Answer Section Chapter INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 11a. The biosphere includes all life on Earth and the environments inhabited by life— ‘most regions of land and water, the sedi- ‘ments and rocks below Earth's surface, and the atmosphere up to several kilometers. Bb. Anecosystem includes all the living organisms in an area and the nonliving parts of the environment with which they interact. . Acommunity consists of all the organ- isms inhabiting a particular ecosystem. Each diverse form of life is called a species. d. A population includes all the individuals ofa single species in an area. fe. Anorganism is an individual living entity. f, Organs, found in more complex organ- isms, are body parts that perform a particular function. Organ systems are groups of organs that perform a larger function. g Tissues are groups of cells that collec- tively perform a specialized function. Several tissues make up an organ. hh. Cells are the fundamental units of life. Organelles are the functional components of cells j. Molecules are composed of two or more atoms. Molecules are the chemical units that make up living organisms. 1.2. The order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that makes up a gene “spells” the instructions, ‘which are transcribed into RNA and then translated into a protein with a unique shape and specific function, 43. Both energy and chemical nutrients are trans- ferred within an ecosystem from producers to consumers to decomposers. Energy, however, flows through ecosystems, entering, as solar energy, being transformed to chemi- cal energy, and exiting, as heat, Chemical nutrients are recycled as photosynthesizing 14 18, 16 Ww : Evolution, the Themes of Biology, and Scientific Inquiry plants absorb water, minerals, CO;, and sunlight, and produce sugar and release O3; ‘consumers eal plants and other organisms; and decomposers return nutrients to the ecosystem. ‘These organisms are characterized to a large extent by their mode of nutrition. Plants are photosynthetic, fungi absorb their nutrients from decomposing organic material, and animals ingest other organisms. ‘Most species tend to produce more offspring than can survive. Organisms with heritable traits best suited to the environment wil tend to survive and leave more offspring. Over time, favorable adaptations will accumulate ina population. New species may arise as small populations are exposed to different environments and natural selection favors different traits a. The control groups were the camouflaged ‘ice models placed in their native habitat. ‘The experimental group in each habitat were the non-camouflaged mice models. b. This experiment could not control for the number of predators in each area and thus for the total number of attacks on non- camouflaged mice. By presenting data as the predation rate or proportion of total attacks, the effect of this variable was eliminated. a. Abypothesis is less broad in scope than a theory; itis a tentative explanation for a smaller set of observations. A theory can generate many testable hypotheses and is supported by a large body of evidence. Both hypotheses and theories are revised when new data fail (0 support their predictions. bb Science seeks to understaiid natual ‘phenomena; technology is the practical use ic knowledge. 429430 Answer Section SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1. a. With every increase in the biological hierarchy, from molecules to ecosystems, the organization and interactions of component parts lead to new, emergent properties of the dynamic system. The structure and function of biological components are correlated. Cells are the basic units of life. They come in two distinct forms: prokaryotic and eukatyotic. b. DNAis the molecule of inheritance; it codes information for proteins, which direct the functions ofa cell, and is passed on from tone generation to the next. ¢. All organisms require energy. Energy flows through ecosystems from sunlight to chemical energy in producers and consumers and then escapes as heat. Chemical nutrients 1 are recycled in an ecosystem. 4d. An organism interacts with other ongan- isms, and these interactions may be mutually Be Chapter INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 2.1 calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium neutrons; 15, 15, 16,31 daltons a 22 23 24 absorb; loses a. Hydrogen, |H b. Carbon, ,C Oxygen, 0 27 [Link], ,Na 25 protons . atomic number ‘element neutrons ‘mass number or atomic mass isotopes 28 pepe ge beneficial, or one or both species may be harmed. Organisms also interact with the physical environment, and the environment is affected by the organisms that live there. Organisms regulate their internal environ- ment, usually through negative feedback mechanisms that match supply to demand. €. Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life. All organisms are modified descen- dants of common ancestors. Darwin's theory of natural selection leading to unequal repro- ductive success accounts for the adaptation of populations to Earth’s varying environments, ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ‘Multiple Choice: 3b Ba Ze Be oe a : The Chemical Context of Life g- electrons I electron shells valence shell a H=1,0=2.N=3,C=4 bat S83 a. Nonpolar; even though nitrogen has a high electronegativity, the three pairs of electrons are shared equally between the two Natoms because each atom has an equally strong attraction for the electrons, b. Polar; nitrogen is more electronegative than hydrogen and pulls the shared electrons in each covalent bond closer to itself. ¢. Nonpolar; carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativities and share electrons fairly equally between them. 4. The bond is polar because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon; the C—H bonds are relatively nonpolar. a CaCh b. Ca* is the cation.2.10 Water's two covalent bonds with H are spread apart ata 104.5° angle due to the hybridization of the s and 3 p orbitals. 