant. The circuit
• Size of filter for a multiphase chopper is reduced. operation is divided into five modes.
LS T1 iT1
Disadvantages :
• Extra commutation circuits. +
ir = ic
C _ VC io
T2
• Additional external inductors.
L
• Complexity in the control logic. VS
+
FD o
_
a
Lm
3.9 FORCED COMMUTATED THYRISTOR- D d

BASED CHOPPER
• When switches used in chopper are thyristors then
they carry a full-load current. In chopper circuit, the Fig. 3.14 (a) : Voltage commutated chopper
supply is DC voltage, so thyristor cannot turn-off by Operation :
line commutation. Thus, forced commutation is used to Mode 1 :
turn-off the thyristors in choppers. There are several In this mode, T1 is fired and load is connected to supply, so
types of commutation circuits used for DC choppers. the load voltage Vo = Vs. During this mode, there are two
However, if the load is an RC or RLC circuit then the current paths :
load current reduces to zero and commutation takes • Load current Io flows through source Vs, through main
thyristor T1 and load.
place. It is called load commutation and performance
• Capacitor current io flows through oscillatory circuit
of chopper is highly load dependent. Thus, in general,
formed by C, T, D, Lm.
a separate forced commutation circuit is used for
The resonant current is given by,
independent commutation control of choppers.
ir = Vc C/Lm sin ωt … (3.28)
• There are three basic forced commutation techniques The peak value of resonant reversal current,
used for DC choppers : Ip = Vc C/Lm … (3.29)
1. Voltage or impulse commutation The capacitor voltage is obtained from
Vc(t) = Vc cos ωmt … (3.30)
2. Current or resonant pulse commutation and
1
3. Load commutation Where, ωm, =
Lm ⋅ C
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.10) CHOPPERS

After time t = tr = π Lm ⋅ C , the capacitor is reversed to Mode 4 :

negative. This is sometimes called commutation readiness Mode 4 begins when overcharging is complete and load
of chopper. Hence at the end of model, current continues to decay. This mode exists due to diode
T1 = Io D, because it allows the resonant oscillation in mode 3 to
Vc = − Vs continue through circuit formed by FD, D, C and Vs.
Vo = Vs This will undercharge the commutation capacitor 'C'. The
capacitor voltage is now,
Mode 2 :
Vc(t) = Vx − ∆V (1 − cos ωut) … (3.38)
This mode begins with firing of auxiliary thyristor T2. Due to
conduction of T2, capacitor voltage (− Vs) is applied across 1
where, ωu =
T1 and it is turned OFF. The capacitor 'C' discharges Ls + Lm
through the load from −Vc to 0 and this discharging time is After time t = tu = π L(Ls + Lm), the undercharging
given by, current becomes zero and diode D stops conducting. At
Vs ⋅ C this stage, capacitor voltage is,
Toff = … (3.31)
Im Vc = Vx − 2∆V = (Vx − ∆V) − ∆V
Hence total time required to discharge and recharge is Vc = Vs − ∆V … (3.39)
called commutation time, where Im = peak load current. If there is no overcharge, there will not be any
The circuit turn-off time, Toff must be greater than thyristor undercharge.
turn-off time 'tq'. The time required for the capacitor to Mode 5 :
recharge back to Vs is called recharging time and is given
This mode begins when commutation process is complete
by,
and load current continues to decay through D. This mode
Vs ⋅ C ends when main thyristor T1 is fired at the beginning of
td = … (3.32)
Im
next cycle.
Hence, total time required to discharge and recharge is VC

called as commutation time. +VS tc

Tc = Toff + td … (3.33) t1 t2
0 t
t3 t4
This mode ends at t = tc i.e. when capacitor 'C' recharges to -VS
Vs and free-wheeling diode starts conducting. iC
Mode 3 :
0 t
iCM
Mode 3 begins when free-wheeling diode starts
conducting and load current decays. iTM

The energy stored in the inductor Ls is transferred to iCM

0
capacitor. The current is,
t
is(t) = Im ⋅ cos ωst … (3.34) TON TOFF
T
Instantaneous capacitor voltage is given by, Vo
Ls 2VS
Vc(t) = Vs + Im ⋅ sin ωst …(3.35) VS
C
0 t
1
where, ωs = io
Ls ⋅ C
Io Io
After time t = ts = π/2 Ls ⋅ C , this overcharging 0 t

current becomes zero and capacitor recharges to

4.14 (b)
Vx = Vs + QDV … (3.36) Fig. 3.14 (b) : Voltage and Current waveforms of
voltage commutated chopper
Where Vx = Peak voltage of capacitor C
Mathematical Analysis :
∆V = Overvoltage of capacitor C
The values of commutating components C and L can be
∆V = Im Ls/C … (3.37) obtained as under.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.11) CHOPPERS

Commutating Capacitor C : 3.9.2 Current Commutated Chopper

Its value depends upon the turn-off time tc of the main Fig. 3.15 (a) shows the power circuit diagram of current
thyristor T1. During the time tc, capacitor voltage changes commutated chopper. In this circuit, T1 is the main
linearly from (−Vs) to zero, mode 3, Fig. 3.14 (b). It is known thyristor, the other components, namely auxiliary thyristor
that, T4 capacitor C, inductor L, diodes D1 and D2 constitute
dv commutation circuitry. FD is free-wheeling diode and RC is
ic = C
dt charging capacitor.
D1
For a constant load current Io, the above relation can be
written as,
Vs tc ⋅ Io iT1
Ic = C or C = … (3.40)
tc Vs T1 Io
D2
The commutation circuit turn-off time tc must be greater
than the thyristor turn-off time tq. Let tc = tq + ∆t. iC TA L
+
VS _ C o
(tq + ∆t) Io L FD a
C = … (3.41)
Vs d

Commutating Inductor L : RC

It can be designed from a consideration of the oscillatory

current established when main thyristor T1 is turned ON. Fig. 3.15 : (a) Current commutated chopper
The current ic when T1 is triggered, flows through the The commutation process for its easy grasp is divided into
ringing circuit formed by C, T1, L, D and is given by, various modes as follows :
Vs 1
ic = sin ωot where ωo = Mode 1 :
ωoL LC
At time t = t1, auxiliary thyristor TA is triggered to
The peak capacitor current, commutate main thyristor T1. With turning on TA, an
Vs auxiliary current ic = (Vs/ωoL) sin ωot is set up in the circuit
Icp = = Vs ⋅ C/L … (3.42)
ωoL consisting of C, TA and L as shown in Fig. 3.15 (a). During
This current flows through T1 when it is turned ON. As T1 this mode, T1 remains unaffected, therefore load current
handles load current as well as Icp, peak capacitor current and load voltage remain Io and Vo respectively.
should not be too large. It is usual to take Icp less than or Mode 2 :
equal to load current Io, i.e.,
As TA is turned OFF at t = t2, oscillatory current ic begins to
Icp ≤ Io or Vs C/L ≤ Io flow through C, L, D2 and T1. Note that after t2, ic would
2

∴ L ≥
Vs C …(3.43)
flow through T1 and not through D1. It is because D1 is
 Io  reverse biased by a small voltage drop across conducting
2

or L =
2tc × 1 … (3.44)
thyristor T1.
 Io  C Mode 3 :
Merits: As T1 is turned OFF at t3, ic, becomes more than Io. After t3,
• Simple circuit as it contains less components. ic supplies load current Io and excess current iD1 = ic − Io.
• Most popular used circuit. Mode 4 :
Demerits : At t = t4, ic reduces to Io, as a result iD1 = 0 and diode D1 is
• A starting circuit is required. therefore turned OFF. After t4, a constant current equal to
• Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when Io flows through source Vs, C, L, D2 and load and therefore
commutation is initiated. capacitor C is charged to source voltage Vs.
• Turn-OFF time is load dependent. Mode 5 :
• Circuit does not work at no-load condition. At t5, capacitor C is already overcharged to a voltage
• Main SCR T1 has to carry load current and somewhat more than source voltage Vs. Therefore, FD gets
commutation current. forward biased and starts to conduct.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.12) CHOPPERS
ig1
C =
3Toff Ip … (3.50)
 2π  Vs
2
0 t
L =
3Toff ⋅ 1
igA  2π  C
3Toff Vs
∴ L = ⋅ … (3.51)
0 t 2π Ip
io
With the help of above equations (3.50) and (3.51), we can
find out the values of commutating components of current
Io
0 t commutated chopper.
iT1 iT = Io - iC
Merits of Current Commutated Chopper :
Io
0 t • Commutation is reliable as long as the load current is
iC = Io less than peak commutating current Icp.
iC
iC = Iocos wo t
• Capacitor is always charged with the correct polarity.
0 t • Auxiliary thyristor TA is naturally commutated as its
p commutating current passes through zero values in the
iC = Io
VC ringing circuit formed by L and C.
iC = Iocos wo t
VS VS VS 3.9.3 Load Commutated Chopper
0 t
-VS Fig. 3.16 (a) shows the power circuit diagram of load
3 5 commutated chopper. It consists of four thyristors and one
2 4
Mode 1 commutating capacitor C. The thyristor T1 − T4 acting
VO
(VS - VC) together as one pair and thyristors T3, T4 acting together as
VS the second pair for conducting load current alternately.
0
t1
t When T1, T2 are conducting, these act as main thyristors
t=0
T1 TA t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 T and T3, T4 and C as the commutating components.
ON FD
ON TA T1 D1 FD D2
OFF Likewise, with the conduction of T3, T4, these become main
OFF OFF OFF ON OFFT ON
1
D2 D1 thyristor and T1, T2 and C as the commutating components.
ON ON
FD is the free-wheeling diode across the load.
Fig. 3.15 : (b) Voltage and Current waveforms T1 T3
of current commutated chopper
i
Mathematical Analysis : _C
V +
+ C Io
1 iC ifd
oscillation frequency = fo = … (3.45)
2π LC
T4 T2
L
Peak capacitor discharging current is, + o
VS _ FD Vo
a
C d
Ip = Vc … (3.46)
L
Ip = 2IL … (3.47) _
For main thyristor,
Fig. 3.16 (a) : Load commutated chopper
2π
Toff = LC … (3.48) Initially, the capacitor is charged to a voltage Vs with upper
3
plate negative and lower plate positive as shown in
Ip = Vs C/L … (3.49)
Fig. 3.16 (a).
Multiplying above equations (3.48) and (3.49), we get
Operation :
2π
Toff ⋅ Ip = V ⋅C The operation of this chopper is explained in three modes.
3 s
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.13) CHOPPERS

Mode 1 : Mode 3 :
With the capacitor C charged with lower plate positive, the At t2 thyristor pair T3, T4 is triggered, load voltage at once
load commutated chopper is ready for operation. When becomes Vo = Vs + Vc = 2Vs. Thyristor pair T1, T2 is reverse
thyristor pair T1, T2 is triggered at t = 0, circuit consisting of biased by Vc, this pair is therefore turned off at t2. The load
Vs, T1, C, T2 and load show that load voltage at once shoots current now flowing through Vs, T4, C, T3 and load charges
to Vo = Vs + Vc = 2Vs. Load current now flows from source capacitor linearly from (−Vs) at t2 to Vs at t3.
to load as shown in Fig. 3.16 (b). Mathematical Analysis :
The capacitor C is charged linearly by constant load current For constant load current Io, capacitor voltage charges
Io from Vs at t = 0 to (−Vs) at t1. When the capacitor voltage from –Vs to Vs in time Ton, i.e. total change in voltage is 2Vs
becomes (−Vs), the load voltage from 2Vs to Vo = Vs − Vs in time Ton.
= 0 at t1. At t = 0, when T1, T2 are turned OFF, T3, T4 are 2 Vs
∴ Io = C
reverse biased by capacitor voltage, i.e. at t = 0, vT3 = vT4 Ton
= − Vs. At t1, vT3 = vT4 = Vs, i.e. T3, T4 forward biased at t1. Io ⋅ Ton
or C = … (3.52)
2 Vs
Mode 2 :
Output voltage,
At t1, capacitor C is slightly overcharged, as a result free-
1 1
wheeling diode gets forward biased and load current is Vo = (2 Vs) Ton ⋅ = Vs ⋅ Ton f … (3.53)
2 T
transferred from T1, T2 to FD. From t1 onwards, load current
2 Vs
free-wheels through FD, Fig. 3.16 (b). During (t2 − t1), Ton = … (3.54)
Io
Vc = −Vs, Vo = 0, ic = 0, ifd = Io, iT1 = iT2 = 0, vT3 = vT4 = Vs
and vT1 = vT2 = − ∆Vs as capacitor is overcharged by a small Putting equation (3.54) in equation (3.53), we get the
average output voltage as,
voltage ∆Vs.
2
ig1 ig2 2 CVs 2 ⋅ Vs C ⋅ f
Vo = Vs ⋅ f ⋅ = … (3.55)
Io Io
0 t Minimum chopping period,
ig3 ig4
Tmin = Ton
∴ Maximum chopping frequency,
0 t
io 1 1
fmax = =
Tmin Ton
Io
0 t From equation (3.52),
Vo
Io 1
VS C = ⋅ … (3.56)
2 Vs fmax
0 t
It is seen from the waveforms of vT1, VT2, vT3 and vT4
Vo that circuit turn-off time for each thyristor is,
2VS 2VS 2VS 2VS
1 1 2 Vs CVs
tc = Ton = C = … (3.57)
0 t
2 2 Io Io
t 2 CVs
iC Total commutation interval = Ton = … (3.58)
Io
Merits :
0 t
• It is capable of commutating any amount of load
iD
current.
Io • No commutating inductor is required that is normally
0 t
costly, bulky and noisy.
Fig. 3.16 (b) : Voltage and Current waveforms of • As it can work at high frequency in the order of kHz,
load commutated chopper filtering requirements are minimal.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.14) CHOPPERS

Demerits : during steady-state working of chopper. Therefore,

• Peak load current is equal to twice the supply voltage. these will be a corresponding AC ripple superimposed
This peak can overcome by filtering. on the capacitor voltage which is same as the input
• For high-power applications, efficiency may become voltage to the chopper. The ripple in the capacitive
low because of higher switching losses at high voltage can be kept low within by choosing large value
operating frequencies. of capacitor C. For large values of C, we can use
electrolytic capacitor because its polarized nature is
• Free-wheeling diode is subjected to twice the supply
acceptable for DC circuit.
voltage.
Let Vr be the ripple voltage, fundamental component
• The commutating capacitor has to carry full-load
of current through C and L is given by,
current at frequency of half the chopping frequency.
Ic = Vr ω ⋅ C … (3.59)
• One pair of SCRs should be turned ON only when the This current through L is,
other pair is commutated. This can be done by sensing Vr
the capacitor current that is alternating. IL = … (3.60)
ωL
3.10 USE OF FILTER ON THE INPUT SIDE OF For best result, always Ic > IL.
CHOPPER Power rating of capacitor C is given by,
2
• In a chopper circuit, the ripple in the output current Vr Ic Vr ωC
Pc = = … (3.61)
can be reduced by increasing the chopper frequency 2 2
D1
or inductance in the load circuit. Actually input current o/p filter 1
+
iSec1 L1
flowing from the DC source consists of a train of pulses
L
i.e. ripple. This ripple in the input current is not o V01
D2 C1
affected by chopping frequency and load inductance. a
S d
To reduce this ripple present in the input current, a
_
source filter i.e. LC is inserted between input supply
and chopper circuit as shown in Fig. 3.17. D3
VS N1
CH +
isec2 L2
i1 L
L
C2 o V02
D4
a
L d
+
VS _ C FD Load _
o/p filter 2
Fig. 3.18 : Multiple isolated outputs of a forward DC chopper

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Filter
Example 3.1 : Input to the step-up chopper is 200 V. The
Fig. 3.17 : Circuit diagram of filter present in chopper
output required is 600 V. If the conducting time of thyristor
• The major disadvantages of input pulsed current are :
is 200 sec, compute chopping frequency, if the pulse width is
➢ The source has to handle a large peak current.
halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new
➢ There is a higher power loss in resistive paths due output voltage.
to the higher value of rms current.
Solution : Frequency is constant.
➢ There is electromagnetic inductance due to high
∴ f = 3.33 kHz
frequency components in the current and sharp
1
rising and falling edges of the current pulses. T = = 300 µs
f
• Therefore, it is necessary to provide a source filter to
keep peak-to-peak ripple current in DC source within ∴ Output voltage = V
 T 
acceptable limits i.e. very low.
T − tON
−6
• Due to charging of capacitor C during Toff and = 200
 300 × 10 
discharging of capacitor during time Ton of chopper
(300 − 100) 10−6
switch, capacitor current will be an alternating current = 300 volts … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.15) CHOPPERS

Example 3.2 : A DC chopper has a resistive load of 20 and Example 3.5 : A chopper has a minimum effective off time
input voltage Vs = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage of 30 µsec and 1500 V DC supply. The chopper frequency is
drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the 2000 Hz. What is the maximum duty cycle and maximum
duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output voltage and possible output voltage ?
the chopper on time. Solution : Given data :
Solution : Vs = 220 V, R = 20 Ω, f = 10 kHz Toff = 30 µsec,
ton Vs = 1500 V DC
d = = 0.80
T
fc = 2000 Hz
Vch = Voltage drop across chopper
1 1
= 1.5 volts fc = = = 500 µsec
T 2000
Average output voltage,
∴ Ton = T − Toff
Vdc =
ton (V − V ) = 500 − 30
 T  s ch
= 470 µsec
Vdc = 0.80 (220 − 1.5) = 174.8 volts … Ans.
∴ Duty cycle
Example 3.3 : In a DC chopper, the average load current is
30 amps, chopping frequency is 250 Hz supply voltage is Ton 470 × 10−6
α = =
110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper T 500 × 10−6
if the load resistance is 2 ohms. [Nov. 16, May 17, 9 Marks] α = 0.94 … Ans.
Solution : Chopper ON period, ∴ Vo = αVs
−3
ton = dT = 0.545 × 4 × 10 = 2.18 msecs Vo = 0.94 × 1500
Chopper OFF period, Vo = 1410 V … Ans.
toff = T − ton
Example 3.6 : For type A chopper or step-down chopper,
toff = 4 × 10−3 − 2.18 × 10−3 DC source voltage = 230 V, load resistance = 15 Ω. Take a
toff = 1.82 × 10−3 = 1.82 msec voltage drop of 2 V across chopper when it is on. For a duty
Example 3.4 : A chopper controlled electric train is powered cycle of 0.4, calculate :
from a 1500 V DC supply. The switching elements has a (i) Average and rms values of output voltage and
minimum effective on time of 50 µsec. During starting and (ii) Chopper efficiency.
slow speed running, the output of chopper has to go as low
Solution : Given data : Vs = 230 V, R = 15 Ω,
as 25. What is highest chopper frequency possible to satisfy
this requirements ? Voltage drop across chopper = 2 V, α = 0.4.
Solution : Given data : Vs = 1500 V, Ton = 50 µsec, (i) When chopper is on, output voltage is (Vs − 2) voltage
Vo = 25 V. and during the time chopper is off, output voltage is
From equation (3.2), Ton
Vo = αVs Vo = (Vs − 2)
T
Ton
Vo = V ∴ Vo = α (Vs − 2) = 0.4 (230 − 2)
T s
Ton Vo 25 V Vo = 91.4 V … Ans.
= =
T Vs 1500 V RMS value of output voltage,
α = 0.016 Vrms = α (Vs − 2)
Ton = 0.4 (230 − 2)
Now α =
T
= 144.2 V … Ans.
Ton 50 × 10−6
∴ T= α = = 3.125 msec (ii) Power output or power delivered to load,
0.016
2
1 1 Vrms (144.2)2
∴ fc = = Po = =
T 3.125 × 10−3 R 15
fc = 320 Hz … Ans. = 1362.24 W
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.16) CHOPPERS

Power input to chopper, When pulse width is valved,

Vo 1
Pi = Vs Io = 230 × Ton = × 189.9
R 2
91.2 = 94.9 µsec
= 230 ×
15
T = 289.9 µsec … Ans.
Pi = 1398.4 W
For constant frequency operation,
Chopper efficiency
T = 289.9 µsec
Po 1386.24
η = = Toff = T − Ton = 289.9 − 94.9 µsec
Pi 1398.4
= 189.8 µsec
= 99.13% … Ans.
Ton 94.9
Example 3.7 : A step-up chopper has input voltage of 230 V ∴ α = = = 0.327
T 289.9
and output voltage of 670 V. If the non-conducting time of
∴ New output voltage,
thyristor chopper is 100 µsec, compute the pulse width of
1
output voltage. Vo = × 230
1 − 0.327
In case, pulse width is halved for constant frequency
= 341.75 V … Ans.
operation, find the new output voltage.
Example 3.8 : An electric car employs a DC motor feed
Solution : Given data : Vs = 230 V, Vo = 670 V, Toff = 100
through a chopper from 220 V battery. The chopper operates
µsec
at a fixed frequency of 2 kHz. The motor resistance is 0.04 Ω
From equation (3.27),
and total inductance in load is 0.1 mH. At a speed of
1 4 mile/h, the motor develops an induced emf of 60. Chopper
Vo = V
1−α s
duty cycle is 33.2%.
1 Calculate :
670 = 230
1−α
(i) Peak to peak ripple current in motor.
1
2.9 = (ii) DC component of motor current.
1−α
Solution : Given data : Vs = 200 V, fc = 2 kHz, R = 0.04 Ω,
2.9 − 2.9 α = 1
L = 0.1 mH, α = 33.2%
1.9 = 2.9 α
= 0.332
1.9 Ton
α = = 1 1
2.9 T T = = 3
fc 2 × 10
1.9 = 0.5 msec
∴ Ton = T
2.9
Ton
α =
and Toff = T − Ton T
1.9 ∴ Ton = αt = 0.332 × 0.5 msec
= T− T
2.9 Ton = 0.166 msec.
100 µsec = T − 0.655 T L 0.1 × 10−3
Ta = =
R 0.04
= 0.345 T
= 2.5 msec
∴ T = 289.9 µsec
Induced e.m.f., E = 60 V
∴ Ton = T − Toff From equation (3.20),
= 289.9 − 100 µsec Vs 1 − e−Ton/Ta E
Imax = Ip =
R
 −
= 189.9 µsec  1 − e−T/Ta  R
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.17) CHOPPERS
−0.0664
=
200 1 − e  − 60 Ripple factor = RF = ((FF) − 1)
2 1/2

0.04  1 − e−0.2  0.04 2 1/2

= ((1.5811) − 1)
= 5000
0.06424 − 1500
0.18127 = 1.224
∴ Ip = 271.95 ≅ 272 A … Ans. RF = 112.4% … Ans.
From equation (3.21), Example 3.10 : A voltage commutated chopper feeds power
Vs e − 1 E
Ton/Ta to a battery power electric car. The battery voltage is 60 V,
Iv =
R
 T/T − starting current is 60 A and thyristor turn-off time is 20 µsec
 e a−1  R
calculate the values of commutating capacitor C and
0.0664
200  e  − 60 commutating inductor L.
=
0.04 e − 1 0.04
0.2

Solution : Given data : Vs = 60 V, Io = 60 A, Tq = 20 µsec.

= 5000 [0.310086] − 1500
Let circuit turn-off time tc = tq + ∆t = 20 + 20 = 40 µsec.
Iv = 50.43 … Ans.
For reliable turn-off of T1 and T2.
Example 3.9 : A single quadrant DC to DC converter is From equation (3.40),
operated with following specifications : tc Io
C =
(i) Ideal battery of 220 V. Vs
40 × 10−6 × 60
(ii) On time Ton = 1 msec. C = = 40 µF … Ans.
60
(iii) Off time Toff = 1.5 msec. Find : From equation (3.43),
2
(a) Average and rms output voltage.
L ≥
Vs
(b) Ripple factor and FF.  Io 
2
Solution : Given data : Vs = 220 V, Ton = 1 msec, Toff = 1.5 L ≥
60 × 40 × 10−6 = 40 µH
60
msec
of from equation (3.44),
T = Ton + Toff = 1 msec + 1.5 msec
2

= 2.5 msec L =
2tc × 1
 Io  C
Ton 1 −6 2
α =
T
=
2.5
= 0.4
=
2 × 40 × 10  × 1
 60  40 × 10−6
(a) Average load voltage :
= 16.21 µH … Ans.
Vo = α Vs = 0.4 × 220 = 88 V
As per equation (3.43), values of L should be equal to or
RMS output voltage, more than 40 µH, but equation (3.44) gives L = 16.21 µH.
Vrms = α Vs Low value of L increases the peak value of capacitor
current. So higher value of L = 40 µH should be chosen.
= 0.4 × 220

= 139.1 V … Ans. Example 3.11 : The resistance of heating element of a 230

V, 5.3 kW resistance furnace is 10 Ω. Find :
(b) Form factor FF :
(i) The duty ratio, for 50% input power using ICC.
Vrms 139.1
FF = =
Vs 88 (ii) The duty ratio for 50% of rated voltage using ICC
and
= 1.5811
(iii) The power factor at above condition.
or FF = 158.11% … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.18) CHOPPERS

Solution : Given data : V = 230 V, P = 5.3 kW, R = 10 Ω (iii) Chopper efficiency,

(i) We have, duty ratio for 50% input power, 2
Vrms (154.14)2
2 Po = =
Vo R 10
Input power, P =
R = 2376.2 Watt
2
KV Vo 109
Vo = K V or P = Pi = Vs Io = 200 = 200 ×
R R 10
∴ Duty ratio,
= 2398 Watt … Ans.
3
PR 5.3 × 10 10
K = 2= × 2 Chopper efficiency,
V 2 (230)
Po 2376.2
1 η = =
K = 0.5 = Pi 2398
2
η = 99% … Ans.
If (n + m) = 2 selected then n = 1.
Vs
(ii) For ICC, the output voltage, (iv) Rie =
Io
2

Vo = K V or K =
Vo = (0.5)2 = 1 R 10
V 4 ∴ Ri = =
D 0.5
= 20 Ω … Ans.

If (m + n) = 2 selected then n > 1. Example 3.13 : A DC chopper with R-L load is operated
(iii) In case of ICC, form 220V dc supply. The load parameters are R = 5
1/2 Ω, L = 7.5 mH and chopping frequency Fc = 1 KHz. If peak
PF =
Vo
= K=
1 = 0.5 … Ans. to peak load ripple current is maximum, calculate :
V 4
[May 15, 6 Marks]
Example 3.12 : A dc chopper has a resistive load of 10 Ω
(i) Maximum instantaneous load current
and the input voltage is 220 V. When the chopper switch
(ii) Minimum instantaneous load current
remains on, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping
(iii) Peak to peak load ripple current
frequency is 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 50%. Determine : (iv) Average load current
(i) The average output voltage. Solution : Vs = 220 V
R = 5Ω
(ii) The rms output voltage.
L = 7.5, H
(iii) The chopper efficiency. Fc = 1 kHz
1
(iv) The effective input resistance of chopper. ∴ T = = 0.001
Fc
[May 12, 14, Nov. 15, 8 Marks] Assume; δ = 0.5, E = 0
Solution : Given : fc = 1 kHz, Duty cycle = D = 50% = 0.5, 5
– (1 – 0.5) × 0.001 × –3
7.5 × 10
Vs = 220 V. Imin = Imax × e
 5 
(i) Vo = D (Vs − Vch) D –(1 – 0.5) × 0.001 ×
7.5 × 10 
–3
– 1 – e 
R
= 0.5 (220 − 2)
Imin = 0.7165 Imax + 0 …(1)
Vo = 109 volt … Ans. 5
– 0.5 × 0.001 × –3
7.5 × 10
(ii) Vrms = D (Vs − Vch) Imax = Imin e
 5

= 0.5 (220 − 2) 220 – 0  –0.5 × 0.001 ×
7.5 × 103
+
5
1 – e 
Vrms = 154.14 volt … Ans.
= 0.7165 Imin + 12.4726 …(2)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.19) CHOPPERS

Solve equation (1) and (2) • In voltage commutated chopper, SCR turn-off is
Imax = 26.63 A and Imin = 18.36 A achieved by applying reverse bias across it at desired
(i) Maximum instantaneous load current, Imax = 25.63 A… Ans. instant.
(ii) Minimum instantaneous load current, Imin = 18.36 A…
… Ans. • In current commutated chopper, SCR turn-off is
(iii) Peak to peak load ripple current achieved by resonant reversal of current.
Io(p – p) = Imax – Imin = 25.33 – 18.36 = 7.27 A … Ans.
• LC filter used commonly at the input side of filter for
(iv) Average load current
supply current harmonic reduction.
Imax + Imin
Io (av) = • Two quadrant chopper is operated in Buck mode
2
during motoring operation.
25.63 + 18.36
=
2
= 21.995 ≅ 22A … Ans. • Two quadrant chopper is operated in Boost mode
during regenerative operation.
Example 3.14 : A DC chopper operates on 230v DC and
frequency of 400Hz: feeds an RL load. Determine the on – • Two quadrant chopper can operate the DC machine
time of chopper for o/p of 150V. [May 16, 8 Marks] in motoring mode and regarding mode in one
Solution : V = 230V direction (either clockwise or anticlockwise).

F = 400 HZ • Four quadrant chopper can operate the DC machine

VLdc = 150 V in both directions (clockwise as well as anticlockwise)
in motoring mode as well as regenerating mode.
VLdc = D × V
VLdc 150 • Regenerating energy saving improves the efficiency
D = =
V 230 of DC chopper.
D = 0.65 • The output DC voltage is controlled either by
TON controlling the duty ratio or by changing the
D = = f TON
T
switching frequency.
0.65 = 400 × TON
• When one switch is used, converter operates in the
TON = 1.63msec … Ans.
first quadrant of the output characteristics and
SUMMARY power transfer only in one direction.
• A DC chopper or DC to DC converter is a switch
• When two or more switches are used, the power
mode converter, used to obtain an adjustable DC
transfer is reversible. Such converter finds its
voltage from a fixed, variable or unregulated DC
application in DC drives control speed and torque in
power supply.
all four quadrants.
• A DC chopper is also called as DC transformer
because its working is similar to that of AC UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
transformer. If DC chopper output voltage is greater
1. Explain with circuit diagram operation of step-up
than supply voltage, it is called as step-up chopper
chopper. Derive an expression for its output voltage.
and if output voltage is less than supply voltage, it is
called as step-down chopper. 2. Explain the operation of four quadrant chopper with

• Chopper is nothing but high-speed on-off circuit diagram and waveforms.

semiconductor switch. It connects the load or 3. Explain operation of step up chopper with circuit
disconnects the load at fast speed. diagram and derive an expression for its o/p voltage:
• Pulse width modulation technique is more Vs
Vo = where D is duty cycle.
(1 − D)
commonly used in DC chopper as compared to pulse
frequency modulation. [May 15, 17, 6 Marks]
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (3.20) CHOPPERS

4. Explain various control strategies in DC chopper. 11. Explain principle of step-up chopper. Derive an
5. Explain operation of four quadrant chopper with expression of average output voltage and duty cycle.
circuit diagram. [May 15, 17, Nov. 16, 10 Marks] 12. Design consideration of chopper circuit (short note).
6. Explain with block schematic working of SMPS. What 13. Write a short note on four quadrant chopper.
are its advantages over linear power supply. 14. What are the advantages of resonant converter ?
[May 15, 17, Nov. 16, 10 Marks] 15. What are the demerits of resonant load series
7. What are DC-to-DC converters? Explain with circuit converter ?
diagram and waveforms working of 4 Quadrant 16. What is AC link chopper ?
chopper? State its applications. 17. What are the applications of DC choppers ?
[May 16, Nov. 15, 16, 9 Marks] 18. For step-down chopper, obtain the expression for :
8. What is chopper ? Explain in brief. (a) average output voltage (Vo)
[Nov. 16, May 17, 9 Marks] (b) output current (Io)
9. Draw the circuit diagram of single phase AC Voltage (c) rms output voltage (Vrms)
controller with R load. Explain its operation. Draw the
(d) rms thyristor current (Irms)
waveform of output voltage.
(e) ripple voltage (Vr)
[Nov. 16, May 17, 9 Marks]
(f) ripple factor (RF)
EXERCISE (g) form factor (FF).
1. What are the merits of DC-to-DC converter ? 19. Give the mathematical analysis of step-up chopper.
2. Define chopper. What are the merits and demerits of 20. What are the different types of choppers ?
chopper ?
21. Explain the concept of
3. Explain the principle of chopper operation.
(a) First quadrant chopper
4. What are different types of choppers ? Explain step-
(b) Second quadrant chopper
down chopper and show that Vo = αVs.
(c) Two quadrant chopper
5. What are control strategies ? Explain how to control
(d) Four quadrant chopper
the output voltage of chopper.
22. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
6. Why CLC technique is used ?
multiphase choppers ?
7. What are merits of thyristor-based chopper ?
23. What are the merits of current commutated
8. What are the advantages of isolation DC-to-DC
chopper?
converters ?
24. What are the design considerations of current
9. What is the effect of turn-on and turn-off time of
commutated chopper ?
SCR on the performance of chopper ?
25. Give the classification of resonant converters.
10. Explain four quadrant chopper working with circuit
26. Explain the concept of "Load Commutated Chopper".
diagram.
 UNIT IV

SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

2. Based on Nature of Output Waveform :
4.1 INTRODUCTION [May 16]
• Square wave inverter.
Inverter is an electronic device which is used to deliver AC
• Quasi-square wave inverter.
power to output from a DC source of power.
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) inverter.
Following Fig. 4.1 shows the block diagram of a simplified
inverter. 3. Based on the Power Devices Being Used :
v • Thyristors.
t • MOSFETs.
+ Single phase
DC input Inverter AC
• IGBTs.
voltage V _ output voltage When the power devices are being used they can be
v turned off by controlling the base current.
t
Hence turning off these devices with the help of their gate
Fig. 4.1 : Block diagram of an inverter or base currents is caled self-commutation.

The dc input is converted into symmetrical ac output Hence the transistor (MOSFET and IGBT) baesed inverters
whose amplitude and frequency can be varied by do not require any additional commutation circuit those
controlling the input parameters. required by the thyristor based inverters.
4. Based on the Type of Communication Circuit Being
Inverters found applications in both household and
Used:
industrial applications :
• Lines commutation.
• Regulated-voltage and frequency power supplies.
• Forced commutation.
• Induction heating.
5. Based on the Configuration Used :
• Standby power supplies.
• Series inverter.
• Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
Here commutating components are in series with
• Induction heating. switching device.
• AC drives (variable speed, AC motor controller). • Parallel inverter.
• Battery vehicle drives. Here the commutating components are in parallel
• Ultra-sonic wave generators. with switching devices.
• Active power line filters. • Bridge inverters.
• Static VAR generators. They can be further classified as Half bridge, Full
bridge.
• Traction.
Here in the commutating components are
The dc input voltage required by the inverter can be
arranged in bridge.
provided by a battery, solar cell or any other dc voltage
source like fuel cell. 6. Based the Phases in Supply :
• Single phase inverters.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTERS
• Three phase inverters.
The inverters can be classified in many different ways like :
Note : In the following discussion of inverters the
1. Based on Nature of Input Source :
switching devices i.e. the transistors can be used by
• Voltage Source Inverters (VSI). MOSFET, IGBT interchangeability.
Here the input voltage is maintain constant. OR
• Current Source Inverters (CSI) Transistors can be interchanged by MOSFET and IGBT in
Here the input current is maintained constant. our discussion.
(4.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.2) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

4.3 HALF BRIDGE INVERTER WITH 'R' LOAD • The working of the half bridge inverter is as follows :
➢ The transistor (MOSFET or IGBT) Q1 is turned ON
Q1 for a time T0/2 which makes the instantaneous
V/2 D1
R voltage appear across the load, resistance 'R'.
O Load ➢ The value of output voltage (Vo) is given by
A
V
D2 Vo =
V/2 Q2 2
• Similarly, when transistor Q2 is turned ON at the instant
Fig. 4.2 : Half bridge inverter T0/2 until time T0, by turning OFF Q1 then − V/2 voltage
• The above Fig. 4.2 shows half bridge inverter using two appears across the load Resistance 'R'.
transistors (MOSFET or IGBT). The waveforms are shown in above Fig. 4.3.
• The diodes are used to protect the IGBT from blocking The amount of current flowing through the load is
negative voltage. The diodes allow free-wheeling given by,
operation. The load is purely resistive. Voltage
Load current =
Resistance
• When only two switching devices are used for
converting the DC to AC then the configuration is V/2 V
Load current (IL) = =
known as half bridge inverter. R 2R

Load +V/2
voltage
0 t
T0/2 T0 2T0

-V/2
Conducting Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
devices
V/2R
IQ1
t
0 T0/2 T0
V/2R
IQ2
t
0 T0
Load V/2R
current t
0
-V/2R
+V +V
VQ1 VCE(sat)

t
0
T0/2 T0

Close
V/2 Q1 V/2 Q1 Open
V/2 _
_ + +
O Load A O Load A
V/2
Q2
V/2 Q2 V/2
Open Close

Fig. 4.3 : Load voltage and current waveforms with resistive load for half bridge inverter
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.3) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

4.4 HALF BRIDGE INVERTER WITH RL LOAD Interval I Energy

(t0 − t1) [Mode-I] :
Energy
Source Load Source Load

Q1 Q1
D1 V/2
D1
V/2
RL RL
+
O Load + V/2 _ D1 D1
O Load V/2 _A
A IL
V/2 D2 IL
D2 Q2 Q _ Load A
V/2 +
Q2 Q _ Load A
+ VO = +V/2
VO = +V/2Fig. 4.4 (b) : Interval I (t0 − t1)
Fig. 4.4 (a) : Half bridge inverter • During this mode or interval, the diode D1 is forward
• The above Fig. 4.4 (a) shows half bridge inverter using biased and hence conducting.
two transistors (MOSFET or IGBT) and the load is of RL • The value of output voltage during this period is + V/2
type. volts.
• To understand the working we shall divide it in • The output waveforms of half bridge inverter is shown
following time intervals (modes). in Fig. 4.4 (c).
+V/2 +V/2 Load voltage

t4 Load current
t
0 t1 t2 t3

-V/2 -V/2
IQ1
Transistor t
current 0
IQ2
t Energy stored by load
0
ID2 Energy restored back
t
Diode 0
current
ID2
0 t
Mode I II III IV
conducting D1 Q1 D2 Q2
devices
Source
current t
0
VQ1 +V
Voltage
across
the transistor t
0

Fig. 4.4 (c) : Current and voltage waveforms for half bridge inverter with RL load
Energy
Interval II (t1 − t2) [Mode-II] : Source Load
• The transistor Q1 is turned ON at instant and the
output load voltage is equal to V/2. IL
• During this interval the positive load current increases
+ Q1
gradually. V/2 _

• At time t2, the load current reaches the peak value and
the transistor Q1 is turned OFF at the same time. O _ Load A
+
• As the polarity of load voltage and load current is VO = +V/2
same as the energy is stored by the load. Fig. 4.4 (d) : Circuit in interval II (t1 − t2)
• The energy is delivered from the source to the load • Above Fig. 4.4 (d) depicts the working of half bridge
during this interval. inverter during interval II.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.4) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

Interval III (t2 − t3) [Mode III] : • Depending on the load power factor, the conduction
• As the load is inductive, the load current direction is period of the transistor will vary between 90° to 180°.
maintained same even after Q1 is turned OFF. • For purely resistive load the conduction period of the
• The value (magnitude) of self induced voltage across transistor is 180°.
the load is negative. The working of half-bridge inverter is summarized in
• The load current flows through the lower half of the following Table 4.1.
supply via D2 as shown in the following Fig. 4.4 (e). Table 4.1
Energy
Source Load
Interval (t0 − t1) (t1 − t2) (t2 − t3) (t3 − t4)
-V/2
_
Mode I II III IV
+ Load
O A Conducting D1 Q1 D2 Q2
IL devices
+
V/2 _ D2 Output + V/2 + V/2 − V/2 − V/2
voltage
Output Negative Positive Positive Negative
Fig. 4.4 (e) : Equivalent circuit in interval III (t2 − t3) current
• During this interval the energy stored in the load is Power flow Load to Source to Load to Source to
given back to the lower half of the source, clamping source load source load
the load voltage by − V/2.
RMS output voltage is given by,
Interval IV (t3 − t4) [Mode IV] : 1/2
1 π 
= π ⌠
2
• At time t3, the load current is gradually comes to zero, Vo rms ⌡ (V/2) dωt
indicating that all the stored energy has been returned  0 
2 1/2
back from the load to source.
∴ Vo rms =
 V × π
• At time t3, the transistor 'Q2' is turned ON, Energy
due to 4π 
which is load current and load voltage are negative Load
Source in V
∴ Vo rms = volts
magnitude. VO = -V/2 2
+ _
Load
• The value of load voltage is Vo = − OV/2. A Load
voltage +V/2
• The load current attains its peak value until the IL
end of
this interval. + Q2
V/2 _ wt
0 p 2p
Energy
Source Load
-V/2
VO = -V/2
_
+ Load Fig. 4.4 (g)
O A Load
voltage +V/24.5 SINGLE PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER [Nov. 15]
IL
is
+ Q2
V/2 _ wt
0 p 2p
Q1 Q3
D1 D3
-V/2 R
+
V_ Load
Fig. 4.4 (f) : Interval IV (t3 − t4) A B

• During this interval, the energy is delivered from D4 D2

Q4 Q2
source to load.
Note :
Fig. 4.5 (a) : Single phase full bridge inverter
• The conduction period of the transistors depends upon
• The above Fig. 4.5 (a) shows single phase bridge
the load power factor.
inverter with resistive load.
• When the load is inductive in nature, a transistor
• The arrangement of the inverter consists of four
(MOSFET or IGBT) conducts only for T0/2 or 90°.
transistor, (MOSFET or IGBT).
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.5) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

• To obtain an ac waveform at the output, the transistors • The diode D1, D2, D3 and D4 are acting as feedback
are turned ON and OFF in pairs of Q1, Q2 and Q3, Q4. elements as the energy is fed back to the source
• Thus to obtain a positive voltage (+V) across the load,
through them when the load is inductive in nature.
the transistors Q1 and Q2 are turned ON (kept
conducting) simultaneously, whereas to obtain a • The waveform of the single phase bridge inverter with
negative voltage (−V) at the output i.e. across the load, resistive load is shown in the following Fig. 4.5 (b).
the transistors Q1 and Q2 are need to be turned ON.
Load
+V
voltage

t
0 T0/2 T0

Load -V
current V/R

t
0
-V/R
Supply -V/R
current
t
0

IQ1. IQ2 V/R

t
0 T0/2 T0
Transistor
currents
IQ3. IQ4 V/R

t
0
Interval I Interval II
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Q1 Q3
+ _
Load V
V A B
_ Load
Q2 A + B
Q4

Fig. 4.5 (b) : Voltage and current waveforms with resistive load

• The working principle of the single phase bridge

inverter with resistive load is explained in the following
time intervals (modes) :
Interval I (0 − T0/2) [Mode – I] :
• During this interval, the transistors Q1 and Q2 are kept
conducting simultaneously.
• Thus the load voltage appeared across the resistive Fig. 4.5 (c) : Mode I equivalent circuit (0 − T0/2)
load is +V volts and the direction (flow) of current is Interval II (T0/2 − T0) [Mode-II] :
• During this time interval the transistor Q3 and Q4 are
from A to B.
turned ON at time, t = T0/2 while Q1 and Q2 are turned
• The transistors act as closed switch when they are OFF at the same time.
conducting. • The load voltage appeared the resistive load is −V volts
• The equivalent circuit of Mode-I is shown in following and the direction (flow) of current is from B to A.
Fig. 4.5 (c). • Due to the resistive load the energy is not stored and
hence feedback diodes do not come into picture here.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.6) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

4.6 SINGLE PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER WITH

RL LOAD [Feb. 15, 16, 17, Nov. 16]

Q1 Q3
D1 D3
+ RL
V_ Load
A B
Fig. 4.5 (d) : Mode II equivalent circuit (T0/2 − T0)
D4 D2
Note : Q4 Q2
• The load current and load voltage are in phase to each
other. Fig. 4.6 (a) : Single phase full bridge inverter
• The conduction period of the transistors is 180°.
• Consider Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 as IGBTs.
• Maximum value of current through each transistor is,
• The above Fig. 4.6 (a) shows single phase bridge
V
Imax = inverter with RL load.
R
• The construct is same as that of single phase bridge
• Average value of current through each transistor is,
V inverter with resistive load.
Iavg = • Now the feedback elements i.e. the diodes D1, D2, D3
2R
• The maximum value of forward voltage across and D4 store energy as the load is inductive from the
transistor is, source.
Vmax (peak) = V volts
Load +V Load voltage
voltage
t4 Load current
t
0 t1 t2 t3