211 6,6,6 SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 Particle | Change | Mass Location, Proton a1 | dalton nucleus Neutron | 0 dalton nucleus Electron | 1 | negligible | orbitals in electron shells 2. a. The atoms of each element have a char- acteristic number of protons in their nuclei, referred to as the alomic mumber. In a neutral atom, the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons. The mass nuraber is equal to the number of protons and neu- trons in the nucleus. The atomic mass is approximately equal to the mass number and is measured in the atomic mass unit of daltons, Protons and neutrons both have a ‘mass of approximately 1 dalton. Answer Section 431 b. The valence, an indication of bonding capacity, usually equals the number of ‘unpaired electrons that an atom has in its valence shell ¢. The valence of an atom is most related to the chemical behavior of an atom because it isan indication of the number of bonds the atom will make to reach a filled valence shell. ‘mass number and aomiemass (approximate) AS ae In nonpolar covalent bonds, electrons are equally shared between tvo atoms. Polar covalent bonds form when a more electroneg ative atom pulls the shared electrons closer to it, producing a partial negative charge associated with that portion of the molecule ‘and a partial positive charge associated ‘with the atom from which the electrons are pulled, In the formation of fons, an electron is Completely pulled away from one atom and transferred to another, creating negatively and positively charged ions (anions and cations). These oppositely charged ions may be attracted to each other in an ionic bond. atomic number ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ‘Multiple Choice: Lb 7b Be 1%b Be oi die etic 2 Gy at | lids 26a ae &e IA Mb Wa" ee Ore tech 2a 26 3d we Wb Be a aay teed 2 2erd432 Answer Section Chapter 3: Water and Life INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 3a 32 a. polarwater molecules ‘b. absorbed. © released 4. specific heat e. heat of vaporization £. evaporative cooling 8. solar heat h. rain i, ice forms 33° a. Themolecular mass of CH,Osis 90 daltons, the combined atomic masses of its atoms. A mole of lactic acid = 90 A05 M solution would require ¥ mol or45 g b. ¥4mol is % Avogadro's number of molecules; 3.01 x 10%. 34 tH) tow] PH | Acidic Basic or Newt? w*| 10 | s basie 1? | 0? [7 neuteal sole ee lene Fes acidic 3.5 catbonicacid bicarbonate hydrogen ion HO, = HOS + We Htdonor HY acceptor (acid) (base) a. Bicarbonate acts as a base to accept excess ‘HC ions when the pH starts to fall; the reac- tion moves to the left 1b. When the pH rises, H* ions are donated by carbonic acid, and the reaction shifts to the right. 36 a CO,+H,O=SH,C0, HCO, +H Increasing [CO,] will drive these reactions to the right, increasing [F] b. Alower pH means an increasing [H*], which will drive this reaction (HCO, —=s CO,* +H!) to the left, thus decreasing [coe], & COs + Ca?* = CaCO, With less CO,* available to react with Ca®, calcifica tion rates would be expected to decrease. SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1. a, Cohesion, adhesion b. Awater column is pulled up through plant vessels. €. Heat is absorbed or released when hydrogen bonds break or form. Water absorbs or releases a large quantity of heat for each degree of temperature change. 4. High heat of vaporization €. Solar heat is dissipated from tropical seas. £. Evaporative cooling, & Evaporation of water cools surfaces of plants and animals. hh. Hydrogen bonds in ice space water molecules apart, making ice less dense. i, Floating ice insulates bodies of water so they don’t freeze solid. it Versatile solvent k. Polar water molecules surround and dissolve ionic and polar solutes,433 Answer Section 2 PH measures calculated by Fegulated by ——— L —[Thatter EE Pei mal be high egher ca acid-base pat Came aN weale rom 0-14 ‘whch pa?) pia?) 7, vecise [issodates reversibly 5 = e “| o acidic eutal Basie [H'}x [OH] = 10 release I | [accept ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ‘Multiple Choice: Lb ae ne 10. b 13. € 46. d Ra Boa ad ub md a7. b 3.4 6b 9a Re 15. 18. b Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS same side of the double bond. Although 4,1 The abiotic synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic molecules would be a first step in the origin of life. A variety of organic ‘compounds, including amino acids, were produced in Miller's apparatus, which attempted to simulate the physical and ‘chemical conditions on early Earth. 4.2 Ethanol and dimethyl ether are structural isomers, which have the same number and. kinds of atoms but a different bonding sequence and very different properties. Maleic acid and fumaric acid are cis-Frans isomers whose C=C bonds fix the spatial ‘arrangement of the molecule. Maleic acid is the cis isomer; the same groups are on the the enantiomers L- and D-lactic acid look similar in a flat representation of their struc- ‘tures, they are not superimposable due to the arrangement of four different atoms or ‘groups around an asymmetric carbon. ' carboxyl group H. (aldehyde) cH) wo @ saya soup HC GSD h amino group phosphate group434 Answer Section SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 Saye same hay dee molecular molecular chemical formulas shapes ropes fay Be diego seeuctural | [co-frns] [ cnantiomers different isomers | [_isomers three-dimensional sha dittrent have different have diferent Nore Be arrangement of spatial ‘mirror a arrangements images double bonds | dé to ue to norotation around ] | Placement of atoms around soutie ssymmeti carbon 2 Chemical Group Molecilar Forma Name and Characteristics of COmpounds Containing Group Hydroxyl =o ‘Alcohols polar group Carbonyl SC=0 Allehyde or ketone; polar group Carboxyl cool Carboxylic acid; donate H ‘Amino =Nih ‘Amines; basi, accept H™ Sulthydeyl =SH ‘Thiol; crosslinks stabilize protein Phosphate —or0* Onganie phosphates; involved in energy transfers, adds negative charge Methyl =a Methylated compounds; addition may alter expresion of genes ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Multiple Choice: ‘Matching: hac he 7 bf 10 ad Ro fo Go ae Ann oe ee . 7 Bade GBacde ®ac we Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS © aldose or aldehyde sugar (carbonyl at end of carbon skeleton) 54 dehydration reactions/removal; hydrolysis/ ._etose o ketone sugar (carbonyl within Cs carbon skeleton) 52a. hydroxyl e- tings b. carbonyl Lose5a 55 Answer Section 435 £. saturated: no C=C bonds & phosphate group hi cell membranes i steroids j. animal cell membrane component (cholesteral), hormones 56 a HOCH, Gio ee | 1 AmmS H glycosidic FENG etinisae: » HO ° alanine serine HOH Peptide bond OH Sucrose i Hct | Hay Vl i a. - monosaccharides HENCE N-C-C-O8 b. (CHO) e. energy compounds He 4. carbon skeletons, monomers dipeptide fe. disaccharides 7 ; 7 glycosidic linkages b. Serine’sR group is polar; alanine's g. polysaccharides R group is nonpolar. f. glycogen cea polypeptide backbone; an R group i. animals 57. a. hydrogen bond i, starch b. hydrophobic interactions and van der Ke cellulose Waals interactions 1 chitin «disulfide bridge a. als, triacylglycerides 4. ionic bond b. phospholipids ‘These interactions between R groups produce «glycerol tertiary structure. di. fatty acids fe. unsaturated: has some C=C bonds436 Answer Section 58 PROTEINS acepolymeisar _ finclion depends on os noe oa joped 7 comsstofSiquenaje Ralf fom perie ak Primary bonds structure Foden eer nino | | eaboxgl | [hydeogen) [Rgroup = a group || group structure Ppleat contributes sheet nay be wa ersited by nonpolar (hydrophobic) ar Thydrogen bonds within Polar or charged =e polypeptide backbone Chydrophitiey Tested by Aelermine may have ‘hydrophobic, van der Waals Gunterary interactions, H bonds, onic FUNCTION structure bonds, disulfide bridges mh ade of sae] Cemgat] ae aeias Seal pate subunits Tremoglobin, | [acim and fibers] | “membrane” | | ageeacis | [insulin] [antibodies] [naymor proteins | | muscles 59a b. pyrimidine; base has single ring a Nirogenous DNA; 2’ carbon in sugar is lacking O i s ‘ase (o-P-o} Cy : Hh 0) oy 4KH ow Phosphate eh Broup OHH Atlachment ste ~ Deoxyribose for phosphate of next ntleotide 5.10 NUCLEICACIDS | are polymers of ma ann DNA TA) _——[mceotides linked by oF : sonst ot ‘double Phosphodioster nitrogenous [7 [pentose | Nf ahosphane] | hal bonds base (@C sugar) soup =aG for cies her complementary imidine ] [purine rribose] {rit ‘ase pais Provides mocae) e deoxyribose] [iibose tes Tackbone Fi provides tor waedo eae cytosine sguanine | [DNA] [RNA][— sale] [Code tor aminoacids Pas | is—| tymina | BL aaeine repliation| | “Teva, in proteins Jia RNASUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 ‘The primary structure of a protein is the specific, genetically coded sequence of amino acids ina polypeptide chain. The secondary structure involves the coiling (« helix) or fold- ing (@ pleated sheet) of the protein, stabilized by hydrogen bonds along the polypeptide backbone. The tertiary structure involves in- teractions between the side chains (R groups) fof amino acids and produces a characteris tic three-dimensional shape for a protein. ‘Quaternary structure occurs in proteins composed of more than one polypeptide. amino acid (glycine) fatty acid ¢ nitrogenous base, purine (adenine) . glycerol fe. phosphate group £. sugar (pentose, ribose) g. sugar (triose) ve Answer Section 437 1. bd Bcef Be 7 ef oe 8. a eee oe b ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ‘Matching: LA 4c 728 9-8 2B 5. BC WA 3D 6D Multiple Choice: Lb Ra 13. b qa zd 8 d Mc 20. ¢ 3. d 9. 4 1B. ¢ 21. b 4b 10. a 16. b 2. ¢ Bc Mc wb 6d md 18. d Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 6a 63 a. the study of cell structure b. the internal fine structure of cells ¢._ the three-dimensional surface topography ofa specimen 44. Light microscopy enables the study of living cells and may introduce fewer artifacts than do TEM and SEM. ‘a. a phospholipid bilayer with the hydro- ‘phobic tails clustered in the interior and the phosphate heads facing the hydrophilic bulside and inside of the cel; proteins are embedded in and attached to the membrane. b._ area is proportional to a linear dimension squared; 10%, of 100 times the surface area; ‘volume is proportional to a linear dimension cubed; 10°, or 1,000 times the volume, Smaller cells have a greater ratio of surface ‘area to volume. Narrow, elongated shapes and ‘microvilli, which are long, thin projections of the plasma membrane, also increase the sur- face area relative to the volume of a cell. ‘The genetic instructions for specific proteins are transcribed from DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA), which then passes into the ‘cytoplasm to complex with ribosomes, where itis translated into the primary structure of proteins. Ribosomal subunits are synthesized Jn nucleoli from rRNA (transcribed from DNA) land proteins imported from the cytoplasm. 