To/2 -V To

IV I II III
IQ1 IQ2

t
0 t1 t2
ID1 ID2
0 t Energy stored by load
t1
IQ3 IQ4 Energy returned
t
0 t3 t4
ID3 ID4
t
0 t2 t3
Supply
current
t
0

VCE(sat) +V
VQ1
VD1
t
0
t4
t0 t1 t2 t3
+ +

D1 Q1 D3 Q3
_ + _ _
V + _ +
+
D2 Q2 Q4
D4 _
_
t0 - t1 t1 - t2 t2 - t3 t3 - t4

Fig. 4.6 (b) : Voltage and current waveforms for single phase bridge inverter with RL load
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.7) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

Energy
• The above Fig. 4.6 (b) shows the waveforms of single Source Load
phase bridge inverter with RL load. io
• The operation of the inverter is divided into four Q1
Vo = -V D3
_
intervals (modes) for better understanding. + Load +
V_
Interval I (t1 − t2) [Mode-I] :
D4 Q2
• At time t = t1 the pair of transistors Q1 and Q2 is turned
ON.
• The transistors act as a closed switch and hence 'A' Fig. 4.6 (d) : Interval II (t2 − t3)
gets connected to positive terminal of the dc source. • During this time the stored energy in the load inductor
'V' through Q1 and 'B' gets connected to the negative is returned back to the source through the feedback
terminal of the input supply or dc source. elements i.e. the diode.
Energy
Source Load • And thus the load current starts decreasing
exponentially and settles to zero at time, t3, when all
Q1 Vo = V the energy stored in the inductive load is returned
+
+
Load
_ back to supply.
A B
V _ • The diodes D3 and D4 are turned OFF at time, t3.
Q2
Interval III (t3 − t4) [Mode-III] :
io
• At time t = t3 the transistor Q3 and Q4 are turned ON
Fig. 4.6 (c) : Interval I (t1 − t2) simultaneously.
• The above Fig. 4.6 (b) shows the flow of current • The output load voltage remains negative equal to (−V)
through the load RL during interval I (Mode-I). volts but the direction of load current will reverse and
• The value of output voltage is given by, its magnitude becomes negative.
Vo = +V volts • The current increases in the negative direction and
• The load current starts increasing exponentially due to energy is stored in the load.
the inductive nature of the load. • This operation is shown in the following Fig. 4.6 (e).
• The instantaneous current through Q1 and Q2 is equal io
+ Q3
to the instantaneous load current through RL. V0 = -V +
• The energy is stored into the inductive load during this _ V A _
Load
B
interval (i.e. t1 − t2). Q4 Energy
Interval II (t2 − t3) [Mode-II] : Source Load

• During this mode the conducting transistors Fig. 4.6 (e) : Interval III (t3 − t4)
(Q1 and Q2) are turned OFF at time t2. Interval IV (t4 − t5) [Mode-IV] :
• But the load current does not comes to zero at once • The mode IV operation is same as that in mode I.
due to the inductive nature of load. • At instant t4 (t0) the transistors Q3 and Q4 are turned
• In order to maintain the flow of current in the same OFF.
direction there is a self induced voltage across the • The load inductance tries to maintain the load current
load. in the same direction by inducting a positive load
• The magnitude of the voltage is exactly opposite to voltage.
that in the previous mode. • Due to which the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased,
• Thus, the output becomes negative equal to '−V' volts. and thus the energy stored in the load inductance is
returned back to the input dc supply.
• But still the load current continuous to remain in the
• The value of load voltage Vo = +V, but the load current
same direction through D3 and D4 as shown in
remains negative and decreases to zero.
following Fig. 4.6 (d).
• The operation in this interval is shown in Fig. 4.6 (f).
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.8) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS
Energy
2. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) :
Source Load
D1 • The total harmonic distortion gives the measure of the
+
+ _ total amplitude of the harmonics present in the output
Load
A B
V _ of the inverter excluding the fundamental component.
Vo = +V D2 OR
io • It is the measure of closeness in shape between a
Fig. 4.6 (f) : Interval IV (t4 to t5) or (t0 − t1) waveform and its fundamental component.
• At time t5 (t1) the load current is finally settled to zero ∞ 1/2
1  ∑ 2 
and transistors Q1 and Q2 can be turned ON again. THD = 
V01 rms n = 2, 3 …
V0n rms

Note : 1/2
1 2 2 2
• The conduction period of a transistors and diodes is THD =
V01 rms [ V2 + V3 + V4 + … ]
T0/4 or 90° in case of RL load.
Where V2, V3 … are the rms voltages at second, third
• The conduction period of transistors will increase to
… harmonic frequencies.
180° or T0/2 with increase in the load power factor (i.e.
Thus, THD gives the total harmonic content.
it becomes more and more resistive).
3. Distortion Factor (D.F.) :
• The value of RMS output voltage is given by,
1/2 • As we saw the THD gives the total harmonic content
 1 T2 
 ⌠ 2  but it does not indicate the level of every harmonics
Vo rms =
T0/2 ⌡ V dt
 component.
 0 
2 1/2 • Using a filter at the output of the inverter would
2V T0 − 0
=  attenuate (or remove) the higher order harmonics
Vo rms 
 T0  2  effectively.
Vo rms = V volts • Hence, information of both the frequency and the
• The working of single phase bridge inverter with RL magnitude of each harmonic must be known.
load is summarized in the following table 4.2. • The distortion factor gives the amount of harmonic
Table 4.2 distortion that remains in a particular waveform after
Interval (t0 − t1) (t1 − t2) (t2 − t3) (t3 − t4) the harmonics of the waveform have been subjected to
Mode IV I II III 2
a second order attenuation (i.e. divided by n ).
Conducting D1 D2 Q1 Q2 D3 D4 Q3 Q4
• Thus, DF is a measure of effectiveness in reducing the
devices
Output +V +V −V −V unwanted harmonic without having to specify the
voltage values of a second order load filter.
∞ 1/2
Output Negative Positive Positive Negative 1  ∑ 2 2
current Thus, DF =  (V
V01 rms n = 2, 3 … 0n rms
/n ) 

Power flow Load to Source to Load to Source to 2 2 2 1/2
source load source load 1 V2  V3  V4 
∴ DF =  2 + 2 + 2 + …
V01 rms  2  3  4  
4.7 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Though it is supposed that the inverter has pure ac 4. Lowest Order Harmonic :
(sinusoidal) output, but practically inverters contains • It gives the lowest order harmonic that harmonic
harmonics and the quality of an inverter is normally component whose frequency is the closest to the
evaluated in terms of following performance parameters. fundamental one and its amplitude is greater than or
th
1. Harmonic Factor of n Harmonic (HFn) : equal to 3% of the fundamental component.
The contribution of every individual harmonic gives the
4.8 SINGLE PHASE PWM (PULSE WIDTH
measures of harmonic.
It can be defined as the ratio of rms voltage of a particular MODULATION) INVERTERS [Feb. 17]
harmonic component to the rms value of fundamental • To control the output voltage of the inverter we need
component. to control the operation of the inverter.
V0n rms • This is done to fulfill the AC load requirements.
i.e. HFn =
V01 rms
th • Thus one of the efficient methods is to use PWM
Where,V0n rms = RMS value of the n harmonic of
where a fixed input dc is given input to the inverter
output voltage
and the controlled output is obtained by adjusting the
and V01 rms = RMS value of the fundamental
ON and OFF periods of the inverter components.
component
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.9) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

Advantages of using PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) :

Q1 Q3
• No additional components are required in order to D1 D3
control the output voltage. +
V_ Load
• The harmonic of lower order can be eliminated A B
(removed) along with controlling the output voltage. D4 D2
Q4 Q2
• In order to use PWM high speed switching devices
must be used.
Fig. 4.7 : Single phase full bridge inverter
• Use of PWM reduces the harmonic content in the 1. Single-Pulse Modulation (SPM)
output (load) AC voltage. • The output voltage of a single phase bridge inverter is
4.8.1 Harmonic Elimation / Modulation Technique as shown in Fig. 4.8 (a).
• The output voltage is square wave in nature.
• The types of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
• The Fourier series of the output square voltage is given
Techniques : ∞
1. Single-Pulse Modulation (SPM). by, Vo = a0 + ∑ (an ⋅ cos nωt + bn sin nωt)
n = 1, 2, …
2. Multiple-Pulse Modulation (MPM).
Where, a0 = Average value = 0
3. Sinusoidal-Pulse Mdoulation (Sin M). 2
π

4. Phase Displacement Modulation. ⌠ V cos nωt ⋅ d(ωt) = 0

an = π ⌡
0
• All above mention PWM technique have output π
2
voltages having different level of harmonic content in bn = π ⌠
⌡ V sin nωt d(ωt)
it. 0

• The construction of the PWM inverter remains the ∴ bn = 0

same as which is shown in following Fig. 4.7 all PWM for n = 2, 4, 6 …
techniques. 4V
bn =
• The devices are switched ON and OFF several times nπ
within in each half-cycle in order to control the output for n = 1, 3, 5.
voltage which has low harmonic content. Thus, the square wave output voltage contains odd
harmonics.
Supply -V/R
current
t
0

IQ1, IQ2 V/R

t
0 T0/2 T0
Transistor
currents
IQ3, IQ4 V/R

t
0 Interval I Interval II
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Load
+V
voltage

t
0 T0/2 T0
-V
Load
current V/R

t
0
-V/R
Fig. 4.8 (a) : Single phase bridge inverter without modulation
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.10) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

• Here, in single pulse modulation (SPM), the output When width of δ is maximum i.e. δ = π, the amplitude
pulse delay in the beginning while it is advanced at the of fundamental component is given by,
end by equal interval of (π − δ)/2 shown in following 4V
V01 m = π
Fig. 4.8 (b).
When width of δ ≠ π, the peak value of fundamental
Where δ = width of the output pulse.
component is

V01m = π sin  
d 4V δ
+V  
2
p-d
2 Thus the peak (maximum) value of the fundamental
th
Vo
0 wt component and n harmonic component (V0 nm) is a

function of sin  .
p/2 p 3p/2 2p δ
 
2
-V Taking ratio of V0 and V01 gives the harmonic
nm m
content.
Fig. 4.8 (b) : Quasi-square wave output
V0 nm 1 nδ
(output with modulation) = sin
V01 m n 2
• The nature of the output waveform is called as quasi-
The ratio for different pulse widths 'δ' is plotted in
square wave. following Fig. 4.8 (c).
• The Fourier series of the quasi-square wave is same as 1

that of a square wave,

∞ 0.75
i.e. Vo = a0 + ∑ (an cos nωt + bn sin nωt) n=1
n = 1, 2 …
0.50
• And the Fourier co-efficient are given by, V
onm
a0 = Average value = 0 V n=3
o1m
0.25 n=5
π+δ

2
( )2
n=7
an = π ⌠
⌡ V cos nωt ⋅ d(ωt) = 0
0
30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º
π−δ Pulse width d
( )2
Fig. 4.8 (c) : Harmonic content
π+δ

2
( ) 2
• It is observed that for lower values of δ i.e. pulse widths
rd th th
i.e. δ < 45°, the 3 , 5 and 7 harmonic components
bn = π ⌠ V sin nωt ⋅ d(ωt)
⌡ become almost comparable to the fundamental
π−δ
( )2 component.
• Thus one can conclude that reducing δ, introduces the
∴ bn =
4V
⋅ sin
nδ
nπ 2 lower odd harmonics with amplitudes comparable to
that of fundamental output signal.
Thus, the output voltage can be expressed as,
∞
We have,V0 nm=
4V
sin
nδ
Vo = ∑ bn sin nωt nπ 2
n = 1, 3, 5 …
2π
∞ Now, if δ =
Vo = ∑
4V
sin
nδ sin nωt n
n = 1, 3, 5 … nπ 2 then, V0 nm = 0
th
The amplitude (value) of the n harmonic component 2π
• Thus by changing the width of pulse 'δ' equal to ,
is given by, n
th
V0 nm =
4V
sin
nδ the corresponding n harmonic can be suppressed or
nπ 2 eliminated.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.11) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

2. Multiple Pulse Modulation (MPM) • Pulse width of reference signal (half of the square
• In this method the switching devices are turned ON 1
wave) = .
and OFF many times in a half-cycle to obtain several 2fr
pulses in the half-cycle. Hence, the number of pulses in each half cycle, (P),
• The signals used for triggering the switching devices Width of half-cycle
P =
(transistors/MOSFET/IGBT) are generated by Pulse width of carrier signal
comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier (1/2fr)
P =
wave as shown in Fig. 4.9. (1/fc)
Reference Carrier
square wave triangular wave fc
P =
2fr

Comparator fc
Let, = mf, frequency modulation ratio.
fr
mf
Trigger ∴ P =
pulse 2
generator
The modulation index,
Trigger Vr
pulses M =
Vc
to SCRs

(a) Block diagram Where, Vr = Magnitude of reference signal

Carrier signal Vc
Vc = Magnitude of carrier signal.
Vc
Reference
Vr When M is varied from 0 to 1, the width of pulse (δ)
signal Vr
0 2p
y p/2p wt
varies from 0 to π/P and output voltage increases from
p/p
d
d
0 to Vs.
Vo
2y π
Vs
Thus, = δ + 2y … (4.1)
Output P
voltage
0
p/p p 2p
wt Vr Vc
But, =
am y (π/2P)
-Vs
p + am ∴ y =  π  × Vr … (4.2)
2P Vc
(b) Gating signal generation, and output voltage waveform
From equation (4.1) and (4.2)
Fig. 4.9 : Multiple-pulse-width modulation π  Vr 
= δ+ 
π
• The triggering pulses are obtained at the point of P P Vc
intersection of the carrier and a reference signal
∴ δ =
π 1 − Vr 
(square wave). P  Vc
• The switching devices (transistors) are ON until the • Thus the width of δ can be known if Vr, Vc and number
magnitude of triangular wave is greater than reference of pulses in each half cycle are predefined.
square wave else they are turned OFF. The value of RMS output voltage is given by,
1/2
• It is clear that the frequency (fo) of the output voltage
 
1 π
signal depends on the frequency of reference signal (fr) [ ] 2 P
+δ

and also the carrier frequency (fc). Vo


= 2
π
⌠
⌡ V d (ωt)
 2

 
2P s
• It also gives the number of pulses (P) present in the 1
 
π

output voltage in the given half cycle.

[ ] 2 P
−δ

1 Pδ
• Pulse width of carrier signal = . ∴ Vo = Vs π
fc
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.12) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

3. Sinusoidal Pulse Modulation (Sin M) • When the modulation index (M) is increased beyond
• This method is similar to that of multiple pulse unity i.e. for M > 1, the pulse width does not remains a
modulation having a difference of pulse width not sinusoidal function of the angular position of pulse
being equal. hence the lower order harmonics are observed.
• The reference signal in case of multiple pulse 4. Pulse-Displacement Modulation
modulation was a square wave while in case of
• This technique simple uses the output of different
sinusoidal pulse modulation we use a sine wave as a
reference waveform. inverters, adds it up, and introduce phase displacement

• While the carrier waveforms is triangular in nature. among the outputs of the inverters to achieve the
voltage control.
• The signals used for triggering the switching devices
(transistor) are generated by comparing a reference • The working of phase displacement modulation can be
signal (sine-wave) with a triangular wave as shown in explained with the help of the following Fig. 4.11.
the following Fig. 4.10.
Reference sinusoidal signal Vs/2
Vc
Carrier signal Va 0 wt
Vr p 2p 3p 4p

0 wt
1
fc 1 Vb 0 wt
p 2p 3p 4p
2f
(A) Vs /2
Output Vs Vs
voltage
Vo
0 wt 0 wt
p 2p Vab p 2p 3p 4p

-Vs -Vs
b = 60º
Sinusoidal-pulse-width modulation (sin M)
Vs/2
Fig. 4.10 : Sinusoidal-pulse-width modulation (Sin M) Vb' 0 wt
-Vs/2
• The triggering pulses are obtained at the point of (B)
b = 60º
intersection of the carrier and a reference signal (sine Vs
wave). Vab
0 wt
• The switching devices are ON until the magnitude of
sine wave is greater than that of triangular wave. i.e. Vr
> Vc else it is turned OFF. Fig. 4.11 : Phase displacement control
• The comparison operation is carried out in a
Here Va and Vb are output of two individual inverters,
comparator when Vr > Vc the comparator output is
which are 180° out of phase from each other. The
maintained high else it is low.
waveform Vab is the sum of Va and Vb (after taking
• By controlling the modulation index M, (i.e. ratio of
phase displacement of 180° of Vb) Vb' is the phase
Vr/Vc), the harmonic content in the output voltage can
be controlled. displaced waveform of Vb by an angle β = 60°.
∞
When harmonic analysis is carried out of the output 2VS
If, Va = ∑ sin nωt
modulated waveform, following conclusions are made : n = 1, 3, 5 nπ
• When M = (Vr/Vc) < 1, the dominant harmonics of the ∞
2VS
and V b' = ∑ sin n (ωt − β)
order (2P ± 1) are observed which can be raised and n = 1, 3, 5 nπ
filter out easily.
Then the instantaneous output voltage is given by
• As the number of pulses in each half-cycles is
increased, the significant harmonics are increased thus Vab' = Va − Vb'
the filtering requirements are minimized, which in turn ∞
2VS
∴ Vab' = ∑ [sin nωt − sin n (ωt − β)]
reduces the efficiency of system (inverter). n = 1, 3, 5 nπ
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.13) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS
∞
∴ Vab' = ∑
4VS
sin
nβ cos n ωt − β SOLVED EXAMPLES
n = 1, 3, 5 nπ 2  2
Example 4.1 : Single phase full bridge inverter is operated
• The rms value of the fundamental component of the from 48V dc supply, it has a resistive load of R= 2.4 Ω. Find
output voltage is given by its rms o/p voltage at fundamental frequency.
4VS β [Feb. 15, 17, 2 Marks]
vrms = sin
2 2 Solution : Given : V = 48 V, R = 2.4 Ω
1 π   v2 
2
• Which is obtained by varying the delay angle. = π ⌠
2
Vorms ⌡ (v/2) dωt  =4π × π
4.9 DEVICE UTILIZATION FACTOR  0 
V 48
• The utilization factor or use factor is the ratio of the Vorms = volts =
2 2
time that a piece of equipment is in use to the total
Vorms = 24 volts. … Ans.
time that it could be in use. It is often averaged over
Example 4.2 : Single phase full bridge inverter is operated
time in the definition such that the ratio becomes the
from 48 V dc supply, it has resistive load of R = 2.4Ω. Find :
amount of energy used divided by the maximum
[May 15, 6 Marks]
possible to be used.
(i) rms o/p voltage at fundamental frequency (VOI)
• In DC-AC converter elements (i.e. thyristors are (ii) rms o/p power
maintained in ON state, depending on following (iii) rms o/p voltages at second and third harmonic
factors.) (VO2 and VO3)
i. Output signal desired frequency Solution : Vs = 48 V, R = 2.4 Ω
ii. Load (i) rms output voltage at fundamental frequency
V1 = 0.9 Vs = 0.9 × 48 = 43.2 volts … Ans.
• Device utilization factor is also governed by type of
(ii) rms output power
D.C. to A.C. converter such as single phase and three
Vo (rms) = Vs = 48 volts … Ans.
phase. In case of I-φ circuit, this factor is more as
Output power
compared to 3 φ circuit. This factor also released to
2
mean time to failure (MTTF). As firing angle increases, V0 (rms) (48)
2
Po = = = 960 W
device conduction angle decrease. So it’s utilization R 2.4
factor also decreases. (iii) rms output voltage at second and third harmonic
th
rms value of n hormanic is given as
4.10 APPLICATIONS OF INVERTERS
0.9 Vs
Some important applications of inverters are Vo (rms) = Von =
n
• Adjustable speed a.c. drive 0.9 Vs 0.9 × 48
Vo2 = = = 21.6 V … Ans.
2 2
• Induction heating
0.9 Vs 0.9 × 48
• Stand-by aircraft power supplies Vo3 = = = 14.4 V … Ans.
3 2
• UPS (Uninterrupted power supply) Example 4.3 : Single phase full bridge inverter is operated
• HVDC from 48V dc supply, it has a resistive load of R = 2.4 Ω. Find
its. [Feb. 16, 4 Marks]
• Satellite power supply
(i) Output power (Po) (ii) Total harmonic distortion
• Astranout suits cooling system
(THD).
• Illumination system Solution : Given : V = 48 volts, R = 2.4 Ω
• Domestic electric supply (i) The output power:
2
• Ultrasonic generator 2 (48)
Po = V /R = = 960 watts. … Ans.
2.4
• SONAR transmitter
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.14) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

(ii) Total harmonic distortion : 1 1 1

= 2 + 2 + 2
1/2 3 5 7
 ∞
2 1 1 1
Vn =  Σ Vn = + +
9 25 49
 n = 3, 5, 7 
1/2 = 0.17152 = 17.15% … Ans.
= Vo rms V01 
2 2
rd
rms 
(f) Harmonic factor for 3 harmonic,
V0.1rms = 0.9 × 48 = 43.2 volts 1
HF3 = = 33.33%
1/2 3
2 2
Vn = [(48) − (43.2) ] rd
Distortion factor for 3 harmonic,
Vn = 20.92 volts HF3 0.33
DF3 = 2 = = 3.67% … Ans.
∴ THD = 2092/43.2 = 48.43% … Ans. 3 9
Example 4.4 : For single phase full bridge inverter, input Example 4.5 : The three phase bridge inverter is supplying a
voltage V = 60 V, R = 5 Ω, calculate : (a) the RMS output balanced star connected resistive load with a resistance of
voltage at fundamental frequency, (b) The output power, (c) 10 Ω per phase. If the DC supply voltage is 440 V, calculate :
the average and peak current of each SCR, (d) the peak (a) the RMS load current, (b) the power output, (c) peak,
reverse blocking voltage of SCR, (e) the total harmonic average and RMS values of current through the SCR. Assume
distortion, (f) the harmonic factor and distortion factor of the 180° conduction.
lowest order harmonic. Solution : The effective load resistance,
Solution : (a) The RMS output voltage at fundamental R 3R 3 × 10
Req = R + = = = 15 Ω
frequency is, 2 2 2
ViR = 0.9 V = 0.9 × 60 = 54 V … Ans. ∴ The current supplied by the source which is
(b) The output power is, constant at all intervals is,
2 V 440 V
VR 602 I = = = 29.3 A
Po = = = 720 W … Ans. Req 15
R R
The phase current = Line current
(c) The peak current of each SCR,
Vam
60 io =
ISCR (peak) = = 12 A R
5
The RMS value of the current,
As R = 5Ω
T
The average current of each SCR, 1 2
IRMS = ⌠ i dt
T ⌡ av
12 0
ISCR (av) = =6A … Ans.
2 2 2
2 I T 0.2 TI × 2T
(d) Reverse blocking voltage, = +
T6 6 
VRB = V = 60 V … Ans. By putting I = 29.3 A,
2 2 2 2
29.3 + 0.25 × 29.3 × 2
2 2
V − ViR 60 − 54
(e) THD = = IR = 2
ViR 54  6 6 
= 0.4841 = 48.41% = 20.72 A
th
RMS value of n harmonic, The power output,
2
ViR 54 Po = 3IR R = 3 × 20.72 × 10
2
VnR = =
n n
= 12879.6 watt … Ans.
Distortion factor,
(c) RMS value of current through each SCR,
2 2 2

DF =
1 ViR2  + Vin2  + Vin2  2 2
1 I T 0.25I × 2T
ViR 3  5  7  ISCR (RMS) =
T6
+
6 
2 2 2

∴ DF =
Vin R  12 +  12 +  12 2
29.3 0.25 × 29.3 × 2
2

ViR 3  5  7  = ×
6 6
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.15) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

= 14.65 A … Ans. Example 4.9 : A single phase full bridge inverter is operated
1 2 × 0.5 × I × T I × T from a 48 V battery and supplying power to a pure resistive
ISCR (av) = +
T 6 6  load of 15 Ω. Calculate

2 × 0.5 × 29.3 + 29.3 (a) The fundamental output voltage and the first 3
=
 6 6  harmonics.