64. a, smooth ER—in different cells may house ‘enzymes that synthesize lipids (including steroids), metabolize carbohydrates, detoxify drugs and alcohol, or store and release calcium ions in muscle cells b. nuclear envelope—double membrane that encloses nucleus; pores regulate passage of materials rough ER—attached ribosomes produce proteins that enter cisternae; produces secre- tory proteins and membranes d._ transport vesicle—carries products of ER ‘and Golgi apparatus to various locations fe. Golgi apparatus—processes products of ER; makes polysaccharides; packages prod- ucts in vesicles targeted to specific locations £, plasma membrane—selective barrier that regulates passage of materials into and out of the cell g. lysosome—houses hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules438 Answer Section 65 Mitochondrion Inner Outer membrane. aes Cristae Intermembrane Mateix space Chloroplast Inner and outer, Intermembrane membranes space ytaoua \Tyibot 6.6 Petoxisomes do not bud from the endomem- brane system, but grow by incorporating proteins and lipids made in the cytosol, the ER, or the peroxisome itself; they increase in number by dividing, 67 a. hollow tube, formed from columns of tubulin dimets; 25-nm diameter b. cell shape and support (compression resistant), tracks for moving organelles, chro- ‘mosome movement in cell division, beating of cilia and flagella © two twisted chains of actin subunits; ?-nun diameter 4. muscle contraction, maintain and change cell shape, amoeboid movement, cytoplasmic streaming, © supercoiled fibrous proteins of keratin family; 8-12 nm diameter £ reinforce cell shape (Lension bearing); anchor nucleus; form nuclear lamina 68 ‘Two adjacent plant cells Midlle lamella Primary cll wall Central Plasthodesma vacuole proteoglycan complex collagen fibronectin integrin microfilament Paoge 6.10 a. See answer for 6.8. b. structural support; signaling between en- vironment and cell via fibronectins, integrins, and the cytoskeleton (may affect gene expres. sion), orientation of cell movements SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1. a. ‘nucleus, chromosomes, centrioles, micro- tubules (move chromosomes), microfilaments {pinch apart cells) . nucleus, chromosomes, DNA» mRNA. {to ribosomes) ~ enzymes and other proteins © mitochondria 4. ribosomes, rough and smooth BR, Golgi apparatus, transport vesicles, €. smooth ER (peroxisomes also detoxify substances) £. lysosomes, food vacuoles, vesicles enclos- ing damaged organelles & peroxisomes hi. cytoskeleton: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments; extracellular matrix i. cilia and flagella (microtubules), micto- filaments (actin) in muscles and amoeboid movement j. plasma membrane, transport vesicles K,_desmosomes, tight and gap junctions, BCM 2 a. ‘structural support, middle lamella glues cells together Bb. storage of inorganic ions, growth via cell expansion © photosynthesis, production of sugars d. starch storage cytoplasmic connections between cells rough endoplasmic reticulum . smooth endoplasmic reticulum chromatin nucleolus nuclear envelope nucleus ribosomes Golgi apparatus plasma membrane mitochondrion lysosome cytoskeleton |. microtubules "TER MO BoE goryAnswer Section 439) nn intermediate filaments q. peroxisome ‘0. microfilaments f_ centrosome (contains a pair of centrioles) p. microvilli 8. flagellum 4 moves into cytosol transcription of gene and complexes with ‘pg aseptic Ee NA aioe > RIBOSOME rRNA translated into polypeptide: becomes tached to ‘polypeptide moves into cisternal space; may be “TRANSPORT VESICLES —__"hontied to earbohytdate to form glycoprotein pin offandjoin cs ace of <————— ROUGH ER "TRANSPORT VESICLES Gout APPARATUS fmt scene andi ith poigapidemay be modifies mn oe PLAS MEMBRANE. ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ‘Multiple Choice: Lb ae na 10. Ba 16. d 19. b Ra Bd 8b we ub 4 20. 4 3. a 6b 8 mb 15. ¢ 18. ¢ 2a Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 7. a, hydrophilic phosphate head glucose in the 1 M solution than around the b. hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) Fructose and sucrose, whose combined con- phospholipid bilayer centration is 0.9 M. Water will move by 4. hydrophobic region of integral protein ‘osmosis from side B to side A fe. hydrophilic region of integral protein ; a 76 a. The protist will gain water from its £,_ peripheral protein (hydrophilic) hypotonic environment. It has a plasma mem- 72. a. Inhybrid human/mouse cells, membrane ‘brane that is less permeable to water and con- proteins rapidly intermix (Frye and Edidin, fractile vacuoles that expel excess water 1970) \b._ Animal cells fare best in isotonic environ- 1b. The cell membranes of the cold lake ments, in which they neither gain nor lose population would have a higher proportion ‘water, Plant cells are healthiest in hypotonic bf unsaturated fatty acids in their phospho- ‘environments, in which the inward move- ipids than that ofthe population living in iment of water creates turgor pressure, ‘warm temperatures. providing mechanical support to the cell. 73. transport, enzymatic activity, signal trans 7.7 Although it speeds diffusion and requires duction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular transport proteins, facilitated diffusion is joining, attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM still passive transport because the solute is {providing support and communication) moving down its concentration gradient; the ‘process is driven by the concentration gradi- 74. Ions and polar molecules such as glucose are aro ot by anergy expended by the cell impeded by the hydrophobic center of the plasma membrane’s lipid bilayer. 