= 9.77 A … Ans. (b) RMS values by direct integration and harmonic

summation method.
Example 4.6 : A single phase full wave bridge inverter
(c) Output RMS power and output fundamental power.
consists of single pulse width modulator technique to control
Solution : Vdc = 40 V
output voltage. What will be the pulse width for the RMS
and R = 15 Ω
value of the fundamental component of the output voltage
2 2
to the 80% of the DC input voltage. (a) Vo (fON) = Vdc
π
Solution : ViR = 0.8 Vin
2 2
4V δ = π × 48 = 43.22 V
∴ sin = 0.8 V
2π 2 th
n harmonic voltage
0.8 × π × 2 Vo
∴ δ = 2 sin−1   (fON)
 4  Vo (n
th
) =
n
= 125.39° … Ans. 43.22
rd
∴ Vo (3 ) = = 14.40 V
Example 4.7 : A single phase full wave bridge inverter uses 3

multiple pulse width modulation with 6 pulses per half cycle. th 43.22
∴ Vo (5 ) = = 8.64 V
5
The width of each pulse is 20°. If the DC input voltage to the
inverter is 230 V, calculate the RMS output voltage. th 43.22
Vo (7 ) = = 6.17 V
7
Solution : Number of pulses = 6 = P, Pulse width δ = 20°.
(b) Vo (RMS) = Vdc = 48 V
RMS output voltage,
2 2 2 2
Vo (RMS) = Vo + Vo (3) + Vo (5) + V0 (7)
P×δ
VR = Vin × π 2 2 2 2
= (43.22) + (14.40) + (8.64) + (6.17)
6 × 20 = 46.72 V … Ans.
= 230 ×
180
If we consider higher harmonic then this difference
= 187.8 V … Ans. decreases.
Example 4.8 : If the input voltage is increased from 230 V (c) Output RMS power
by 10%, what would be the pulse width required to maintain 2
Vo RMS
the output voltage as 187.8 V ? = PRMS =
R
Solution : Input DC voltage increased by 10% from 230 V. 48
2
=
∴ V = 1.1 × 230 = 253 V 15

If the output power is to be maintained at 187.8 V = 153.6 watt

then to calculate δ, Output fundamental power,
2
6×δ Vo (fON)
187.8 = Vin Po (fON) =
180 R
2
(187.8/253) (43.22)
2
∴ δ = × 180 =
6 15
= 16.53° … Ans. = 124.53 watt … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.16) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

Example 4.10 : A full bridge bipolar PWM inverter is fed which may be realized by using an inductance of
from a 120 V battery and driving RL load. If modulation suitable value, which must be high, in series with the
index is 0.8, calculate : current limited dc voltage source. The thyristor pairs,
(a) Total RMS output voltage. Th1 and Th3, and Th2 and Th4, are alternatively turned
(b) Fundamental output voltage. ON to obtain a nearly square wave current waveform.
(c) Distortion and harmonic factor. Two commutating capacitors − C1 in the upper half,
Solution : (a) RMS output voltage, and C2 in the lower half, are used. Four diodes, D1–D4
Vo (RMS) = VDC = 120 V … Ans. are connected in series with each thyristor to prevent
(b) Fundamental output voltage average the commutating capacitors from discharging into the
= Vo (av) = 0.707 × m × VDC load.
= 0.707 × 0.8 × 120 • The output frequency of the inverter is controlled in
= 67.872 V … Ans. the usual way, i.e., by varying the half time period,
(c) Distortion factor = 0.707 × m
(T/2), at which the thyristors in pair are triggered by
= 0.707 × 0.8
pulses being fed to the respective gates by the control
= 0.5656 … Ans.
circuit, to turn them ON, as can be observed from the
2
Harmonic factor = 2 − 1 waveforms (Fig. 4.12). The inductance (L) is taken as
(m)
the load in this case, the reason(s) for which need not
2
= 2 − 1 be stated, being well known. The operation is
(0.8)
= 1.457 … Ans. explained by two modes.
igl3
4.11 SINGLE-PHASE CURRENT-SOURCE ig3
INVERTERS 0
T/2 T
Definition: The current source inverter converts the input ig1,
direct current into an alternating current. In current source ig6
inverter, the input current remains constant but this input
current is adjustable. The current source inverter is also 0
called current fed inverter. The output voltage of the T/2 T
inverter is independent of the load. The magnitude and Vco
nature of the load current depends on the nature of load
Vc
impedance.
I a 0
t T/2 T
–Vco
t2
Th1 Th2
a + – I t1
I
C1 = C/2
D1 D2 io
L' I I
0
T/2 T
+ Load (L)
D4 D3 –I
Vs C2 = C/2
+ –
b
I ici iD1 iD2
igls I
Th4 Th3
iD
0
Fig. 4.12 (a) : Single-phase current-source T/2 T
inverter of ASCI type –I
• The circuit of a Single-phase Current Source Inverter
(CSI) is shown in Fig. 4.12. The type of operation is Th1 and Th3 Th2 and Th3 Th1 and Th3
termed as Auto-Sequential Commutated Inverter triggered triggered triggered
(ASCI). A constant current source is assumed here, Fig. 4.12 (b) : Voltage and Current waveforms
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.17) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

Mode I : The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 4.13. The = – V∞ + ((2 ⋅ I)/C) ⋅ (C/(2 ⋅ I)) ⋅ Vc0 = 0. Using thevalue of t1
following are the assumptions. Starting from the instant, obtained earlier. This means that the voltages across C1
t – 0, the thyristor pair, Th2, D2, load (L), D4, Th4 and source, and C2 varies linearly from –Vc0 to zero in time t1 Mode I
I. Th communtating capacitors are initially charged equally ends, when t = t1 and vc = 0. Note that t1 is the circuit turn-
with the polarity as given, i.e., vc1 – vc2 – – Vc0. This means
off tome for the thyristors.
that both capacitors have right hand plate positive and left a
hand plate negative. If two capacitors are not charged
initially, they have to pre-charged. I Th
1 Th2
I a ic1
+ –
e f
C1 = C/2
I Th Th2
1 D1 D2
– +
e f I c d
C1 = C/2 I io
D1 D2
D4 D3
I c d I + –
L g h
I C2 = C/2
D4 D3 Th4 ic2
Th3
I – +
g h
C2 = C/2
Th4 Th3 Fig. 4.14 (a) : Mode II (1-phase CSI)
a

I
Fig. 4.13 : Mode I (1 phase CSI) C
e(g) + –
At time, t = 0, thyristor pair, Th1 and Th3, is triggered by f(h)
I io
pulses at the gates. The conducting thyristir pair, Th2 and
Th4 is turned OFF by application iof reverse capacitor io
c d
voltages. Now thyrisor pair. Th1 and Th3, condicts current L I
(I). The current path is through Th1. C1, D2, L, D4, C2, Th3 and
source, I. Both capacitors will now begin charging linearly
from (–Vc0) by the constat current, I. The diodes, D2 and D4. b
remain reverse biased initially. The voltage vD1 across D1 Fig. 4.14 (b) : Equivalent circuit for mode II
when it is forward biased, is obtained by going through the Mode II : The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 4.14 (a).
closed path, abcda as vD1 + V∞ – (1/(C/2)). ∫ I ⋅ dt – 0. It
Diodes, D2 and D4 are already conducting but at t – t1.
may be noted voltage across load inductance, L is zero (0),
diodes, D1 and D3 get forward biased and start conducting.
as the current, I us constant. So, vD1 – –V∞ + (2/C) ⋅ ∫ I⋅dt
Thus, at the end of time t1 all four diodes, D1 – D4 conduct.
As the capacitor gets charged, the volatge vD1 across D1,
As a result, the communitating capacitors now get
increase linaerly. At come time, sat t1, the reverse bias
connected in parallel with the load (L). For simplicity in
across D1 becomes zero (0), the diode, D1 starts
analysis, the circuit is redrawn as
conduncting. An identical equation can be formed for
diode, D3 also. Actually, both diodes, D1 and D3 start shown in Fig. 4.14 (b), where theequivalent capacitor is C/2
conducting at the same instant, T1. The time t1 for which as C1 – C2 – C. The equation for the current at the node is I
the diodes, D1 and D3 remain reverse biased is obtained bu + i0 – ic (–ic1 + ic2). wherem ic1 – ic2 – ic/2. The voltage
equating, vD1 – –V∞ + ((2 ⋅ I ⋅ t1)/C) = 0. The time is given balance equation is,
by, t1 = (C/(2 ⋅ I)) ⋅ Vc0. The capacitor voltages vc1 = vc2 = vc d i0
appear as reverse voltage across the thyristors. Th2 and Th4, L⋅ = – (1/C) ⋅ ∫ ic ⋅ dt = –(1/C) ⋅ ∫ (I + i0) ⋅ dt
dt
when the thyristors. Th1 and Th3 are triggerd. The value of 2
d i0 i0 I d i0
2
i0 I
vc is or L ⋅ 2 + =– or, 2 + =–
dt C C dt (L ⋅ C) (L ⋅ C)
2
vc1 = vc2 = vc = – V∞ + (2/C) ⋅ ∫ I ⋅ dt. which if cpmputed at d i0
or, (L⋅C) ⋅ 2 + i0 = –I
t = t1, comes out as vc1 = vc2 = vc(t1) = –V∞ + ((2 ⋅ I ⋅ t1)/C) dt
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.18) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

The solution of the equation is, i0 = A ⋅ cos (ω0 ⋅ t) + B ⋅ sin 2. Provides ohmic isolation so that the logic signals are
(ω0 ⋅ t) + K. where, A, B and K are constants, natural not connected to the high voltage present in the
frequency, power circuit.
f0 – 1/((2 ⋅ π) ⋅ (L ⋅ C)) ω0 – (2 ⋅ π) ⋅ f0 – 1 / (L ⋅ C) and 3. Discharges the parasitic capacitors of the
time period T – 1 / fa – (2 ⋅ π) / ω0 = (2 ⋅ π) ⋅ (L ⋅ C) . semiconductor device.
4.12 DRIVER CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE PHASE Fig. 4.14 (a) shows the circuit diagram of a gate drive circuit
INVERTERS that drives thyristors of a inverter bridge
Gate Drive Circuits for Thyristors • How to use MOSFET DRIVER IR2110.
The gating pulses of a thyristor are generated by the Compete circuit diagrams of H bridge are shown below in
control circuit. These pulses before applied to the gate of Fig. 4.15 (a). In this driver two IR2110 IC used for MOSFET
the thyristor are going through the so-called gate drive gate driver circuit. In H bridge Two MOSFETS are used as
circuit that provides the following features: High side MOSFETS and two used as a low side MOSFETS.
1. Converts the logic-level control signals into the IR2110 high and low side drivers outputs are used to drive
appropriate voltage and current for efficient, reliable, these MOSFET.
turn on of the thyristor module.
+5V –5V
–300 V
+12V –12V
D1
C4 C3
22f C7 C8
100f 22f 100f
C1 C2 C6
Vcc Vcc 22f VccVcc
10 100f Q1 Q3 C5
HB Vs VS HN
N1 U1 R1 R5 U2
HO R3 R7 Ro
12 V D3

Com
VSS
N2 Out Out D6 UN
Com
VSS

S
11 SO LO LO So
D2 Q2 Q4
R6 D5

R2
R4 R8

Fig. 4.15 (a) : Driver circuit for Single phase inverter

Using SPWM or Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation SV
• SPWM or sinusoidal pulse width modulation is widely
used in power electronics to “digitize” the power so a
PST Vcc
sequence of voltage pulses can be generated by the P30 SPVO.11
P17
on and off of the power switches. The pulse width pF P31 SPVO.12
P16
XTAL2 P15
modulation inverter has been the main choice in power
P14
electronic for decades, because of its circuit simplicity P13
XTAL1
and rugged control scheme. pF P12
P32 P11
• The DC to AC converter, also known as inverter
P33 P10
converts dc power to ac power at desired output P34 P33
voltage and frequency [3]. The output voltage of an P34
inverter has a periodic waveform that is not sinusoidal GND
but can be made to closely approximate this desire
waveform. Fig. 4.15 shows the circuit topology for a full Fig. 4.15 (b) : Pins assignment for the control system of
bridge inverter. SPWM single phase inverter
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.19) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

• It is an electronic power converter that is necessary as Control circuit using

microcontroller
an interface between the power input and the load.
The full bridge single phase inverter consists of the DC
voltage source, four switching elements S1, S2, S3 and Optoisolator
S4 and load.
• The switching element available nowadays, such as
Gate driver
bipolar junction transistor (BJTs), gate turn off thyristor
(GTOs), metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs), insulated gate bipolar Inverter circuit
transistors (IGBTs), metal oxide semiconductor
Fig. 4.15 (d) : Flow of hardware development
controlled thyristor (MCT’s) and static induction
• Fig. 4.15 (e) below show the switching strategy that is
transistors(SIT’s) can be used as a switch. They are used in this research. The turn ON and OFF switch
substituting the relays, magnetic switches and other 1 (S1) and switch 4 (S4) are controlled by SPWM
magnetic components as the inverter switching 1 generated at port 1.7 Atmel microcontroller. While
devices. This makes use of microcontroller becomes the turn ON and OFF switch 2 (S2) and switch 3 (S3)
more significant. full bridge single phase inverter has are controlled by SPWM 2 generated at port 1.6 Atmel
two legs, left or right or ‘A’ phase leg and ‘B’ phase leg. microcontroller. Both SPWM 1 and SPWM 2 used the
Each leg consists of two power devices (here MOSFET) same control signal generated by the microcontroller.
connect in series. The different is only SPWM 1 signal is leading SPWM 2
• The load is connected between the midpoints of the by half cycle or 180 degree of the switching signal.
two phase legs. Each power control device has a diode
connected in anti-parallel to it. The diodes provide an s1 s2
alternative path for the load current if the power
switches are turned OFF. For example, if lower MOSFET
in the ‘A’ phase leg is conducting and carrying current Load

towards the negative DC bus, this current would

‘commutate’ into the diode across the upper MOSFET s3 s4
of the ‘A’ phase leg, if the lower MOSFET is turned OFF.
• Control of the circuit is accomplished by varying the
turn on time of the upper and lower MOSFET of each SPWM1

inverter leg with the provision of never turning ON SPWM2

both at the same time, to avoid a short circuit of DC Fig. 4.15 (e) : Switching strategy of single phase inverter
bus. • Following Fig. 4.15 (f) shows the gate pulses applied to
S1, S4 by SPWM1 and S2, S3 by SPWM2
simultaneously.
D1 D3
s1 s3
VDC SPWM1
Load

D2 D4
s2 s4

SPWM2
'A' Phase leg 'B' Phase leg
Fig: 4.15 (c) : Full Bridge single phase inverter
• Fig. 4.15 (d) is the block diagram that describes the
hardware development for controller circuit. The arrow
shows the SPWM signal flow from Atmel
microcontroller through the inverter. Fig. 4.15 (f) : Gate Pulses generated by SPWM1 and SPWM2
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.20) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

4.13 FILTERS AT THE OUTPUT OF INVERTERS suddenly in a step-wise manner. In this case, inverter
switches should supply a very large amount of
• LC-type filters have been widely used on the AC
charging current in a very short time to build up the
terminals of PWM inverters when the output voltages
capacitor voltage to the requested level. When the
are the main control targets. The main purpose of the
transient charging exceeds a certain limit, the control
LC filters is to attenuate the voltage ripple that stems
system should decrease the current by reducing the
from inverter switching. The output voltage on the LC
inverter voltage instantly. Otherwise, the inverter
filter capacitor is controlled by switching the PWM
system may be tripped by an over-current limitation.
inverter, where the LC filters introduce a time delay
and cause resonance in the output AC voltage. Thus • However, when the inverter voltage is instantly
various approaches have investigated regulating the reduced by the current protection mechanism, active
output voltage across the LC filter capacitor. damping may not work properly, increasing the danger
that the output voltage will oscillate severely in a
• In addition to the voltage distortion of LC filters during
transient state. This problem can be solved by the
steady-state operation, very large voltage overshoot
over-sizing of the inverter switches, which inevitably
can occur at the filter capacitor when inverters respond
results in increased costs.
in a step-wise manner to the transient state. The
Rf Lf
voltage overshoot can be dampened out by
generating the proper damping voltage with a voltage IInv ILoad
controller. Sensing the capacitor current of the output Icap
+
LC filter in a feedback control system provides good + + ZLoad VLoad
Vinv Cf Vc
dynamics as regards the sinusoidal output voltage –
– –
across the filter capacitor. The capacitor current is fed
forward to an inverter voltage controller to obtain high
dynamics of the capacitor voltage.
• This method achieves maximum control bandwidth up Fig. 4.16 (a) : Single phase PWM inverter with LC filter
to the output filter cutoff frequency without using • Output waveforms after adding filter is as shown in
nested control loops. Similar active damping schemes Fig. 4.16 (b).
have been accomplished by sensing and offsetting the 40
harmonics of the filter the capacitor voltage. The 30
20
aforementioned voltage controllers can therefore
10
attenuate the lower-order voltage harmonics on the 1
filter capacitors. However, the higher-order voltage 10
harmonics that result from PWM switching can be 30
attenuated not by a controller but by a passive LC 40
filter. 30
20
• The attenuation effect of LC filters can be increased by 10
decreasing the filter cut-off frequency against the 1
–10
switching frequency of inverters according to -40log 30
(fsw/fcutoff) [dB]. However, the filter cut-off frequency 50
40
limits the control bandwidth of inverter systems.
40
Increasing the control bandwidth is important not only 30
for fast operation of the inverter system but also for 20
precise voltage compensation without a phase delay at 10
1
higher-order harmonics. Thus, there is a trade-off –10
between the attenuation effect and the control 30
50
bandwidth in the design of LC filters. Another issue is
40
the large amount of transient current that flows 015 016 017 018 0
through the inverter switches when inverters are Fig. 4.16 (b) : Output waveforms of circuit
requested to generate a significant amount of voltages after adding LC filter
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.21) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

SUMMARY 3. Compare VSI and CSI. [May 2014, 6 Marks]

• Inverters convert DC voltage into single phase or 4. Derive the following for single phase bridge inverter
three phase AC voltage. having square wave output.
(i) rms value of output.
• In low and medium power inverters, gate
(ii) Fourier series for output voltage.
commutated power semiconductor devices are used.
For high power applications, thyristor based inverters (iii) rms value of fundamental component voltage.
are used. 6. Draw and explain single phase full bridge inverter for
R-L load with O/P voltage and current waveforms.
• Inverters may use half-bridge or full-bridge
[Feb. 15, 16, Nov. 16, May 17]
configurations. A half-bridge configuration requires
a three-wired DC supply which is not necessary for a 7. Why PWM inverter is superior to a square wave
full-bridge configuration. inverter.
8. What are the methods for voltage controlled with in
• Square wave inverters provide fixed AC voltage with
single phase inverter ? Explain any one. [Feb. 2017]
appreciable low frequency harmonics.
9. Explain pulse width modulation technique used in
• PWM inverters provides an adjustable AC voltage
inverter.
from a fixed DC voltage, with reduced harmonic
10. Why transistorized inverters are preferred over
content. Sinusoidal PWM technique is most effective
thyristorized inverter ? Justify.
in eliminating low frequency harmonics.
11. What is bridge inverter? Explain with circuit diagram
• Three-phase inverters may use 120° conduction and wave forms. [Nov. 15, 6 Marks]
scheme or 180° conduction scheme. In 120°
12. What are DC to AC converters? Explain with circuit
conduction scheme, short circuiting of DC source is diagram and waveforms working 3 φ voltage source
avoided but the power semiconductor switches are and power factor. [May 2016, 8 Marks]
poorly utilized. 13. Write a note on PWM inverters. [Feb. 17, 4 Marks]
• Current source inverters provide short circuit
EXERCISE
protection and these are highly reliable.
1. Explain the principle of operation of an inverter.
• McMurray inverter employs auxiliary current-
2. How are inverters classified ?
commutation technique.
3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of half-
• McMurray-Bedford inverter uses complementary bridge and full-bridge inverters.
voltage-commutation technique.
4. Explain the various performance parameters of an
• Frequency of an inverter may be controlled by inverter.
controlling the conduction intervals of the inverter
5. What is the advantages of eliminating of low-
switches.
frequency harmonics from the output voltage of an
• The output voltage of an inverter can be controlled inverter ?
by controlling the input DC voltage. However, the
6. What are the different pulse-width modulation
output voltage may be controlled most efficiently
techniques used for inverters ?
using PWM techniques.
7. Compare the bipolar and unipolar switching schemes
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
of a sinusoidal PWM inverter.
1. Explain the operation of 3-φ transistorized inverter
8. Explain 180° conduction scheme and 120°
for resistive star connected load. Draw relevant
conduction scheme of a three-phase inverter and
waveforms with star connected load with 120°
compare them.
conduction mode. [May 2014, Feb. 2016, 10 Marks]
9. Explain the working of a single-phase gate-
2. Write a note on voltage control and harmonic
commutation device based voltage source inverter.
reduction in voltage source inverter.
10. Explain the working of a single-phase gate-
[May 2014, 8 Marks]
commutation device based current source inverter.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (4.22) SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS

11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a 19. The full-bridge inverter has the source voltage,
current source inverter ? V = 220 V. The inverter supplied an RLC load with
R = 10 Ω, L = 30 mH and C = 100 µF. The frequency
12. Explain the working of an auxiliary commutated
of operation of inverter is 50 Hz. Calculate :
inverter.
(a) The rms load current at fundamental frequency.
13. Explain the working of a complementary
(b) The rms value of load current.
commutated inverter.
(c) THD of the load current.
14. What are the different methods of voltage control of
(d) The power output.
an inverter ?
(e) The average supply current.
15. A single-phase, half-bridge inverter feeds a resistive
20. A single PWM inverter with a source voltage of 120 V
load, R = 5 Ω. If the source voltage is 60 V.
has to supply 1000 W to a purely resistive load of 10
Determine :
Ω. Determine :
(a) The rms value of the fundamental component of
(a) The width of output pulse.
output voltage.
(b) The Fourier series expression of the output
(b) The output power. voltage.
(c) The peak-off state voltage across each (c) Average value of source current.
semiconductor switch. 21. A single PWM full-bridge inverter with the source
(d) The lowest order harmonic and the voltage, 240 V has to feed a purely resistive load of
corresponding harmonic factor. 10 Ω. The pulse width is to selected that the third
(e) The rms and average values of the current harmonic current is eliminated.
through semiconductor switches. (a) Find out the output power and the average
source current.
16. Repeat Question 15 for a single-phase, full-bridge
inverter. (b) What should be the pulse width and the output
th
power if the 5 harmonic component is to be
17. A single-phase, full-bridge inverter with the source
eliminated ?
voltage, V = 240 V feeds an RL load with R = 10 Ω
22. A single PWM full-bridge inverter feeds an RL load
and L = 0.1 H. If the frequency of the output current
with R = 10 Ω and L = 10 mH. If the source voltage is
is 50 Hz. Determine :
120 V, find out the total harmonic distortion in the
(a) The instantaneous input current at the end of output voltage and in the load current. The width of
second cycle. each pulse is 120° and the output frequency is
(b) The expression of steady-state output current for 50 Hz.
both the half cycles. 23. Repeat problem 22 for R = 10 Ω and L = 40 mH.
(c) THD for the load current. Compare the results.