78 ‘Three Na* are pumped out of the cell for every two K~ pumped in, resulting ina net movement of positive charge from the cytoplasm to the extracellular fluid. 75. Side A initially has fewer free water mol- ‘ecules; side B initially has more. More water molecules are clustered around the440 Answer Section 7.9 a Human cells use receptor-mediated endocytosis to take in cholesterol, which is used for the synthesis of other steroids and membranes, . In people with this disease, LDL receptor proteins in the plasma membrane are defec- tive, and low-density lipoprotein particles cannot bind and be transported from the blood into the cell. SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 DROS 7 isthe difhsion of free water : thogugh a ca 0 net smoverentit Yearly iniga outa cel] | permeate 7 oe membrane Typotonic Tiypetone isotonic ‘ofaton olution sotaton inyylck Tag hes iwhigh which simatcell | [ Towersolute | [highersoate ] [animalcal] [antmalcou witlyse | Lconcentation | [concentration | | wittshaver | | “imal i and and and and and ln call] [more fee veter | [Tes ee water] [panecawit] [Hamel stony | Lavabietomove | avalabewmove || Pyisssotye | | Ranta 2 a. represents facilitated diffusion. The Solute is moving through a transport protein and down its concentration gradient. The cell does not expend energy in this transport because itis driven by the concentration grax dient, Polar molecules and ions may move by facilitated diffusion, b. Il represents active transport because the solute is clearly moving against its concentra- tion gradient and the cell is expending ATP to drive this transport against the gradient. ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ‘Multiple Choice: Lb 3d be nd %e Be ee eee nae “Explanation for answer to question 8: This prob- lem involves both osmosis and diffusion. Although the solutions are initially equal in molarity, glucose will diffuse down its concentration gradient until it reaches dynamic equilibrium with a 1.5 M concentra- tion on both sides. The increasing solute concentration on side A will cause water to move into this side, and the water level will rise. In order to diffuse through the lipid bilayer, solute molecules must be hydlropho- bie (nonpolar) or very small polar molecules, 4. Tand IL. Both diffusion through the lipid bilayer and facilitated diffusion are considered passive transport because the solute moves down its concentration gradient and the cell does not expend energy in the process, Wai Bai 6%b we Bd Wd we wa **Explanation for answer to question 10: As the solute in the solution crosses the cell membrane, it increases the concentration of solutes within the cell, reducing the hypertonicity of the solution. As the solute reaches {an equal concentration inside and outside the cell, it no longer causes osmotic changes in the cell,Answer Section 44 Chapter 8: An Introduction to Metabolism INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 4. Ahydrolysis reaction breaks the terminal phosphate bond and releases a molecule of 81a. capacity to cause change inorganic phosphate: ATP + H,0 > ADP + b. kinetic ©, + energy motion fe. The negatively charged phosphate groups a. potential are crowded together, and their mutual re- e. position pulsion makes this area unstable, ‘The chemi- £. conserved or constant {al change to a more stable state of lower g created nor destroyed free energy accounts for the relatively high a release of energy. transferred or transformed entropy 85 Energy coupling is the use of an exergonic Second process to drive an endergonic one. The ATP {yele itself illustrates this coupling in that 82 ‘energy-releasing processes of catabolism are coupled with energy-consuming process oe ae eee ff cellular work. But each side is also an stability | Capacity | Change? _| Equilibrium example; The endergonic synthesis of ATP System | low | high yes moves from ADP and @ is coupled to the exergonic with toward reactions of catabolism (left side), and the High exergonic hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and ®, ne provides the Immediate energy source for zi cellular work (right side). Sytem [hh [low no | isatornear yee Tow . transition state Free c._Eq (free energy of activation) without Energy enzyme dd. E, with enzyme a e. AGof reaction TREE ENERGY 87 measure of determined by eee cnargy available activesite Induced ft rey aval BH Tas al AGis" Asis ¢ Frescengy wailable] [ehangein] [absolute] [change in ae Enzymesubstrate todo work total | | tempera | [entropy complex energy off [te when hey LOSE measure of ‘AC enegative | [AGis postive Gisorderor] Active randomness ste wouplly actin decreateinH, | poSsion ts increase in Tponteneous | [exennonic ] [endergonic] [ponspontaneous 84 a, adenine b. ribose ¢. triphosphate group (three phosphate groups)442 Answer Section 88 A competitive inhibitor would mimic the shape of the substrates and compete with them for the active site. Anoncompetitive inhibitor would be a shape that could bind to another site on the enzyme molecule and would change the shape of the enzyme such, that the active site functions less effectively. 