(d) The condition intervals of each diode and each 24. The output voltage of a uniform PWM inverter
consists of three 120 V pulses per cycle, each of 30°
semiconductor switch, under steady-state
duration. Find out :
condition.
(a) The rms value of output voltage.
18. The square-wave output voltage of a bridge inverter
(b) The rms value of fundamental component of
has a magnitude of 120 V and frequency of 50 Hz.
output voltage.
The inverter is supplying an RC load with R = 12 Ω, C
(c) The total harmonic distortion.
= 2.5 mF. Draw the waveforms of capacitor voltage
and capacitor current : (a) for the first cycle and
(b) under steady-state condition.
 UNIT V

SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.1.2 Switching DC Power Supply

• In electronics, a regulator is a device or mechanism • Switching DC power supplies were first introduced in
the late 1970's, today they are the most popular form
which can regulate the power output constantly. There
of DC power supplies in the market due to their
are different kinds of regulators available in the power
exceptional power efficiency and great overall
supply domain. But mainly, in the case of DC to DC
performance. A Switching DC power supply (also
conversion, there are two types of regulators available:
known as switch mode power supply) regulates the
Linear or Switching. output voltage through a process called pulse width
• A Linear Regulator regulates the output using a modulation (PWM).
resistive voltage drop. Due to this Linear regulators • The PWM process generates some high frequency
provide lower efficiency and lose power in the form of noise, but enables the switching power supplies to be
heat. The Switching Regulator use inductor, Diode, and built with very high power efficiency and small form
a power switch to transfer energy from its source to factor. With a good design, a switching power supply
the output can have excellent load and line regulation. Typical
5.1.1 Linear DC Power Supply applications for switching DC power supplies include:
• Linear DC power supplies were the mainstay of power ➢ General purpose use including R&D,
conversion until the late 1970’s. With the advancement manufacturing and testing
of switching power supply technology, linear power ➢ High power / high current applications
supplies are less popular today but still find themselves ➢ Communications systems, mobile stations, network
indispensable in applications that require very low equipments, etc.
ripple and noise.
➢ Electroplating, anodizing, electroforming,
• A linear power supply uses a big transformer to drop electrophoresis, etc.
voltage from AC line to much lower AC voltage, and
➢ Battery charging and equalization for Lithium Ion
then uses a series of rectifier circuitry and filtering
batteries, aviation, marine and vehicle batteries
process to produce a very clean DC voltage. That low
➢ Electrolysis, waste treatment, hydrogen generator,
DC voltage is then regulated into the desired voltage
fuel cell applications, etc.
level by a dropping the difference in voltage across
➢ DC motors, slot cars, aviation and marine
transistor or IC (the shunt regulator). Typical
applications, etc.
applications of linear dc power supplies include but
not limited to : 5.1.3 Types of Switching Regulator
➢ Studio mixer/audio amplifier There are three types of switching regulators available.
➢ Low noise amplifiers 1. Step-up converter (Boost Regulator)
➢ Signal processing 2. Step-Down converter (Buck regulator)
➢ Data Acquisition - including sensors, multiplexers, 3. Flyback Converter (Isolated Regulator)
A/D converters, and sample and hold circuits. • The difference between the buck and boost regulator
➢ Automatic test equipment is, in the buck regulator the placement of inductor,
➢ Laboratory test equipment diode and the switching circuit is different than the
boost regulator. Also, in case of boost regulator the
➢ Control circuits
output voltage is higher than the input voltage, but in
➢ Anywhere that excellent regulation and/or low
the buck regulator, the output voltage will be lower
ripple is required
than the input voltage. A buck topology or buck
(5.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.2) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

converter is one of the most used basic topology used 5.1.5 Step-up Converter (Boost Regulator)
in SMPS. It’s a popular choice where we need to
Following Fig. 5.2 shows the circuit diagram of boost
convert a higher voltage to a lower output voltage.
converter.
• Other than those regulators, there is another regulator Iin L D Iout
exists which is a popular choice among all designers,
which is Flyback regulator or Flyback converter. This is Vin Vout
a versatile topology which can be used where multiple Cin SW Cout
outputs are needed from a single output supply. Not
only that, a flyback topology allows the designer to
change the polarity of the output at the same time. For Fig. 5.2 : Boot converter power stage
example, we can create +5V, +9V and -9V output from
• A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC
a single converter module. The conversion efficiency is
high in both cases. power converter that steps up voltage (while stepping
down current) from its input (supply) to its output
• Another thing in Flyback converter is the Electrical
Isolation in both input and output. Why we need (load). It is a class of switched-mode power supply
isolation? In some special cases, for minimizing the (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a
power noise, and safety-related operations, we need diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage
an isolated operation, where the input source is element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in
completely isolated from the output source. Let’s combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of
explore basic single output flyback operation. capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors)
5.1.4 Step-Down Converter (Buck Regulator) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-
• A buck converter is the most basic SMPS topology. It is side filter) and input (supply-side filter).
widely used throughout the industry to convert a 5.1.6 Flyback Converter
higher input voltage into a lower output voltage.
Following Fig. 5.3 (a) shows the flyback design, we will
• The buck converter (voltage step-down converter) is a
identify the basic main components which are required to
non isolated converter, hence galvanic isolation
between input and output is not given. build one.
D1
• The buck converter is the most popular topology used
to distribute power in complex systems, e.g. server
·
motherboards, broadband communication boards, etc. Sec
Source + Pri
S1 L1 +
– C1 Load
Vin C2 Vout Switch
D1 fsw D1
C1
PWM_ control
Fig. 5.1 : Buck regulator
Table 5.1 : Specification Fig. 5.3 : Fly-back topology

Input voltage 12 V Operation:

Output voltage 1.8 V • A basic fly back converter requires a switch, which can
Maximum power 120 W be a FET or transistor, a Transformer, an output Diode,
a Capacitor.
Switching frequency 500 kHz
• The main thing is the transformer. We need to
Inductor current ripple 30%
understand the proper working of a transformer before
Output voltage ripple 10 mV
understanding the actual circuitry operation.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.3) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

• The transformer consists of minimum two inductors, • If we assume that the switch has been turned OFF for a
known as secondary and primary coil, winded up in a long time, the current in the circuit is 0 and there is no
coil former with a core in between. The core voltage present.
determines the flux density which is an important
• In this situation, If the switch is turned ON then the
parameter for transferring electrical energy from one
current will increase and the inductor will create a
winding to the other. Another most important thing is
voltage drop, which is dot-negative as the voltage is
the transformer phasing, the dots shown in the
more negative across the primary dotted end. During
primary and secondary winding.
this situation, the energy flows to the secondary due to
• Also, as we can see, a PWM signal is connected across the flux generated in the core. On the secondary coil, a
the transistor switch. It is due to the frequency of voltage is created in the same polarity but the voltage
turning off and turning on time of the switch. PWM is directly proportional with the Secondary to Primary
stands for Pulse Width modulation technique. coil turns ratio. Due to the dot negative voltage, the
• In Flyback regulator, there is two circuitry operation, diode gets turned off and no current will flow in the
One is Switch On phase when the primary winding of secondary. If the Capacitor was charged in the previous
the transformer charged up, and another one is switch-OFF-ON cycle, the output capacitor will only
Switch off or the transfer phase of the transformer provide the output current to the load.
when the electrical energy gets transferred from Current flow i D1
primary to the secondary and finally to the load.
• If we assume that the switch has been turned OFF for a ·
long time, the current in the circuit is 0 and there is no Sec
Source + +
voltage present. – Pri · C1 Load
Switch
• In this situation, If the switch is turned ON then the
current will increase and the inductor will create a Off
PWM_ control
voltage drop, which is dot-negative as the voltage is
more negative across the primary dotted end. During
Fig. 5.5 : Working of Fly-back topology
this situation, the energy flows to the secondary due to
the flux generated in the core. On the secondary coil, a • If we assume that the switch has been turned OFF for a
voltage is created in the same polarity but the voltage long time, the current in the circuit is 0 and there is no
is directly proportional with the Secondary to Primary voltage present.
coil turns ratio. Due to the dot negative voltage, the • In this situation, If the switch is turned ON then the
diode gets turned off and no current will flow in the current will increase and the inductor will create a
secondary. If the Capacitor was charged in the previous voltage drop, which is dot-negative as the voltage is
switch-OFF-ON cycle, the output capacitor will only more negative across the primary dotted end. During
provide the output current to the load. this situation, the energy flows to the secondary due to
D1
the flux generated in the core. On the secondary coil, a
Current flow i
voltage is created in the same polarity but the voltage
·
Sec is directly proportional with the Secondary to Primary
Source +
+ coil turns ratio. Due to the dot negative voltage, the
– C1 Load
Pri ·
Switch diode gets turned off and no current will flow in the
On secondary. If the Capacitor was charged in the previous
PWM_ control switch-OFF-ON cycle, the output capacitor will only
provide the output current to the load.
Fig. 5.4 : Working of Fly-back topology
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.4) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

Analysis of Flyback Converter

• The model of the supply takes into account the main
parasitic elements of its electronic component parts. t
The model is implemented using only basic functions ton T
of MATLAB programming environment. The modeling Uce
and implementation procedure can be used to analyze
more complex DC-DC converters.
• One of the major advantages of Flyback converter is
that they don’t require an output filter inductor, thus t
0
saving cost and volume. This also makes Flyback
i1 i1max
converters valuable for high output voltages unlike i1min
forward converters which have an output inductor t
0
potentially causing problems as the inductor must
sustain large voltages. Flyback also doesn’t require a
i2
high voltage freewheeling diode.
• The filter capacitor at the output is typically larger in
i2max
Flyback converters as it alone supplies the load current t
0
when the transistor is ON. DCM CCM
• Equivalently the full DC current flows from ground Fig. 5.6 : Wave forms for DCM and CCM
through the capacitor to the load during the transistor
5.2 SWITCHED-MODE POWER SUPPLY
ON time. Thus the ripple current rating of the capacitor
and output ripple voltage requirement collectively
(SMPS) [May 15, 17, Nov. 16]

determines the final choice of output filter capacitor. • SMPS transfers power from AC mains power to a load,
• The circuit diagram of a Fly-back switching power such as a computer, while converting voltage and
converter as shown in Fig. 5.6. When the transistor is in current characteristics.
ON state primary winding of transformer act as an • In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC
inductor. The transformer assures the isolation mains input is directly rectified and then filtered to
between the load and the input power supply when obtain a DC voltage.
the transformer T1 is turned OFF. • If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high
• It provides an output voltage as load circuit request as frequency transformer, the output will be electrically
long as there is energy stored in the magnetic core isolated from the mains and this feature is often
with turns ratio n = n1 / n2. essential for safety.
• The waveforms that describe the operation modes of • Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated,
the switched mode Fly-back converter are shown in and to keep the output voltage constant, the power
Fig. 5.6. If the converter operates in steady state supply employs a feedback controller that monitors
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) which means the current drawn by the load.
energy that exist the operation in transformer is • SMPSs often include safety features such as current
greater or at least equal to zero during the supply and limiting circuit to protect the device and the user from
if input Ui and output UO voltages are considered for harm.
simplicity both constant using the volt-second balance
• Switched mode power supplies are a source of power
or the primary winding, one can derive the next
line harmonics and have a very poor power factor.
relation:
α • Many modern computer power supplies built in the
–1
Uo = N U last few years now include power factor correction.
1–α i
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.5) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

• A linear power supply regulates the output voltage by • Switching occurs at a very high frequency
continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. therefore the used transformers and filter
• Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no capacitors are much smaller, lighter, and less
power and thus provides high power. This higher expensive than those found in linear power
power conversion efficiency is an important advantage supplies.
of a switched-mode power supply. • Actually this is the inverter stage which converts
• The switched-mode supply is much lighter and less DC from the rectifier stage to AC by running it
costly, and is more efficient, than an equivalent linear through a power oscillator.
power supply. • The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20
SMPS Block Diagram kHz, to take it inaudible to humans. The switching
is consists of a multistage MOSFET amplifier.
3. Power Transformer :
• This is insulated high-frequency transformer used
Input Chopper Output to final output from input.
AC rectification high Power rectification
input and frequency transformer and Output
• The high frequency AC output of chopper is used
filtering switch filtering
DC to drive the primary winding of this high-frequency
voltage transformer.
Feedback
and • Transformer converts the voltage up or down to
control circuitry
the required output level on its secondary
Fig. 5.7 : Basic switched mode power supply block diagram winding.

• Each functional block or circuit of SMPS has its own • At higher frequencies transformer core loss
separate function and these blocks works together to increases. Therefore ferrite material is used as core
deliver constant power supply at the output. Some which has a low loss at the high frequencies.
important blocks are as explained. • Output of transformer is given to another
1. Rectification and Filtering : rectification and filtering circuitry.
• The first stage is to convert the input AC to DC 4. Output Rectification and Filtering :
(this is called as rectification). • If a DC output is required, the AC output from the
• The rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage transformer must be rectified.
which is then sent to a filter circuit for filtering. • For lower voltages, Schottky diodes are used as the
• The output of rectifier is not pure DC therefore rectifier elements as they have faster recovery
filter circuits are used next to rectifier. times than silicon diodes and a lower voltage drop.
• The rectifier input stage distorts the wave shape of • The rectified output is then smoothed by using
current drawn from the supply and this distorted filter circuits consists of inductors and capacitors.
current causes extra heating in the wires.
• Output of this stage is then directly supplied to
• Some SMPS uses filters in the incoming rectifier
load such as computer system.
circuit to improve the waveform of the current
taken from the AC line. 5. Feedback and Control Circuitry :

• The output of this stage will be DC signal. • A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and
compares it with a reference voltage.
2. Chopper Stage :
• The resulting DC voltage is then switched ON and • To keep the output voltage constant, the SMPS
OFF at a high frequency by electronic switching uses a feedback controller that monitors current
circuitry, thus producing AC current. drawn by the load.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.6) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

• Depending on design and safety requirements, the Single Switch Forward Converter Operations
controller may contain an isolation mechanism to
• When the transistor switch Q1 is ON, current flows in
isolate it from the DC output. the primary winding and causes a secondary current to
• In the event that an abnormal high-current power flow, through Dr and the output filter. This gives an
flow is detected, the SMPS control circuit assumes output voltage Vo. When the transistor is switched off,
this is a direct short and will shut itself down the transformer voltage will tend to reverse the action
before damage is done. and increase the voltage at the cathode of Diode Dtr
until it turns on.
• SMPS with this circuit may turn on for short time Dr Lo Vo
but then shut down when no load has been +
Tr · · +
detected. Df Co
·
5.2.1 Forward Converters for SMPS Cin

Q1
• A forward converter is a switching power supply circuit
that transfers the energy from the primary to the Vin
secondary while the switching element is “on,” which is
the opposite of a flyback converter. Dtr

–
• Forward and fly back converters are the two commonly
used topologies used to either increase or decrease Fig. 5.8 : Single switch forward converter

D.C voltages, or convert a single voltage to multiple Advantages of Single Switch Converter
D.C output voltages. • Simple construction and operation
• A typical forward converter consists of a: • Low input capacitor ripple current

➢ Transformer which is either a step-up or step- • Lower current on the secondary diodes
down with a single or multiple secondary windings. Disadvantages
The type used depends on the available input
• Requires a high transistor rating (twice the input
voltage and desired output voltage. It also voltage).
provides isolation of the load from the input
• Requirement for an active snubbers circuits for
voltage.
resetting the transformer core.
➢ Transistor such as a MOSFET which acts as the
• Higher conduction losses.
switching device
• Bigger transformer.
➢ Diodes
Two Switch Forward Converter Operations
➢ Capacitors • Energy is transferred from the primary to the
➢ Inductor secondary of the transformer when the two transistors
are simultaneously turned on. When the transistors are
• Energy is passed directly through the transformer
off, the transformer magnetizing current flows back to
during the transistor’s conduction phase. The output
the source, through diodes D1 and D2 which are now
voltage is determined by the input voltage, the
forward biased. The diodes conducts until all the
transformer turns ratio and the duty cycle.
magnetizing energy in the primary along with the
• The two commonly used topologies are the single energy stored in the leakage inductances is returned to
switch, and two switch forward converters. the input supply.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.7) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

Q1 5.3 RESONANT CONVERTER

D2 5.3.1 Introduction
Cin
+ · · + • "Resonant converter is a converter which uses an LC
resonant circuit, so it is called as resonant converter".
Ipri
T1 • Using high frequency component used in all the four
D1 Power flow during on
types of converters; AC-DC, AC-AC, DC-AC and DC-DC
Q2
will be desirable because it will provide tremendous
Fig. 5.9 (a) : Power Transfer Stage of Operation savings in components sizes and weights. As we know
Q1 that highest switching frequency of converter
operation is limited by the losses in the switching
D2 Imag devices. Furthermore, the transformers are the primary
Cin
+ · · + band-limiting components. Parasitic inductance and
capacitance in all components add further limitations.

T1 5.3.2 Need for Resonant Converters

D1 Power flow during off
• Resonant converter/inverter is defined as a class of
Q2
converter/ inverter in which the topology consisting of
Fig. 5.9 (b) : Power Flow from Output Cap to Power at least one resonant tank circuit as a sub-circuit. A
• To ensure a transformer reset during the OFF time, a resonant tank is a sub-circuit consisting of at least one
duty cycle of less that 50% is used to give a longer OFF inductor and one capacitor. More specially, resonant
time than the ON time. In this operation, the primary converters have a resonant tank as a part of the circuit
winding of the transformer acts as the reset winding. during at least one of the circuit mode in the steady-
state converter operation.
Advantages
• In SMPS and in the PWM inverters the switching
• Does not require a snubber circuit.
devices are made to turn-on and turn-off the entire
• Less voltage stress for the MOSFET (same as input load current at high di/dt.
voltage). • Due to use of high frequency components used in
• Simple construction and operation over a wide range circuits, the size and weight of converter is to be
of input and output voltages. reduced. Switching frequencies are increased.

• Ability to provide multiple isolated outputs. 5.3.3 Classification of Resonant Converters

• Low system power losses and noise. • Depending on the use of a resonant tank, resonant
converters are classified as :
Disadvantages Resonant converter

• Limited frequency of operation.

Resonant link Resonant switch Resonant Resonant
• Slightly expensive since it uses more components. converters converter DC link AC link
converter converter
• Larger components (transformer and inductor).
Voltage Current Class E
The single switch converter is used for power outputs of up source source resonant
converters converters converters
to about 100W. The two switch converter is preferred for
most applications due to its reliability and efficiency and
ZCS ZVS
widely used in the ATX power supply units with outputs of converters converters
between 150 and 750 W. Fig. 5.10
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.8) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

Resonant Link Converters : 5.3.5 Disadvantages

• These converters consist of AC-DC or DC-AC current • The power devices will carry higher peak current
voltage source, resonant tank circuit as the link and the values.
multistate sink. Resonant link converters are again
• In addition to resonant converter circuit and control
classified as :
circuit is required. Therefore it increases the
1. Voltage Source Resonant Converter : complexity.
(a) Series loaded resonant converter (SLR). 5.3.6 Series Loaded Half Bridge DC-DC Converter
(b) Parallel loaded resonant converter (PLR). • If the load is connected through a diode bridge and a
(c) Hybrid resonant converter. filter circuit, it becomes a series resonant DC-DC
2. Current Source Parallel Resonant Converters. converter as shown in Fig. 5.11 (a). It is evident that the
load resistance appear in series with the LC resonating
3. Class E Resonant Converter.
circuit (through the diode bridge). For an isolated load,
Resonant Switch Converters : a centre-tapped transformer with two diode is used,
• It consist of resonant elements L and C are utilized instead of diode bridge, shown in Fig. 5.11 (b).
primarily in conjunction with the switch to achieve Lf
+
zero/low loss switching, loss-less snubbering add/or +
_ Vin S1 D1 C_
soft switching. L x
+ +
Cf _ RL VO
• It is also called as quasi-resonant, pseudo-resonant y
+
and resonant transition converters. _ Vin S2 D2
_
Resonant DC-Link Converters :
(a) SLR half bridge DC-DC converter
• A resonant tank circuit behaves as a buffer between
the DC source and an AC load. The DC link is provided + S1 D1 Lf
_ Vin L C_ +
+ x
by the inductor of resonant tank circuit. These
+
converters also include zero switching loss topologies. Cf _ R L VO

Resonant AC-Link Converters : + y _

_ Vin S2 D2
• In this, resonant tank circuit provides as a buffer
between the DC source and an AC load. The link
(b) SLR half bridge DC-DC converter
between the source and load does not have a DC path.
with center-tapped transformer
These converters also include zero switching loss
topologies. Fig. 5.11

5.3.4 Advantages of Resonant Converter • The L-section filter easily removes ripple due to high
switching frequency. At DC side electrolytic capacitors
• Due to high frequency components are used in the
are used due to its high capacitance density (small
circuit, switching losses are reduced and heating of
size). Thus the output voltage (Vo) is assumed to be
power devices are also reduced. Therefore the cooling
constant. For the need of high power density, an SCR is
requirement is reduced.
replaced by a fast switching devices (e.g. MOSFETs).
• Weight and size is reduced. Neglecting the voltage drop across Lf the voltage drop
• Efficiency of converter is increased because of power across LC is ± (Vi − Vo).
devices operates under zero voltage and zero current Operation Modes :
condition.
Discontinuous Conduction Mode :
• Noise is reduced.
The voltage and current waveforms for this mode are as
• RFI/EMI is reduced.
shown in Fig. 5.11 (c).
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.9) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES
IL
5.5 ZERO VOLTAGE SWITCHING (ZVS)
RESONANT CONVERTERS [Nov. 15, May 16]
S1 D2
wo Zero-Voltage Switching Topology : Here the switch
t0 t1 D1 t2 S2
turns-on and turns-off at zero voltage. The switch is
VC I II III IV V Modes parallel with the resonant capacitor and in series with the
Vin
VC inductor, Fig. 5.12. Moreover, there are half-wave and full-
2Vo wave configuration shown in Fig. 5.13 (a) and Fig. 5.13 (b).
Lf
0 wo S L
+
VCo = -2Vo
D
+
_ Cf R Vo
Fig. 5.11 (c) : Voltage and current W/F for Df
C
discontinuous conduction mode
Mode 1 : In this mode of operation, switch S1 is turned on _

at ωo = to and voltage across capacitor is Vco = − 2Vo.

Fig. 5.12 : ZVS converter
Capacitor voltage start to rise from − 2Vo to + Vdc.
• EMI is also small during the switching transition. The
Mode 2 : In this mode of operation; S1 is tuned off due to system can incorporate parasitic circuit elements and
natural zero of supply voltage. Diode D1 is turned on at
the converter can withstand a short-circuit condition.
ωo = t1. The voltage across capacitor C is + 2Vo.
• Fig. 5.12 shows a ZVS resonant buck converter where
Mode 3 : In this mode of operation, all devices are off
the switch of a simple buck converter configuration is
state. The voltage across capacitor remains same i.e. + 2Vo.
replaced by a zero-voltage resonant switch. It is a
5.4 CONCEPT OF SOFT SWITCHING
combination of an LC circuit and a switch. Normally an
• Soft means to achieve smooth current /voltage anti-parallel diode is also fabricated with the switching
transitions in the switching moment. By 'hard device (e.g. a MOSFET), then the converter of this
Switching we simply means that no special circuitry is configuration is called a half-wave converter. If an
added to make the circuit soft. At high switching
additional (external) diode is connected in series with
frequency soft switching techniques (ZVS or ZCS) are
switch, it is called a full-wave configuration.
used to achieve good efficiency and reduced switching
stress. • Normally the filter inductor (Lf) is sufficiently large,

5.4.1 Resonant Switch Converters therefore Io is considered to be a constant. During the

period (Ton), a gate signal is provided to switch the
• Resonant switch converter topologies are developed
device, as shown in Fig. 5.13 (c). The output voltage
by adding resonant components (LC) to a PWM square
due to high value of CF is considered to be constant.
wave converter. The main function of the resonant
switch converters is to reduce switching losses of the • During mode 0 or 'to' period, the switch is on and a
devices (MOSFET or IGBTs) by operating these devices constant load current (Io) flows through the switching
in Zero Current Switching (ZCS) or Zero Voltage device and both the inductor.
Switching (ZVS) condition. • When the switching device turns off at the end of to,
• Thus the current or voltage waveform becomes quasi- the voltage across the device due to C, does not jump
sinusoidal (half wave) instead of square wave in the DC to Vi level.
Dexternal
to DC or DC to AC PWM converters. Therefore, these S L S L

converters are basically quasi-resonant converters. The D D

Device Device
efficiency becomes high due to reduced losses in C diode C diode
switching devices and EMI reduces due to sinusoidal
waveshaft. (a) ZV half-wave switch (b) ZV-full-wave switch
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.10) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES
VGS
The peak of vc that appears across the switch is given
by,
t
Ton Toff Ton L t2
vc (max) = Io + Vi, t = (5.3)
iL C 2

Io The inductor current (iL) is given by

0 t iL = Io cos ωot, 0 < t < t2

= − Io cos ωot, 0 < t < t3 … (5.4)
-Io
is The half wave oscillation period, t2 = π LC. At the
Io
end of t3, vc = 0 and il = IL3. Thus from the voltage
0 t equation,
IoZo
L
Vi = Io sin LC t3
t C
Full wave
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 mode
Expression t3 and IL3 can be obtained.
mode 1 mode 2 mode 3 mode 4 mode 5
Vi C
t3 = LC sin−1  
(c) Waveforms of half, wave configuration  Io L
Fig. 5.13 and IL3 = − Io cos ωot3 … (5.5)
• Since the switch, device turns-off at zero-voltage During t4 period, iL rises linearly from IL3 to Io and it is
condition, that is why, it is called Zero-Voltage given by,
Switching (ZVS). The load current remains constant due
Vit
to the large value of Lf. iL = IL3 + … (5.6)
L
• At the beginning of toff period (mode 1), the capacitor At the end of t4, its value is given by,
C, gets charged at a constant current (Io). when vc
L
exceeds Vi level, DF becomes forward biased and t4 = (Io − IL3) (5.7)
Vi
conducts. The inductor current, iL flows in Vi, C, L, I
Although the period, t3 is constant for resonant circuit
loop. Now L and C resonate in this circuit upto the end
but t3 is load dependent. The switch must not turned
of t2 (mode 2). The difference of iL and Io flow in DF
on before t3, otherwise C discharge through switch.
(mode 3). In full wave mode, vc becomes negative due
ZVS converters are used for constant load.
to continuation of the resonating current beyond t3.
However, in the half wave mode at the beginning of t4, 5.5.1 Zero Current Switching (ZCS) Resonant
the diode D conducts across the switch and vc remains Converter [May 15, Nov. 16]

zero during the entire t4 period. • In this resonant converter, turn-off loss of the
• During mode 1, the capacitor is changed with a switching devices are almost eliminated. The operating
constant current (Io), the capacitor voltage rises linearly frequency of converter varies from 1 MHz to 2 MHz
which is given by which is less than that of ZVS converters.
1 I • Fig. 5.14 (a) shows a ZCS resonant buck converter,
vc =
C⌡
⌠ i dt = Co t, 0 < t t1 …(5.1)
where the switch of a simple buck converter is replaced
At the end of this mode, t = t1 and vc = Vi. by a ZCS circuit (LC resonant circuit and switch).

Therefore, vc = Vi = Iot1/C. Normally, an antiparallel diode (D) is also fabricated

across the switching device (e.g. a MOSFET) as shown
L
Also, vc = Io sin ωot + Vi , 0 < t < t2 in Fig. 5.14 (b). When this type of switch is used, then it
C
is called as full-wave configuration (where the current
L
vc = Vi − Io sin ωot, 0 < t < t3 … (5.2) reversed is possible).
C
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.11) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

• To make the antiparallel diode of the device • Before the switching of devices or switch (t < 0 or
ineffective, an external diode is connected in series during t5), DF was conducting and diode current iDF = 0
with the switch. It blocks the reverse current and it is when the switch is turned on at t = 0, iL rises linearly
called a half-wave configuration. Also the inductances i = Vit. The difference of I and i flows through D
of the filter inductor is very high (Lf >> L). Therefore, L L  o L F

the inductor voltage (VLf) becomes equal to Vi − Vo, (iDF = Io − iL). The voltage across C remains zero during
during the entire on period of the device. Similarly, the the entire period of DF (including t5).
output voltage is considered to be constant due to
• The inductor current and the capacitor voltage are
high value Cf (vo = Vo).
S iL L LF iF given by
+
C
iL = Vi sin ωot + Io
L
+
(For full-wave switch) C Df Cf R Vo
C
Vi _ and IL (max) = Io + Vi
L
Also, vc = Vi (1 − cos ωot)
_
and Vc (max) = 2Vi, at t = t2 = π LC … (5.8)
(a) Circuit for half-wave ZCS resonant converter
S
During t3 period, the voltage across capacitor and the
S
current through inductor are given by,
C
iL = Io − Vi sin ωot … (5.9)
D D L
Device diode Device diode
vc = 2Vi cos ωot … (5.10)
(i) ZC full-wave switches
Dexternal S Dexternal
S S At the end of t3, vc = Vc3, the resonating current, iL = 0.
Thus from the current equation
Device diode Device diode C
(ii) ZC half wave switches io = Vi sin ωot3
L
(b) Switch configuration
 Io L
LC sin−1  
iL
t3 = … (5.11)
iDF Vi C
Vi C
L During t4 period, the switch is off. The capacitor
io
voltage decreases almost linearly as it supplies a
t constant load current (Io). Therefore, at the end of
VC t4, vc = 0.
Full wave
2Vi dvc VC3
Io = C =C
dt t4
Vi
VC3 ⋅ C
t4 =
Io
0 t
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 SOLVED EXAMPLES
VGS
Example 5.1 : Design a ZVS, step-down or forward (buck)
resonant converter. The converter specifications are given as:
0 t
Ton Toff Load current, Io (min) = 2 A, Io (max) = 10 A, Vo = 24 V dc,
T Switch or device allowable voltage limit, Vs (max) = 500 V,
(c) Waveforms of a half-wave configuration Resonant frequency, fo = 0.5 MHz and the DC input
Fig. 5.14 : Half-wave ZCS resonant converter voltage regulation = ± 20%.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.12) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

Solution : The maximum load resistance, Vi (max)

Vi (nom) = = 66.67 V
Vo 24 1.2
Rmax = = = 12
Io (min) 2 and Vi (min) = (1 − 0.2) Vi (nom) = 53.4 V
Minimum load resistance The maximum voltage across the switch,
Vo 24 Vs (max) = Vi (max) + Io (max) Zo
Rmin = = = 2.4 Ω
Io (max) 10
= 80 + 10 × 40 = 480 V … Ans.
The peak value of device voltage,
Therefore, Vs is within the allowable range (i.e. 500 V).
Vs (max) = Vi + Io Zo
There are several design considerations. First the
L
Zo = resonant converter is half wave type or full wave type
C
second, the input and output conditions, viz., (i) Vi (min)
For ZVS, the limiting value is,
and Io (min), (ii) Vi (min) and Io (max), (iii) Vi (max) and Io (min)
Vi (max) = Io (min) ⋅ Zo and (iv) Vi (max) and Io (max).
Therefore, a term conversion ratio (M) is defined which Let us consider, a half-wave resonant converter with
is given by, Vi(min) and Io(max) condition, Vi (min) = 53.4 V, Io = 10 A.
Vo Vo Io (min) Rmax Rmax
M = = = = The linear charging period of the capacitor,
Vi (max) Io (min) Zo Io (min) Zo Zo
Vi (min) ⋅ C 53.4 × 0.008 × 10−6
Let, M = 0.3, then t1 = =
Io 10
Rmax 12
Zo = = = 40 Ω t1 = 0.0427 µs
M 0.3
which gives The responding period for half-wave (ωot2 = π).
π π 1
L and t2 = = =
Zo = ωo 2πfo 2 × 0.5 × 10−6
C
2 L t2 = 1 µsec
∴ Zo =
C The constant discharging period of capacitor
2 L Vi (min) C
(40) =
C t3 = LC sin−1  
 Io L
L = 1600 C = 0.318 × 10−6 sin−1 (5.34 × 0.02)
Also the time period at resonance condition, = 0.0426 µsec
1 1 10−6
To = = 2π LC = 6 = For an ideal inductor, the energy dissipation (stored)
fo 0.5 × 10 0.5
over a cycle is zero. For a constant average value of
To = 2 × 10−6 sec load current (iL = IL).
∴ To = 2π LC Energy = ⌠
⌡ VL iL dt = ⌠
⌡ VL dt = 0
−6
2 × 10 = 2π LC
Since L << Lf
∴ L = 1600 C
Ton Toff
It gives L = 0.01265 mH and C = 0.008 µF ⌠
⌡ VLf dt = ⌠
⌡ VLf dt
Vo 24 0 0
Also Vi (max) = = = 80 V
M 0.3 or (Vi (min) − Vo) Ton = Vo Toff
The nominal voltage Vi (nom) can be found from the Vo 24
Ton = T = 3.44 = 2.8 µs
equation of voltage regulation, which is given by, Vi (min) − Vo off 53.4 − 24

Vi (max) − Vi (nom) We also have, the minimum switching time period,

= 0.2
Vi (nom) Ts = Toff + Ton = 3.44 + 2.8 = 6.24 µs … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.13) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

The maximum switching frequency, 5.5.2 Comparison between ZVS and ZCS Resonant
1 Converter
fs = = 160.25 kHz
Ts
ZVS Resonant Converter ZCS Resonant Converter
At the end of t3 period, the time elapsed after the
beginning of the oscillation is (t2 + t3). 1. Turn-off loss of switching 1. Turn-off loss of switching
I1, 3 = Io cos [ωo (t2 + t3)] devices is present. devices are almost
6
= 10 cos [2π × 0.5 × 10 (1 + 0.04)] eliminated.
= − 9.9 A
2. The operating frequency of 2. The operating frequency of

During t4, the inductor current rises linearly vL =
di 
. converter is more than ZCS converter varies from 1
 dt
resonant converter. MHz to 2 MHz which is less
(Io − IL3) L (10 + 9.9) (12.65)
Therefore, t4 = = than that of ZVS converter.
Vi (min) 53.4
t4 = 4.71 µs … Ans. 3. In ZCS, the switch is 3. In ZVS, the switch is
The switch turn on at the mid of t4 period. required to handle a peak required to withstand a
Vs peak voltage of Vs + Io
Therefore, total off-period, current of Io + Z .
o
t4 ZCS.
Toff = t1 + t2 + t3 +
2
4. ZVS has high switching 4. ZCS has low switching
4.71
= 0.0427 + 1 + 0.0426 + frequency than ZCS, so frequency than ZVS.
2
that ZVS is preferred over
∴ Toff = 3.44 µsec
ZCS.
Example 5.2 : The input unregulated DC voltage to a ZCS
resonant converter varies from 70 V to 100 V. The output 5. Draw the circuit diagram of 5. Draw the circuit diagram of
load current varies from 2A to 10A at 24 V. Find the peak Fig. 5.12. Fig. 5.14 (a).
values of the capacitor voltage, where the resonant
frequency is 1 MHz.
SUMMARY
Solution : For the worst case (lower input voltage and • Resonant converters are highly efficient DC-to-DC
higher load current). and DC-to-AC converters. In case of converters with
L Vi 80 PWM control, the switching devices experience high
Zo = = = =8Ω
C Io 10 voltage and current stresses. Therefore, the switching
and L = 64 C losses are significant. In case of resonant converters,
1 6
LC resonating circuit is operated at or near resonant
fo = = 10
2π LC frequency which generates almost sinusoidal current

Put L = 64 C in above equation, we get and/or voltage waveforms. The switching devices
operate (turn-on and turn-off) at ZVS or ZCS
∴ C = 0.02 µF
condition.
and L = 1.27 µH
• Thus the switching losses and EMI reduce drastically.
Peak current,
Since fast switching devices (MOSFET, IGBT, etc.) are
Vi
Ipeak = Io + available, these converters operate at very high
Zo
80 resonant frequency (tens of kHz to several MHz). At
= 10 + = 20 A … Ans. this condition, the requirements of L and C
8
parameters in resonant circuit and filter circuit
The peak capacitor voltage,
drastically reduce.
VC (max) = 2Vi = 200 V … Ans.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (5.14) SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

• In case of resonant load converters, the switching of 4. What are resonant converters? Explain with circuit
an under-damped RLC load at resonance frequency diagram and waveform working of ZVS ?
causes oscillation of current (or voltage) and the [Nov. 15, May 16, 17, 10 Marks]
current becomes almost sinusoidal. In case of ZVS or
5. Compare Linear, switched mode and Resonant
ZCS resonant circuits, switches of simple DC to DC
converter based power supplies.
converters are replaced by a switch and LC resonant
[Nov. 15, May 16, 6 Marks]
circuit.
• Thus PWM strategy is replaced by a combination of EXERCISE
PWM and LC resonant circuit. There are several other 1. What are resonant converters ? Explain the necessity
configurations which are basically ZVS, ZCS or their of converters.
combinations. In case of DC link converters, the 2. Compare resonant converters and switch mode
output of a resonant converters is again supplied to resonant converter.
another converter (conventional) to get the desired
3. With the help of circuit diagram and waveforms,
output (DC or AC at desired voltage and/or
explain the operation of SLR half bridge DC/DC
frequency). Final stage voltage and frequency control
converter in low frequency (discontinuous condition).
are achieved by the second converter that may be a
4. Explain with circuit diagram and waveforms working
single or thee-phase converter. Both duty-ratio and
of ZVS. State its application and limitation.
frequency control are applied for these converters to
obtain the desired output. Integral number of half- 5. What are resonant converters ? Compare linear,
cycles is controlled for frequency and the output switch mode and resonant converters power
voltage. supplies.

UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS 6. What are the advantages of resonant converters over

switching mode converters ? Give classification of
1. Write a note on : “over voltage protection” in power
resonant converter.
electronics. [May 15, 17, Nov. 16, 6 Marks]
7. What is resonant converter ? Compare ZVS and ZCS
2. What is the need of resonant converter ? Explain ZCS
converter.
resonant converter with circuit and waveforms.
8. Explain with neat circuit diagram SMPS.
[May 15, Nov. 16, May 17, 8 Marks]
9. Explain the concept of forward converter for SMPS.
3. Explain SLR half bridge dc-dc converter in low
10. Write short note on Buck Regulator.
frequency with suitable waveforms.
[May 15, Nov. 16, 8 Marks]
 UNIT VI

APPLICATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 POWER LINE DISTURBANCES

• Power electronics has now emerged as one of the • A study by the Electric Power Research Institute found
that businesses lose between $104 billion and $164
most important disciplines in electronics and electrical
billion per year due to power interruptions, and
engineering. The cost, size and performance
another $15 billion to $24 billion in from other power
advantages have promoted power electronics
quality problems. It’s not hard to see how the numbers
applications extensively in industrial, commercial,
add up. Just consider what an outage of a day or two
residential, transportation, utility, aerospace, and would cost your company. For some, an outage of
military environments in recent years. even an hour can take a significant toll.
• Applications of power electronics range in size from a • Still, many companies don’t completely understand all
switched mode power supply in an AC adapter, battery the various types of power disturbances that can
chargers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, through variable threaten their server rooms. While protecting against
frequency drives and DC motor drives used to operate major events like hurricanes and floods is certainly
pumps, fans, and manufacturing machinery, up to important, there are many, far more subtle ways in
gigawatt-scale high voltage direct current power which you can experience power disturbances. In this
transmission systems used to interconnect electrical piece, I’ll touch on six of them.
grids. Power electronic systems are found in virtually
6.2.1 Power Line Disturbances/Distortions
every electronic device.
• Ideally, the voltage supplied by the utility system
For Example :
should be a perfect sine wave without any harmonics
• DC to DC converters are used in most mobile devices at its nominal frequency of 60 Hz and at its nominal
to maintain the voltage at a fixed value. These magnitude. For a 3-phase system, the voltages should
converters are also used for electronic isolation and form a balanced set, with each phase displaced by 120
power factor correction. A power optimizer is a type of degrees with respect to the others. In practice,
DC to DC converter developed to maximize the energy however, voltages can significantly depart from the
produce from solar photovoltaic or wind turbine ideal condition due to power line disturbances listed
systems. below:
• AC to DC converters (rectifiers) are used every time an ➢ Overvoltage or Voltage Swell : The voltage
electronic device is connected to the mains. These may magnitude is substantially higher than its nominal
simply change AC to DC or can also change the value for a sustained period of a few cycles.
voltage level as part of their operation.
➢ Undervoltage or Voltage Sag or Brownout : The
• AC/AC converters are used to change either the voltage is substantially lower than its nominal
voltage level or the frequency. In power distribution value for a few cycles.
networks AC to AC converters may be used to
➢ Outage or Blackout : The utility system voltage
exchange power between utility frequency 50 Hz and collapses for a few cycles or more.
60 Hz power grids.
➢ Voltage Spikes : These are superimposed on the
• DC to AC converters are used primarily in UPS or normal 60 Hz waveforms and occur occasionally
renewable energy systems or emergency lighting (not on a repetitive basis).
systems. Mains power charges the DC battery. If the
➢ Chopped Voltage Waveform : Repetitive
mains fail, an inverter produces AC electricity at mains
chopping of the voltage waveform and associated
voltage from the DC battery.
ringing as shown below.

(6.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.2) APPLICATIONS

transformers and harmonic currents injected by power

electronic loads. These harmonic currents flowing
through the ac system impedances result in harmonic
voltages.
0 wt • Electromagnetic interference is produced by most
power electronics equipment due to rapid switching of
voltages and currents. It can also be produced by other
communication gadgets like cell-phones, radio
Fig. 6.1 transmitters and other similar devices.