8.9 ATP would act as an inhibitor to cataboli pathways, slowing the breakdown of fuel molecules if the supply of ATP exceeds demand. If ATP supplies drop, ADP would act as an activator of these catabolic enzymes, and more ATP would be produced. SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1. Metabolism is the totality of chemical reae- tions that take place in iving organisms, To create and maintain the structural order required for life requires an input of free energy—from sunlight for photosynthetic organisms, and from energy-tich food mole- cules for other organisms, A cell couples cata- bolic, exergonic reactions (-AG) with anabolic, «endengonic reactions (+AG), using ATP as the primary energy shuttle between the two, 2. Bnzymes are essential for metabolism because they lower the activation energy of the spe- cific reactions they catalyze and allow those reactions to occur extremely rapidly at a tem- perature conducive to life. By regulating the enzymes it produces, a cell can regulate which of the myriad of possible chemical reactions take place at any given time. Metabolic control also occurs through allosteric regulation and feedback inhibition. The compartmental orgo- nization of a cell facilitates a cell's metabolism, ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Fill in the Blanks: 1. metabolism 7. competitive 2 anabolic inhibitors 3. potential 8. coenzymes 4. heat 9. feedback inhibit 5. entropy 10. phosphorylated 6. activation energy intermediate ‘Multiple Choice: he &d 8c Bad me Re 6d Me wd wb Bb 2a Md Bb we 4b Bb Bd Bd wa Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration and Fermentation INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 9.4 CHyOy 6 COx energy (ATP + heat) 92 a. oxidized b. reduced © donates (loses) d. oxidizing agent fe. accepts (gains) 93 a O; b. glucose © Some is stored in ATP and some is released as heat. 9.4 a. electron cartier (or acceptor). It is a co- enzyme that works with enzymes called dehydrogenases, b. NADH 9:5 a. glycolysis: glucose > pyruvate (considered ppart of cellular respiration inthis textbook) . oxidation of pyruvate and citric acid cycle © oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis electrons carried by NADH (and FADH,) to the electron transport chain, . substrate-level phosphorylation {. substrate-level phosphorylation & oxidative phosphorylation 96 a. 2ATP b. 2 three-carbon sugars (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) 2NAD* +40 44H! [Link] +2H° 4arP 2 pyruvate Pe ao 9.7 a. pyruvate b. CO, «NADH +H* . coenzyme AAnswer Section 443 e. acetyl CoA k, ATP synthase f. oxaloacetate 1 ADP +®, g. citrate m. ATP B Mopee 99 a 2 co; be 4 K. NADH + H° a =e 1. GTP (may make ATP) paar m. FADH, £2 n. NADH + H* : 5 6 9.8 a. intermembrane space h. 2 b. inner mitochondrial membrane L2 mitochondrial matrix ° 9.10 Respiration yields up to 16 times more electron tnaport chain ATP than does fermentation. By oxidizing oe pyruvate to CO, and passing electrons from ee NADH (and FADH,) through the electron ore oF transport chain, respiration can produce a ho ‘maximum of 32 ATP compared to the 2 net i ATP that are produced by fermentation, chemiosmosis SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1. Use Interactive Questions 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, and 9.8 to help you review these pathways, 2 ‘OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION, captures ene genera uses process of S*PUNESEMETBY ‘AIP [atemiosmosis] ‘edox actions Tr wo Synthesis which couples * ee eee WF gradient ‘ectrons from Phosphorylation (proton-motve force) NADH or FADH, Of ADP ' X passed down drives ditfsign of i ee deetvon catalyzes ‘ transport chain pumps T 1H ions into to final electron [ATP synthase] | intermembrane| acceptor space i onygen loc +1730) 12H" H.0)444 Answer Section s Prose Biie Beciption Main np — [Nain ups Glycolysis ‘Oxidation of glucose to 2 pyruvate with reduction of 2NAD* to | glucose 2 pyruvate NADH, prdtcton of? AiPnet barr = anapt | aNapH +2 a 4aDP + ®, 2H0 Eynwateto ach | Oxidation of pyruvate ace COA, which combines with |2pyrwvate | 6 COs Comand ticncid_| xalonetate cat, Cia sled bck to onaloncate cycle as redox reactions produce NADH and FADH; and CO; is 2oxaloacetate | 8NADH "eleosed. ATP is formed by subatateevel phosphorylation, foes 2am Oudatve "NADH and FADHtanafr econo eletontanaport han, PIONADHE |TKO phosphorylation | ina ores of redox reactions He puny in nero {electron transport | space, and electrons pass to O,, Proton-motive force drives H* | 2FADHy 28 ATP (max) and chemicamcsis) | though ATP synthase o make ATP ato, Fermentation | Anaerobic stabolisn vals ollwedby ovation of NADA | See Zar L@NAD' so glycolysis can contin. Pyruvate either edaced : to ethyl alcohol and CO, or to lactate. slycolysis [Link]' above 2 ethanol and apyvate — | 2cOsoe 2napt | aiacate ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Multiple Choice: hae nd a deo 2b 5d 8b la wad We 20. b 22. ¢ aod Ge we Be 15. d 18d Chapter 10: Photosynthesis INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 101 a, outer membrane & NADPH ». granum CO, 6. inner membrane I. Calvin eyce in stroma d. thylakoid space i. [CH,O} (sugar) ee 103 The two yraxes shouldbe labeled, “Absomp- . tion of light by chlorophyll a” and “Rate of 10.2 a. light photosynthesis.” The solid line is the absorp- BHO tion spectrum the dotted lines the action 6. light actions in thylakoid membranes spectrum, Some wavelengths of igh, particu ao, layin the Bue andthe yellow-orange range, e Ate resutin higher rate of photosynthesis than104 05 10.6 107 would be indicated by the absorption of those wavelengths by chlorophyll a. These differences are partially accounted for by accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids, which absorb light energy from different wavelengths and make that energy available to drive photosynthesis. ‘A photosystem contains light-harvesting ‘complexes of pigment molecules (chlorophyll 4, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) bound to particular proteins, and a reaction center complex, which includes a pair of chloro- phyll a molecules (P680 