➢ Harmonics : A distorted voltage wave form as 6.2.3 Effects of Disturbances on Sensitive

shown below, contains harmonic voltage Equipment
components at harmonic frequencies (usually low The effect of power line disturbances on sensitive
order multiples of the line frequency, these
equipment depends on the following factors:
harmonics exist on a sustained basis.
1. Type and magnitude of the power line disturbance
2. Type of equipment and how well it is designed
3. Presence of power conditioning equipment
• Sustained overvoltages and undervoltages may cause
0 wt
equipment to trip out, which is highly undesirable
under certain applications.
• Large voltage spikes may cause a hardware failure in
the equipment. (Manufacturers of sensitive equipment
Fig. 6.2
often provide a certain degree of protection by
➢ Electromagnetic Interference : Refers to high
providing surge arrestors at the input to guard against
frequency noise, which may be conducted on the
failures. However, spikes of very large magnitude in
power line or radiated from its source.
combination with a higher frequency of occurrence can
6.2.2 Sources of Disturbances
still result in a hardware failure.)
Sources of power line disturbances are very diverse.
• Chopped voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics
• Overvoltages may be caused by sudden decreases in
have the potential of interfering with the equipment if
the system load, thus causing the utility voltage to go
it is not designed to be immune from such effects.
up.
(Power conditioners consisting of filters and an
• Undervoltages may be caused by overload conditions,
isolation transformer can correct such problems)
by start of induction motors, or for many other
reasons. • The effect of power system outage depends on the
• Occasional large voltage spikes may be a result of duration of the outage and the equipment design.
switching in or out of power factor correction Sensitive equipment may be found in the following
capacitors, power lines, or even such things as systems:
pump/compressor motors in the vicinity. • Medical facilities
• Chopping of the voltage waveform may be caused by
• Life supporting systems
ac-to-dc line-frequency thyristor converters, if such
converters are used to interface the power electronic • Data storage and computer systems
equipment with the utility system. These converters • Emergency equipment
produce a short circuit on the ac voltage source • Telecommunications
through the ac system impedance on a repetitive basis.
• Industrial processing
• Voltage harmonics may be caused by a variety of
sources such as magnetic saturation of power system • On-line management systems
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.3) APPLICATIONS

6.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE • Interference mitigation and hence electromagnetic

SOURCES (EMI) / ELECTROMAGNETIC compatibility may be achieved by addressing any or all
of these issues, i.e., quieting the sources of
COMPATIBILITY (EMC)
interference, inhibiting coupling paths and/or
Introduction hardening the potential victims. In practice, many of
EMI: the engineering techniques used, such as grounding
and shielding, apply to all three issues.
• The fast switching of large currents and voltages in
power electronic circuits is the source of • While electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a
electromagnetic interference (noise). The fast rise and phenomenon - the radiation emitted and its effects -
fall times of the switched waveforms contains electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is an equipment
significant energy at the harmonic frequencies in the characteristic or property - not to behave unacceptably
radio frequency band. in the EMI environment.
• EMC ensures the correct operation, in the same
• These harmonic causes interference in nearby electric
electromagnetic environment, of different equipment
system and even in the ac line source. The
items which use or respond to electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference is also due to converters.
phenomena, and the avoidance of any interference
Therefore manufacturers of power electronic systems
effects. Another way of saying this is that EMC is the
specify these ratings.
Control of EMI so that unwanted effects are prevented.
EMC:
• Besides understanding the phenomena in themselves,
• Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of EMC also addresses the countermeasures, such as
electrical equipment and systems to function control regimes, design and measurement, which
acceptably in their electromagnetic environment, by should be taken in order to prevent emissions from
limiting the unintentional generation, propagation and causing any adverse effect.
reception of electromagnetic energy which may cause 6.3.1 Classification of EMI
unwanted effects such as electromagnetic interference
Electromagnetic interference can be classified into two
(EMI) or even physical damage in operational
types :
equipment.
• Conducted EMI : EMI that is carried out by the wires
• The goal of EMC is the correct operation of different
to the nearby systems including the AC power lines.
equipment in a common electromagnetic environment.
• Radiated EMI : EMI that is radiated through space.
It is also the name given to the associated branch of
electrical engineering. The conducted EMI is several orders of magnitude higher
than the radiated EMI. The radiated EMI can suppressed by
• EMC pursues three main classes of issue. Emission is
using ground planes in the printed circuit boards liberally
the generation of electromagnetic energy, whether
and shielding and packaging of the power electronic
deliberate or accidental, by some source and its release
converters in aluminium.
into the environment. EMC studies the unwanted
The conducted EMI can further classified into two types :
emissions and the countermeasures which may be
taken in order to reduce unwanted emissions. The • Differential mode EMI between the input or output
second class, susceptibility, is the tendency of electrical port terminals.
equipment, referred to as the victim, to malfunction or • Common mode EMI at all port terminals with
break down in the presence of unwanted emissions, respective to a common point such as the ground.
which are known as Radio Frequency Interference (RFI). 6.3.2 Sources of EMI [May 15, Nov. 16]
• Immunity is the opposite of susceptibility, being the • There are numerous sources of EMI, such as
ability of equipment to function correctly in the atmospheric noise, lightning, radar, ratio, television,
presence of RFI, with the discipline of "hardening" pagers and mobile ratio. EMI is also caused by sources
equipment being known equally as susceptibility or such as switches, relays, firing of thyristors, motors and
immunity. A third class studied is coupling, which is the fluorescent lights. The inrush current of transformers
mechanism by which emitted interference reaches the during turn-on is another source of interference, as is
victim. the rapid collapse of current in inductive elements,
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.4) APPLICATIONS

resulting in y\transient voltages. Integrated circuits also shielded, can be used to reduce coupling of EMI
generate EMI due to their high-operating speeds and signals.
the close proximity of circuit elements on a silicon die, • The collapse of flux in inductive circuits due to the
resulting in stray capacitive coupling. saturation of the magnetic core often results in high-
• Any power converter is a primary source of the EMI. voltage transients, which can be prevented by
The currents of voltages of a converter change very providing a path for the inductive current to flow such
rapidly due to high-frequency switching such as rapid as a freewheeling diode, a zener diode, or a voltage-
turn-on and turn-off of the power devices, dependent resistor. Emission from an electronic circuit
nonsinusoidal voltages and currents through inductive and its susceptibility to these signals is significantly
loads, stored energy in stray capacitances and affected by the layout of the circuit, usually on a
inductances can also create oscillations, which can printed circuit board operating at high frequencies.
produce a wide spectrum of unwanted frequencies. • Power converter generated EMI can be reduced by
The magnitude of the EMI depends on the peak advanced control techniques for minimizing input and
energy stored in the capacitors at the instant of closing output harmonics, operating at unity input power
any static or power semiconductor switches. factor, lower total harmonic distribution (THD), and
6.3.3 EMI Minimizing Techniques [May 15, Nov. 16] soft switching of power devices. The signal ground
should have a low impedance to handle large signal
The best way to reduce EMI is to prevent them at the
currents, and making the ground plane large usually
source itself. The dv/dt and di/dt snubbers help greatly in
does this.
achieving this objective. Other techniques are also used to
minimize EMI as follows : 6.4 POWER CONDITIONER
• Use a twisted pair of leads in place of sample • A power conditioner (also known as a line
wires. conditioner or power line conditioner) is a device
• Use ground-planes liberally in the printed circuit intended to improve the quality of the power that is
broads design. delivered to electrical load equipment.
• The term most often refers to a device that acts in one
• Reduce stray capacitance by minimizing exposed
or more ways to deliver a voltage of the proper level
metal surface.
and characteristics to enable load equipment to
In addition to these techniques, filters used to reduce the
function properly.
conducted EMI to AC lines. One such filter is shown in
• In some uses, power conditioner refers to a voltage
Fig. 6.3.
L1 regulator with at least one other function to improve
power quality (e.g. power factor correction, noise
C3 suppression, transient impulse protection, etc.)
C1 C2 To
load • The terms "power conditioning" and "power
L2 C4 conditioner" can be misleading, as the word "power"
here refers to the electricity generally rather than the
Fig. 6.3 : Filter to conducted EMI more technical electric power.
6.3.4 Shielding Techniques for EMI • Conditioners specifically work to smooth the sinusoidal
• Introducing resistance can damp oscillations. Using A.C. wave form and maintain a constant voltage over
high-permeability material for the core can minimize varying loads.
harmonics generated by transformers, although this 6.4.1 Principle of Operation
would cause the device to operate at high flux • Power conditioners act as a buffer between the outlet
densities and result in large inrush current. Electronic and your system, smoothing out voltage fluctuations
shielding is often used in transformers to minimize as well as radio and electromagnetic interference that
coupling between primary and secondary. EMI signals can effect system performance. Initially used in
can often be bypassed by high-frequency capacitors, industrial, research and laboratory applications, not
or metal screens around circuitry to protect them from long after the introduction of home computer systems,
these signals. Twisted signal leads, or leads that are the usefulness of surge protection, uninterruptible
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.5) APPLICATIONS

power supplies, and (later) power conditioners were Supply Load

brought to light, as were the advantages of their use U
with other home electronics, such as entertainment
and sound equipment.
6.4.2 Advantages
1. Equipment Protection
Protection against voltages surges through electrical
lines, phone lines, coax TV inputs and LAN connections V
that can result in the degradation of system
performance or system failure.
2. Noise Removal W
Removal of noise in electrical lines resulting from radio
and TV stations, mobile devices, motors – even high- AF1 AF2
current appliances (vacuums, refrigerators) can
Fig. 6.5 : Detailed circuit of active filters
generate noise.
• A harmonic-sensitive load L1, and two harmonic-
3. Fluctuation Correction
producing loads L2 and L3 are connected on a common
Of voltage and waveform distortions. bus, where the bus voltage vg is 200V. A three-phase
6.4.3 Circuit Diagram of Power Conditioner twelve-pulse thyristor rectifier of 20kVA is an identified
• Fig. 6.4 shows an experimental power system and a load L3, which dominantly produces 11th and 13th
circuit diagram of a new power line conditioner harmonic currents. On the other hand, a three-phase
enclosed with a broken line. The main circuit of the diode rectifier of 3kVA is an undefined load L2, which
power line conditioner consists of two active filters AF1 dominantly generates 5th and 7th harmonic currents.
and AF2, matching transformers of turn ratio 1:20 MT1 Therefore, neither 5th nor 7th tuned LC filters are
and MT2, and a passive filter PF. Active filter AF1 is connected in the specially designed passive filter for
connected in series with the supply through matching this experiment.
transformer MT1, while active filter AF2 is connected in • A power capacitor of 3kVA, with a series reactor of 5%
series with the passive filter through matching of the capacitor rating, is considered an hypothetical
transformer MT2. harmonic-sensitive load because voltage distortion at
• Each active filter of 0.5kVA consists of three single the common bus causes a large amount of harmonic
phase voltage-source PWM inverters using power currents to flow in IL1. The supply reactance in Fig. 6.4
MOSFETs. The dc terminals of the six single-phase is 3% on 200V, 60A, 60Hz, 20kVA base. In a practical
inverters are connected to each other and to a dc th
application, a passive filter consisting of 5th and 7
capacitor of 2200pF in parallel. Fig. 6.5 shows a tuned LC filters plus a high pass filter will be used in
detailed circuit diagram of active filters AF1 and AF2. the power line conditioner because 5th and 7th
The passive filter of 8kVA consists of 11th and 13th harmonics are the most dominant in real power
tuned LC filters and a high pass filter. systems.
V n1 i5 Vb
6.5 UNINTERRUPTABLE POWER SUPPLY
MT1 MT2
60 Hz • Uninterruptible Power Supply is an electrical device
200 V V n2
that provides emergency power to computer system
AF1 AF2 Vf when the main power supply fails. UPS provides
Active filters
protection from input power interruptions by
supplying energy stored in batteries. UPS or battery
L2 L3 backup is primarily used to provide a backup power
Power line th th
11 13 HP unidentified identified source to the parts of computer system and to any
conditioner Pf : passive filter harmonic harmonic
producing producing other device plugged in it.
L1 Harmonic • UPS also acts as power conditioners by guarantying
sensitive load that the electricity flowing to your computer is free
Fig. 6.4 : System configuration of power line conditioner from drops or surges. UPS sits between the main
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.6) APPLICATIONS

power source and the parts of computer system. UPS ➢ Sags : Sags are drops in the mains supply that can
can be used to provide filtered AC power to equipment last for several cycles. They are similar in
and eliminates disturbances in the power such as generation to negative spikes but have a much
spikes, under voltages (dips and sags), outage flicker, longer duration. Sags can cause a computer re-
and transient noise which can affect system boot if the mains voltage falls.
performance. ➢ Harmonics : Harmonics are generally caused by
• Basically, an UPS system converts some or all of the AC non-linear loads which pull current from the mains
power into DC for the battery and then back into AC supply in large peaks. Loads, for example
power for the load. Some UPS contain self-diagnostics computers, photocopiers, laser printers and
or other test features to provide personnel an variable speed motors generate harmonics.
indication of battery condition or component Harmonics cause a disproportionate rise in current,
malfunction. By utilizing these features, problems can resulting in increased temperatures which can
be detected before they announce themselves by cause component failure, general equipment
failure of the unit to provide power. Recent advances overheating etc.
in power semiconductor technology and the ➢ Brownouts : Brownouts are caused when the
introduction of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor mains supply is unable to cope with the present
(IGBT) device has made the transformer less UPS load demand and the generating system drops the
system. overall network voltage. Brownouts are identical to
6.5.1 Need of UPS [May 16] sags but have a much longer duration and are
• UPS is usually needed to protect computer hardware generally more serious.
from unexpected power disruption which could cause ➢ Electrical Noise : Noise is a result of disturbances
data loss, component failure. between the supply lines and earth. This noise can
• UPS is needed to provide power when main power affect sensitive circuits that use the supply earth as
supply fails. reference for internal control logic. Electrical Noise
can cause computers to 'hang' and corrupt data.
• The effects of an inadequate supply to a critical load
can include : ➢ Blackouts : Blackouts are complete power losses,
where the mains supply fails totally. They can be
➢ Cessation of the computer process i.e. a total
caused by supply line faults, accidents,
inability to communicate, data loss or corruption
thunderstorms and a range of other conditions.
due to software crashing.
6.5.2 UPS System and its Component
➢ Expensive hardware failure including component
damage. Standard UPS system is as shown in following Fig. 6.6.
AC supply
➢ Inappropriate computer system operation
➢ Possible penalty paid to repair or reset affected
system. Computer
Transformer Rectifier Switch Filter system
• Mains AC supply is not always healthy for our
computer system so the UPS system is needed to solve
some power related problems. These problems are as
Battery
given below : charger Batteries Inverter
➢ Spikes : Spikes are short duration rapid voltage
Fig. 6.6 : Block diagram of standard UPS system
transitions superimposed on the mains waveform.
Spikes can damage or destroy electronic Main components of UPS are given as :
components. Main AC Power Source :
➢ Surges : Surges are sustained voltage increases • Consists of AC supply, transformer and rectification
above the normal mains value that last for more circuit.
than one cycle. Voltage surges can degrade a • It provides continuous power to computer system
computer’s switched mode power supply as well as to the battery connected to it.
components and lead to premature failure. • AC supply is usually 230 volt.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.7) APPLICATIONS

Battery with Charger Circuit : • Most modern computer equipment can sustain a
• Battery charger circuit converts input AC supply power switch time of up to 300 ms, but some older
into DC supply and uses it to charge the battery equipment may shut down during the transfer time.
connected next. Usually Off-line UPSs provide protection and power
coverage to network adapters, printer stations,
• Battery stores the power supplied by charger and
input/output terminals, and to the standalone PCS.
also provides the power when main AC supply Mains supply line Static
fails. switch

Mains supply
UPS
• Power stored in battery is always DC power. Output
Charger Inverter to critical
• The UPS battery also requires monitoring; battery load
failure is the most common UPS problem.
Inverter :
• Inverter is electronic device which converts input Battery
DC power into AC power.
(a) Normal operation
• Inverter is connected next to the battery so that it Static
can convert DC battery power into AC power. Mains supply switch

• Whenever AC mains fail the inverter supplies AC UPS

Charger Inverter Output
power to the system so that it works smoothly. to critical
load
Switch :
• Usually this is static switch which connects inverter
output to the computer system when AC power Battery
supply fails.
(b)Mains fallure
Filter Circuit : Fig. 6.7 (b) : Off-line UPS

• Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted Specification of Off-Line Ups / Salient Features of UPS:
components from power supply • Power rating 500 VA to 2 kVA

• Filter circuit solves most of the power problems. • Input voltage 230 V ± 25%
• Battery voltage 24 V/6.5 VA, 48 V/6.5 AH
6.6 TYPES OF UPS
• Output voltage For mains 230 V ± 5%
A variety of design techniques are used to implement UPS
For UPS 230 V ± 0.5%
systems, each with distinct performance characteristics.
• Output voltage waveform Sine
Now days, vast number of UPS systems are available in the
• Output frequency 50 Hz ± 3%
market. The most common types of UPS are as follows :
• Battery charging time 4 hrs
1. Off-line UPS
• Back-up time 30 min or more
2. On-line UPS
• Transfer time 6 msec
6.6.1 Off-Line UPS [May 15, Nov. 15, 16]
• Efficiency > 85%
• It is the inverter operation which defines an UPS as on- • Protection Output overload
line or off-line. The inverter in an off-line UPS operates
Mains over voltage
only when needed that means supplies power only
Low battery
when main AC supply fails.
Advantages of Offline UPS:
• An off-line UPS is inherently more cost effective than
an on-line because the inverter is off most of the time. • Offline UPS has high efficiencies, since charger is not
continuously on.
When switching from main power to battery power,
known as transfer time, an off-line UPS stops providing • The power handling capacity of charger is reduced.
power to equipment for a few milliseconds (typically • Offline UPS are not very costly.
up to 4 ms). • Internal control is simpler in offline UPS.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.8) APPLICATIONS

Disadvantage of Offline UPS:

Bypass line Static
UPS
• Since offline UPS provides mains supply when it is switch

Mains supply
Output to
present, the output contains voltage spikes, Rectifier/
computer
brownouts, blackouts. charger Inverter

• There is finite transfer time from mains to inverter

when mains supply fails.
• Output of offline Uninterruptible Power Supply is not
perfectly reliable. Battery

Applications of Offline UPS: (b) Mains fallure

• Computers, printers, scanners etc use offline UPS. Fig. 6.8 : On-line operation
• Emergency power supplies, EPABX. Major Specifications of ON-line UPS / Salient Features
6.6.2 On-Line UPS [May 15, 16] of UPS :
• The inverter in an on-line UPS operates continuously • Power rating 500 VA, 1 kVA to 50 kVA
while in an off-line UPS, the inverter operates only • Output voltage 230 V ± 0.1%
when needed. An on-line UPS has no transfer time • Output frequency 50 Hz ± 0.1%
because the inverter continuously supplies battery • Input voltage 230 V ± 15%
power to the load whether the main power is active or
• Output voltage waveform Sine wave
not. When the mains AC supply is present charger
• Power factor 70.8 lagging
charges the battery and supplies the inverter with a
stable dc voltage. • Back-up time 30 min to 4 hrs

• When the UPS input mains supply is present the • Total harmonic distortion < 3%
rectifier, charger and inverter power blocks are all • Efficiency > 85%
active and the load is connected to the inverter output • Protection Over voltage
via the static switch. In the absence of the mains AC Under voltage
supply the charger shuts down and the battery Over current
discharges to provide DC supply to inverter.
Advantages of Online UPS:
• When operating from battery power the inverter
• It provides isolation between main supply and load.
supplies the same degree of supply regulation as when
• Since inverter is always ON, the quality of load voltage
the AC main is present. The charger block generally
is free from distortion
includes an input current limiter to provide overload
protection. The charger block also includes a DC • All the disturbances of supply such as blackout,
overvoltage shutdown mechanism to protect the brownouts, spikes etc are absent in the output.
battery, inverter and DC filter components. • Voltage regulation is better.
• On-line UPS is also referred as Power Conditioner • Transfer time is practically zero since inverter is always
because it is able to provide protection against all ON.
common power problems. In On-line UPS, bypass line Disadvantages of Online UPS:
is used to supply power when UPS fails. • Overall efficiency of UPS is reduced since inverter is
Bypass line Static
switch
UPS always ON.
Output to
computer • The wattage of the rectifier is increased since it has to
Mains supply

Rectifier/
charger Inverter supply power to inverter as well as charge battery.
• Online UPS is costlier than other Uninterruptible Power
Supply Systems.
Applications of Online UPS:
Battery
• Induction motor drives and similar other motor control
(a) Normal operation applications.
• Intensive care units, medical equipments.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.9) APPLICATIONS

6.6.3 Comparison of On-Line UPS and Off-Line where V is the voltage, and I is the current absorbed by
UPS the load under normal operating conditions. This
information can usually be found on rating hardware
Sr. Online UPS Off-line UPS
labels, and in the documents and information supplied
No.
with the system(s) to be protected. It is generally over
1. Inverter is always ON. Inverter turns ON when estimated.
mains fails.
2. Active Power (W or kW)
2. Output waveform is sine Output waveform is Quasi Is defined as P = S × pf where pf is the power factor. If
wave. square wave. the value of P and pf of the load are not specified, the
3. Efficiency is low. Efficiency is high. power absorbed must be precisely measured in order
to correctly size the right UPS. The typical load of a
4. Harmonic distortion is low. Harmonic distortion is high.
computer is associated with a pf of between 0.65 and
5. Supplies power to inverter as Charges only battery. 0.8. Active power is particularly relevant when sizing
well as charges battery. batteries.
6. Cost is high. Cost is low. 3. Overloads
7. Load is isolated from supply. Load is not isolated from Are voltage and current demands on the UPS in excess
supply. of its specification. They may be temporary during
6.6.4 UPS Power Rating initial energising of a system or constant where too
much steady state load is connected to the UPS
• The power rating of electrical equipment may be
output.
stated in Watts (W) or Volt Amperes (VA).
4. System Expansion
• UPS manufacturers generally use VA (or kVA) to
describe the UPS output ratings When sizing a UPS two factors are important. The
reliability of any electronic device is improved when
• UPS output rating determines the maximum load that
run at less than 100% of capacity. For UPS the load
can continuously be supported by the UPS when the
should be around 90% of the system size to guarantee
mains supply fails.
long-term reliability. A factor should also be added for
• When selecting a UPS for particular load it is important future expansion of the protected load(s). This is
that the applied load does not exceed the UPS output typically taken as 25%.
rating.
5. High Switch on Current Demands
• If the load of equipment is specified in Watts it is
At power-on, some loads have a high initial switch on
necessary to convert this to VA in order to assess the
UPS load rating compatibility. current demand lasting for a short time period (50 to
100ms). For example laser printers, some types of
• To convert Watts rating to VA ratings use following
lights, isolation transformers and pumps. For these
formula :
types of load it is good practice to oversize the UPS by
Watts rating
VA Rating = a factor of at least 3 or remove them from the
0.6
protected system, especially when they can be allowed
6.6.5 Sizing of UPS
to power down on mains failure.
Critical Power Supplies has pleasure in providing you with
6. UPS Runtime
the following sizing guide for sizing your UPS. When
calculating the size of a UPS it is important to take into Depending on your critical application and business
account the following: environment you may only require the UPS to last 10
minutes or 24 hours. However, its important to know
1. Apparent Power (VA or kVA)
how long you require the UPS to last at this stage, as
This is defined as.
UPS recharge times can be within 4 hours to 90% for
S = V × I for single-phase loads,
small single phase solutions to typically ten times the
S = (VL1 × IL1) (VL2 × IL2) (VL3 × IL3) discharge to beyond 12 hours for long autonomy
for three-phase loads solutions.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.10) APPLICATIONS