or P700) and a primary electron acceptor. a, photosystem II b. photosystem 1 water (H.0) oxygen (403) fe. P68), reaction-center chlorophyll @ £. primary electron acceptor g. electron transport chain 1h. photophosphorylation by chemiosmosis ATP 700, reaction-center chlorophyll a primary electron acceptor NADP* reductase m, NADPH ATP and NADPH provide the chemical energy and reducing power for the Calvin cycle. a. Ferredoxin (Fd) passes the electrons to the cytochrome complex in the electron transport chain, from which they return to P700". ._ Electrons from P680 are not passed to 'P700, Without the oxidizing agent P80, ‘water is not split. Fd does not pass electrons to NADP* reductase to form NADPH. c. Electrons do pass down the electron transport chain, andl the energy released by their “fall” drives chemiosmosis. a. in the thylakoid space (pH of about 5) '. (1) transport of protons into the thyla~ kkoid space as Pq transfers electrons to the cytochrome complex; 2) protons from the 10.8 109 10.40 Answer Section 445 splitting of water remain in the thylakoid space; (3) removal of Hin the stroma during the reduction of NADP" a b. a. £ & carbon fixation reduction regeneration of CO, acceptor (RuBP) 3CO, ribulose bisphosphate (RUBP) rubisco 3-phosphoglycerate . 6ATP > 6 ADP i. 13-bisphosphoglycerate NADPH > 6 NADP" . 6B, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) GP glucose and other organic compounds . 3ATP +3 ADP 9 ATP and 6 NADPH are required to synthe- size one G3P. Photorespiration may be an evolutionary relic from the time when there was little O, in the atmosphere and the ability of rubisco to distinguish between O, and CO, was not critical. Photorespiration appears to protect plants from damaging products of the light reactions that build up when the Calvin cycle slows due to a lack of CO, a. in the bundle-sheath cells 'b. Carbon is initially fixed into a four-carbon compound in the mesophyll cells by PEP carboxylase. When this compound is bro- ken down in the bundle-sheath cells, CO, is ‘maintained at a high enough concentration that rubisco does not accept O, and cause photorespiration. c. ATPis used to convert pyruvate, return- ing from the bundle-sheath cells, to PEP in the mesophyll cells. Bundle-sheath cells pro- duce this ATP using PS I and cyclic electron flow. (They lack PS I and thus do not gener ate O,, which would compete with CO, for binding to rubisco.)446 Answer Section SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE & o, 1H’ pumped 3° into H\_Photophosphorylation 4 akon rm "sii tre O E Gource of a) NADPH weActOns rhs INTHYLAKOID: oo bi 6Cy ‘MEMBRANE ae e ‘transport SRuBP chain ATR Gs] CALVIN 3 i Mo CYCLEIN, ei Sicha ef a) Pate 1 Prot sent s ™e 1p g in three Phas 2 PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE is driven by octurs by, Multiple Choice: light ‘chemiosmosis Le 7d Bd Wd wd ney 7 Ba Boe aa 20. ¢ 26. b when absorbed involves formation of Boe ad 15. d 2c rpduces aan 42 1b Wd 22a electrons] "ansfer down x 6b ue 18. a mb tom graerat “iron transport [~which roa | EE" Pach int] [PR ite a gh Tain pO |e —arives: “ed oeainin of ATP into stromaAnswer Section 447 Chapter 11: Cell Communication INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS 7 1141 Plant hormones may reach their target cells, by traveling through vessels, between cells via plasmodesmata, or even through the air asa gas. ‘The G protein is also a GTPase that hydro- lyzes its bound GTP to GDP and inactivates itself. It then dissociates from the enzyme it had activated, and that enzyme returns to its original state n2 faa 113. a. signaling molecules (ligands) ‘chelix in the membrane phosphates 6 ATP 6 ADP tyrosines: activated relay proteins . different cellular responses Pe wreao 114 Large, hydrophobic signaling molecules can- rot cross the plasma membrane, They bind to cell-surface receptors such as GPCRs or ligand-gated ion channels, Small, hydropho- bie signaling molecules can diffuse across the plasma membrane and bind with receptors ‘within the cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells 19 LS. a. Aprotein kinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP toa protein; adding a charged phosphate group causes a shape change that usually activates the protein. b. Aphosphorylation cascade is a series of protein kinase relay molecules that sequen tially phosphorylate the next kinase in the pathway. €. Aprotein phosphatase is an enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a protein, ‘usually inactivating the protein, Protein a phosphatases effectively shut down signaling pathways when the initial signal is no longer present. 116 a. signaling molecule (first messenger) b. G protein-coupled receptor ¢. activated G protein (GTP bound) d._acienylyl cyclase e. ATP £. cAMP (second messenger) 2 g. protein kinase A hh. phosphorylation cascade to cellular response ‘a. signaling molecule £ endoplasmic reticulum a. Signaling molecules reversibly bind to receptors, and when they leave a receptor, the receptor reverts to its inactive form. The ‘concentration of signaling molecules influ- ences how many are bound at any time, with a threshold number of receptors with bound molecules required for the tesponse to occur. b. Activated G proteins are inactivated ‘when the GTPase portion of the protein con- verts GIP to GDP. c. Phosphodiesterase converts cAMP to AMP, thus damping out this second messenger. 