6.7 BATTERY A-H (AMPERE-HOUR) RATING • If the device power supply draws 200 watts at
120 V (1.7 Amp), the motor draws 373 watts at 120
• Many UPS systems utilize sealed lead acid batteries for
volt (3.1 Amp), and we want 20 minutes operating
their energy storage. Smaller systems may use one or
time (0.33 hour) then.
two 6V blocks, with a modest AH Rating. Larger
systems may use the 7AH 12 V blocks, and then some • Time in hours = (0.9 × 12 × 33)/(200 + 373) × 0.33
systems may use any number of these connected in = 356.4/189.1 = 1.9 hours.
series. Some general assumptions for calculations :
For Example : Take a 1 kVA UPS with a 24V DC bus, • A minimum inverter efficiency of 90%. In routine
and uses 2 × 12 V 7AH blocks in series to achieve this. operation the baseline load should not exceed
The battery capacity is still 7AH, but the battery 50% of the UPS's rated capacity. So if you have a
voltage is 24 V. total 650 VA load, look for a UPS rated for at least
• One can use another UPS operating from a 12V bus, 1300 VA.
but still using 2 × 12 V 7AH blocks but this time • A personal computer workstation may draw 500
connected in parallel. This time the battery capacity is watts or more when operating at full activity. An
14AH, but the battery voltage is 12 V. associated mid-sized display panel can draw 70
• In order to provide a consistent method of comparing watts.
battery capacity between UPS, a measure called Volt- • A regulated Power Supply that provides 12 volts
Ampere-Hours (VAH) is used. It is simply the terminal DC at 5 amperes may draw 200 Watts. A half
voltage of the battery string multiplied by the battery horsepower motor may draw 373 watts.
capacity or more simply, the number of blocks x the The amp-hour is a unit of battery energy capacity, equal to
block capacity × the block voltage. As you can see from the amount of continuous current multiplied by the
the latter, 2 × 12 V 7AH will give the same result discharge time, which a battery can supply before
(98VAH) regardless of whether these are connected in exhausting its internal store of chemical energy.
parallel or series. The higher the VAH the more runtime Amp-hour rating
you will achieve for any given load. Continuous current (in Amps) =
Charge/discharge
6.7.1 Battery Charger Rating [Nov. 15, 16, May 16] time (in hours)
Amp-hour rating
The UPS is typically rated by Volt Amperes (VA); this is the Charge/discharge time (in hours) =
Continuous current
maximum number of Volts × Amperes it can deliver. Some (in Amps)
but not all UPS's can continue to deliver power to attached An Amp-hour battery rating is only an approximation of
devices even if the VA rating of the UPS is exceeded, but a the battery's charge capacity, and should be trusted only at
UPS cannot provide power above their VA rating when the the current level or time specified by the manufacturer.
primary AC power fails. If you miscalculate the Such a rating cannot be extrapolated for very high currents
requirements and drain a UPS to beyond its capacity then or very long times with any accuracy.
you risk shortening the service life of the UPS's batteries Back up Time :
UPS Backup [in hours] = Battery AH × Volts × Power
and worse.
Factor/Load
To determine the suitable UPS capacity manually first (Volts here representing the battery voltage and load in
calculate the required amperes and time in hours (AH), watts.)
then calculate : 6.8 SINGLE PHASE SEPARATELY EXCITED DC
1. Battery power of the UPS = battery voltage × AH MOTOR PRINCIPLE / OPERATION
2. Time = (inverter efficiency × battery volt [Nov. 15, 16, May 16, 17]
× AH)/load in watts) • Because of low cost, less complex control structure and
3. Power Factor (PF) is another term that is calculated wide range of speed and torque, DC motor is popular
by Watts/VA. in industry. Available methods of speed control of DC
drives are :
So if :
➢ Field/fluxd control.
• The UPS is a 1500 VA unit then this likely relies on ➢ Armature control.
healthy 12 volt 12.5 amp hour battery. ➢ Armature resistance control methods.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.11) APPLICATIONS

• Speed of a DC motor can be controlled easily in both In terms of torque and speed, the steady state
the ranges above and below the base speed. Most of equation will be given by,
the time, DC motors are customized at the time of Tm
Ea = R + Kt ωφ … (6.5)
installation as per the need which makes them Ktφ a
irreplaceable. Armature voltage control method of Ea Tm
speed control of DC drive is popularly used in which So, ω = – 2 Ra … (6.6)
Ktφ (Ktφ)
controlled rectifier or chopper are involved, though
• Thus from the above equation it is clear that speed can
due to power electronics elements, an undesirable
be controlled by varying three parameters, namely Ea,
non-linear torque speed characteristics are observed.
Ra, and φ.
• To analyse the torque speed characteristics, power
• The three methods of speed control are following :
factor and total harmonics distortion, the dynamic and
➢ Armature voltage controlled (Ea).
steady-state model of separately excited DC motor is
required. Fig. 6.9 shows the schematic representation ➢ Armature resistance controlled (Ra).
of the model of a separately excited DC motor, in ➢ Flux controlled (φ).
which ea the terminal voltage applied to the motor, Ra • Adding external resistor to the DC drive to control the
and La are the resistance, and inductance of the speed of DC motor is not a healthy practice as large
armature circuit respectively, Rf and Lf are the part of energy get loosed in terms of heat due to the
resistance, and inductance of the field circuit external resistor Rext.
respectively, eb is generated back emf and Tm is the • Armature voltage controlled is preferred for speed up
electromagnetic torque developed by the motor. Due to rated speed (base speed), and flux control for speed
to the interaction of field flux with current in armature beyond rated speed but at the same time the
conductors, the torque is produced which is given by maximum torque capability of the motor is reduced
Tm = Kt φ ia … (6.1) since for a given maximum armature current, the flux is
less than the rated value and so as the maximum
Here Kt is a constant depending on motor windings torque produced is less than the maximum rated
and φ is the flux per pole due to the field winding. The torque.
direction of armature current decides the direction of e1 > e2 > e3
Angular speed (rad/sec)

the torque produced. When armature rotates, the flux

e1
linking the armature winding will vary with time and
e3 e2
therefore according to Faraday’s law, an emf will be
induced across the winding. This generated emf,
known as the back emf, depends on speed of rotation
as well as on the flux produced by the field and given Load torque (Nm)
by, Fig. 6.10 : Torque speed characteristics of the separately
Ra La If excited DC motor at different armature voltages
+
• Fig. 6.10 illustrate the ideal torque speed characteristic
ia
+ Rf which reflects equation (6.6), using armature voltage
ea eb M Tm Ef control method in which the voltage applied across the
_ Lf armature Ea is varied keeping field voltage constant.
_ 6.9 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR DRIVE
Fig. 6.9 : Equivalent circuit of separately excited DC motor Separately excited DC motor speed methods :
1. Armature voltage (Va)
Eb = Ktφω … (6.2)
2. Field current control (φf)
By applying KVL at input side of in Fig. 6.9. Basic Construction of a DC Motor :
dia The DC motor consist of two windings field winding and
Ea = ia Ra + La + Eb … (6.3)
dt armature winding. The field winding is stationary and
armature winding can rotate. The field current produces
In steady state condition,
magnetic flux in the air gap between armature and field
Ea − Ia Ra + Eb … (6.4) windings.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.12) APPLICATIONS

Principle of Operation of a DC Motor : In the circuit diagram, the field supply is given by
When a current carring conductor placed in magnetic field, uncontrolled rectifier. Hence field flux is fixed. The
it experience a force. Magnetic field is developed by the armature voltage can be varied by controlling the firing

field current i.e. the current flowing in field winding. The angle ‘α’ of T1 and T2 in semiconductors.

armature winding is connected to an external dc source Continuous Load Current Mode :

hence it plays the role of the current carring conductor Fig. 6.13 shows the W/F for continuous armature current,
placed in the magnetic field. Due to the force external an it SCRs T1 and T2 conduct in positive half cycle the load is
when placed in the magnetic field, it starts rotating. inductive, the SCRs continue to conduct till next pair T3 and
T4 is triggered at π + α. Since the armature voltage is
Armature Voltage Control :
negative from π to π 9 α. This is second quadrant
The armature voltage of the separately excited dc motor
operation and it takes place due to inductive load. The
can be controlled by controlled converters. armature current is shown in Fig. 6.13. It is continuous. The
Following Fig. 6.11 shows the speed – torque ripple in armature current depends upon motor armature
characteristics of separately excited DC motor having inductance.
armature voltage control. It is assumed that the field flux Vs and Eb

remains constant
0 wt
In this characteristics Va1 < Va2 < Va3 < Va4 < Va5.
This means for a constant torque, speed increases with Va

increasing armature voltage. This means T1T2 T3T4 T1T2

wt
w1< w2 < w3 < w4 < w5 a p p+ a 2p 2p+ a 3p

Speed
Ia
Va5 0 wt
w5
Va4
w4 Fig. 6.13 : Continuous mode W/Fs of 1-φ
φ FCB drive
Va3
w3 Mathematical Analysis :
Va2
w2 Avg. O/P voltage of fully controlled bridge for continuous
Va1 O/P current is given by
w1
Torque 2 Vm
Vo (avg) = π cos α
Fig. 6.11 : Speed torque characteristic Discontinuous Load Current Mode
for armature voltage control
The motor current can be discontinuous if armature
6.9.1 1–φ
φ Semiconverter Based DC Motor Drive inductance is small, Fig. 6.14 the w/f of discontinuous
Fig. 6.12 shows the circuit diagram having 1-φ current mode.
semiconductor for armature voltage control Vs

T1 T2 La
IS wt
0
VS
Ra Vf
VS + Va
D2 D1 eb
0 wt
– a p p+ a 2p
Fig. 6.12 Fig. 6.14
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.13) APPLICATIONS

6.9.2 1-φ
φ Full Converter Based DC Motor Drive 6.9.3 1-φ
φ Half Controlled Based Control
Full converters are better suitable for DC motors Fig. (I) If
Ia
shows the circuit diagram.
La T1 T2
Ia Rectifier
+ Vs Ra Lf VS
T1 T3 La
+
VS eb D2 D1
Va Ra Vf
+ –
T4 T2 eb Fig. 6.17
– –
Above Fig. shows the circuit diagram of separately excited
Fig. 6.15 : 1−
−φ full converter based DC drive
DC motor drive having field current control using 1- φ half
The armature is supplied by 1−φ fully controlled bridge.
converter. The armature of the motor can be controlled
The fried is supplied with uncontroller rectifier. Hence field
using any type of converter.
flux remains constant. The operation of this drive can also
be, continuous load current mode. The armature current is The firing angle of semiconverter controls the field voltage
continuous in this made shows the w/f. Vf
vf. The field current if = flows in the circuit. The field flux
Supply current is basically part of armature current Rf
is = ia when T1 D1 conducts produced depending in field current.
is = −ia when T2D2 conducts Put Va (avg) in speed equation i.e.
is = 0
2Vm
Speed of separately excided dc motor π cos α − IaRa
w =
va − IaRa vm Kaφf
w = for semiconverter va = π
kaφf
This is the speed equation in terms of firing angle α.
vm
π (1 + cos α) − IaRa Discontinuous Load Current Mode :
=
kaφf
The current is discontinuous from β to π + α. During this
vm (1 + cos α) IaRa
= − period, the motor is open and no current flows. Since the
πkaφf kaφf
Vs motor is rotating due to inertia, back e.m.f. of eb = kaφfN
Eb (Back emf)
developed are its terminals.

0 p wt
2p 3p
Va
wt
0 p 2p 3p
T1D1 T2D2
wt
a p p +a 2p 2p +a 3p
Vs

wt
0 wt a T b p+a
Fig. 6.16 : w/f of 1 − c semiconvertor for continuous load
Ia
current mode
Field Current Control : wt
0
The speed of the motor can be controlled by varing the
field flux. The field flux can be changed by changing the
field current. The motor operates in constant power mode Fig. 6.18
if field current control is used.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.14) APPLICATIONS

6.9.4 Torque Speed Characteristic • By applying power to each set of coils in turn the rotor
Fig 6.19 shows the torque-speed characteristic of can be made to rotate or step from one position to the
separately excited DC motor drive having field control. next by an angle determined by its step angle
Speed construction, and by energizing the coils in sequence
ff5 the rotor will produce a rotary motion.
w5
ff4 • The stepper motor driver controls both the step angle
w4
and speed of the motor by energizing the field coils in
ff3
w3 a set sequence for example, “ADCB, ADCB, ADCB, …”
ff2
w2 etc. the rotor will rotate in one direction (forward) and
ff1 by reversing the pulse sequence to “ABCD, ABCD,
w1
Torque
ABCD, A, …” etc. the rotor will rotate in the opposite
Fig. 6.19 direction (reverse).
Advantages :
• In above example, the stepper motor has four coils,
• Easier method of control. making it a 4-phase motor, with the number of poles
• Good dynamic response. on the stator being eight (2 × 4) which are spaced at
• Constant power operation. 45 degree intervals. The number of teeth on the rotor
• Speed higher than base speed can be obtained. is six which are spaced 60 degrees apart.
Disadvantages : • Then there are 24 (6 teeth × 4 coils) possible positions
• Torque does not remain constant. or steps for the rotor to complete one full revolution.
• Motor becomes unstable at higher speeds. Therefore, the step angle above is given as :
6.10 STEPPER MOTOR CONSTRUCTION AND 360°/24 = 15°.
CONTROL • Apparently, the more rotor teeth and or stator coils
• Consider the given Fig. 6.20 of a variable reluctance would result in more control and a finer step angle.
stepper motor, which is consists of a central rotor Also by connecting the electrical coils of the motor in
surrounded by four electromagnetic field coils labeled different configurations, Full, Half and micro-step
A, B, C and D. All the coils with the same letter are
angles are possible.
connected together so that energizing, say coils
• However, to achieve micro-stepping, the stepper
marked A will cause the magnetic rotor to align itself
with that set of coils. motor must be driven by a sinusoidal current that is
+ VCC expensive to implement.
4-phase stator
• It is also possible to control the speed of rotation of a
+A
Coil C

Coil D

Step
Coil B
Coil A

Stator stepper motor by altering the time delay between the

-B +D angle coils
digital pulses applied to the coils (the frequency), the
1
6 2 longer the delay, the slower the speed for one
R
-C +C D complete revolution.
5 3
4 R • By applying a fixed number of pulses to the motor, the
C
-D -B motor shaft will rotate through a given angle.
R
-A B
Electrical
• The advantage of using time delayed pulse is that
control R
Multi-toothed A there would be no need for any form of additional
magnetic rotor
0V feedback because by counting the number of pulses
(a) (b) given to the motor the final position of the rotor will
Fig. 6.20 be exactly known.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.15) APPLICATIONS

• This response to a set number of digital input pulses 2. Separately Excited DC Motor Drive :
allows the stepper motor to operate in an “Open Loop • Continuous load current operation is more
System” making it both easier and cheaper to control. useful for single phase separately excited DC
6.10.1 Advantages of Stepper Motor motor drives.

• The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the • Problems on torque, armature output voltage,
input pulse. power factor etc. are important.

• The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
are energized). 1. With the help of block diagram, explain On-Line UPS
• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement system. Justify how it is superior to OFF line UPS
since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 to system. [10 Marks]
5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one 2. Write short notes on : [18 Marks]
step to the next.
(i) OFF-line UPS.
• Excellent response to starting/ stopping/reversing.
(ii) ON-line UPS.
• Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the 3. Write short note on : Separately excited DC motor
motor. Therefore, the life of the motor is simply
drive. [6 Marks]
dependant on the life of the bearing.
EXERCISE
• The motors response to digital input pulses provides
open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less 1. What is EMI? What are the different source of EMI.
costly to control. 2. What are different techniques used to reduce EMI?

• It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous Explain in detail.

rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the 3. Explain in detail with neat circuit diagram power
shaft. conditioner
• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as 4. Write short note on Sizing of UPS.
the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input 5. Write a short note on ON line UPS.
pulses.
6. With the help of respective block diagram. Explain
6.10.2 Disadvantages of Stepper Motor the difference between ON-line and OFF-line UPS
• Resonances can occur if not properly controlled. over off line UPS ?

• Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds. 7. Draw the block diagram of on ON-line UPS and
explain the function of each block.
SUMMARY
8. Explain functioning of ON-line and OFF-line UPS
1. UPS : ON-Line, OFF-Line UPS :
using block diagram. State their merits and demerits.
• On-Line UPS inverter is always 'ON' in mains 9. Write a short on : speed control of separately excited
'ON' and mains OFF condition. DC motor using controller rectifier.
• Off-Line UPS inverter is only 'ON' in main OFF 10. State true or false and justify answer. The speed of a
condition. DC motor can be controlled by controlling the field
• Static switch is used for this application which is current.
bidirectional antiparallel combination of SCRs. 11. What are the types of UPS ? Explain off line UPS with
Hence, no earthing and sparking problem. suitable diagrams.
• Calculations of battery rating, efficiency, back up 12. Explain the mains ON and mains OFF operation of
time problems are important. ON-line UPS with suitable diagrams.
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (6.16) APPLICATIONS

13. Explain the mains ON and mains OFF operation of 15. Give the definitions of the following :
line interactive UPS. (a) Battery capacity,
14. Explain the following terms : (b) Back-up time,
(a) Battery AH, (c) Charger peak power.
(b) AH rating, 16. Give the comparison of ON-line and OFF-line UPS.
(c) AH efficiency, 17. Explain the mains ON and mains OFF operation of
(d) WH efficiency. OFF-line UPS with suitable diagrams.
 MODEL QUESTION PAPERS FOR
End-Semester Examination

Paper- I
Time : 3 Hrs. Marks : 60
Instructions to the candidates :
(1) Each Question carries 12 Marks.
(2) Attempt any five questions from the following.
(3) Illustrate your answers with neat sketches, diagram etc., wherever necessary.
(4) If some part or parameter is noticed to be missing, you may appropriately assume it and should mention it clearly.

1. (a) What are types of power diode ? Explain. [6]

(b) (i) Explain MOSFET and switching characteristics of MOSFET. [3]
(ii) Explain the operating modes of SCR with V-I characteristics. [3]
2. (a) Compare symmetrical and asymmetrical semi-converter. Explain single-phase half-controlled converter with RL
load. Derive an expression of average output voltage. [6]
(b) With the help of circuit diagram and waveform, explain the operation of three-phase semi-converter. 'R' load for α
= 0°, 30°, 60°, 90°. [6]
3. (a) (i) Explain the principle of chopper operation. [3]
(ii) What are merits of thyristor-based chopper ? [3]
(b) Explain the concept of [6]
(a) First quadrant chopper
(b) Second quadrant chopper
(c) Two quadrant chopper
(d) Four quadrant chopper
4. (a) Explain the various performance parameters of an inverter. [6]
(b) The full-bridge inverter has the source voltage, V = 220 V. The inverter supplied an RLC load with R = 10 Ω, L = 30
mH and C = 100 µF. The frequency of operation of inverter is 50 Hz. Calculate : [6]
(a) The rms load current at fundamental frequency.
(b) The rms value of load current.
(c) THD of the load current.
(d) The power output.
(e) The average supply current.
5. (a) What are resonant converters ? Explain the necessity of converters. [6]
(b) What are the advantages of resonant converters over switching mode converters ? Give classification of resonant
converter. [6]
6. (a) Explain functioning of ON-line and OFF-line UPS using block diagram. State their merits and demerits. [6]
(b) Explain the mains ON and mains OFF operation of ON-line UPS with suitable diagrams. [6]

(P.1)
POWER ELECTRONICS (BATU E&TC) (P.2) MODEL QUESTION PAPERS

Paper- II
Time : 3 Hrs. Marks : 60
Instructions to the candidates :
(1) Each Question carries 12 Marks.
(2) Attempt any five questions from the following.
(3) Illustrate your answers with neat sketches, diagram etc., wherever necessary.
(4) If some part or parameter is noticed to be missing, you may appropriately assume it and should mention it clearly.

1. (a) Explain TRIAL with different operating modes. [6]

(b) What do you mean by triggering ? What are the different types of triggering ? Explain RC triggering in detail. [6]
2. (a) Compare the following :
(i) Symmetrical and Asymmetrical configurations.
(ii) Free-wheeling diodes and Feedback diodes. [6]
(b) Explain three-phase half-wave controlled converter with RL load. Derive an expression of average output voltage.
[6]
3. (a) For step-down chopper, obtain the expression for :
(a) average output voltage (Vo)
(b) output current (Io)
(c) rms output voltage (Vrms)
(d) rms thyristor current (Irms)
(e) ripple voltage (Vr)
(f) ripple factor (RF)
(g) form factor (FF).
(b) (i) What are the demerits of resonant load series converter ? [3]
(ii) Give the classification of resonant converters. [3]
4. (a) Explain the working of a single-phase gate-commutation device based current source inverter. [6]
(b) What are the different methods of voltage control of an inverter ? [6]
5. (a) Compare resonant converters and switch mode resonant converter. [6]
(b) What are the advantages of resonant converters over switching mode converters ? Give classification of resonant
converter. [6]
6. (a) With the help of respective block diagram. Explain the difference between ON-line and OFF-line UPS over off line
UPS ? [6]
(b) Write a short on : speed control of separately excited DC motor using controller rectifier. [6]

66