4d. Protein phosphatases remove phosphate groups from activated proteins, The balance Of active protein kinases and active phospha- tases regulates the activity of many proteins 1a. The basic mechanism for programmed cell death evolved early in the evolution of eukaryotes, b. Programmed cell death in humans is important in the normal development of the nervous system, fingers, and toes; for normal functioning of the immune system; and to prevent the development of cancerous cells, (by the internal triggering of apoptosis in cells with DNA damage). SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE, YOUR KNOWLEDGE Cell signaling is essential for communication between cells, Unicellular organisms use sig nals to relay environmental ot reproductive information, Communication in multicellular organisms allows for the development and coordination of specialized cells. Extracellular signals control the crucial activities of cells, such as cell division, differentiation, metabo- lism, and gene expression. Cell signaling occurs through signal trans- duction pathways that include reception, transduction, and response. First a signal ing molecule binds to a specific receptor. “The message is transduced as the receptor448 Answer Section activates a protein that may relay the mes- sage through a sequence of activations, finally leading to the specific cellular response. ‘The sequence described in the previous answer can result in the activation of cellular proteins, When the signal is transduced to activate a transcription factor, however, the cellular response is a change in gene expres- sion and the production of new proteins, Ina phosphorylation cascade, each step in the pathway activates multiple substrates of the next step, thus amplifying the original message to produce potentially millions of activated proteins and thus a large cellular response to a few signals ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Multiple Choice: ee ee sh eee ite aie Ba Be 8d Wd Bd Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS a 22 23 Ra a 46 b. 23 « 2 a. Growth—most organelles and cell com- ponents are produced continuously throuigh- ut these subphases. b. DNA synthesis duplication Refer to main text Figure 12.7 for chromosome diagrams (although you were asked to draw only four chromosomes, and the text shows six). a. G,of interphase b. prophase prometaphase 4. metaphase e anaphase £ telophase and cytokinesis 8. duplicated centrosomes (with centrioles) h. chromatin (duplicated but uncondensed chromosomes) i. nuclear envelope j. nucleolus Ik. early mitotic spindle Laster m. nonkinetochore microtubules 1. metaphase plate P. a and chromosome spindle . cleavage furrow |. nuclear envelope forming a. MPF isa complex of cyclin and Cdk (cyclin-dependent kinase) that initiates mitosis by phosphorylating proteins and. other kinases. b, MPF concentration is high as it triggers the onset of mitosis but is reduced at the end Of mitosis because it depends on the concen- tration of cyclin in the cell. The Cdk level is constant throughout the cell cycle, but the level of cyclin Varies because active MPF starts a process that degrades cyclin. Thus, MPF regulates its own level and can only become active when sufficient cyclin accu- mulates after being synthesized in the S and G, phases of the next interphase. SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO STRUCTURE YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1. a. interphase b. telophase ©. anaphase d. metaphase 2. Interphase: 90% of cell cycle; growth and DNA replication * G; phase: The chromosome consists of a Jong, thin chromatin fiber made of DNA and associated proteins. Growth and metabolic activities occur. ‘+ Sphase—synthesis of DNA: The chromo- some is duplicated; two exact copies, called sister chromatids, are produced and held together tightly at their centromeres and by cohesins along their length, Growth and ‘metabolic activities continue. * G; phase: Growth and metabolism continue. * Mitotic phase: cell division consisting of mitosis and cytokinesis, ‘+ Prophase: The sister chromatids, held together by sister chromatid cohesion andat the centromere, become tightly coiled and condensed. * Prometaphase: Kinetochore fibers from opposite ends of the mitotic spindle attach to the kinetochores of the sister chromatids; the chromosome moves toward midline. + Metaphase: The centromere of the chromo- some is aligned at the metaphase plate along, with the centromeres ofthe other chromosomes. * Anaphase: Cohesins are cleaved and the sister chromatids separate (now considered individual chromosomes) and move to oppo- site poles of the cell. ‘© Telophase: The chromatin fiber of the chromosome uncoils and is surrounded by reforming nuclear membrane, a. nonkinetochore microtubule: elongate cell by lengthening and “walking” past micro- tubules from the opposite pole Answer Section 449) b. kinetochore: protein and DNA structire in region of centromere where microtubules attach, c._ kinetochore microtubule: move chromo- somes to metaphase plate and separate chro- ‘mosomes as motor proteins of kinetochores “walk” toward opposite poles and the micro- ‘tubules disassemble dd. centrosome and centrioles: region of mitotic spindle formation; onganizes microtubules fe. aster: radiating spindle fibers (in animal cells) ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Fil in the Blanks: 1. G 6. metaphase 2. anaphase 7. telophase 3. prophase 8. prophase 4. cytokinesis 9, prometaphase 8. Sphase 40. G, phase ‘Multiple Choice: Ld 44 %e Ma Bd oe be eee) ec ae Be 6c %b wd Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles INTERACTIVE QUESTIONS BA 132 a 14;7 b, 251 c._56.Sister chromatids are produced when a chromosome duplicates before cell division. ‘They are joined at the centromere and attached along their lengths. Nonsister chromatids are found on different chromosomes of a homolo- gous pair (homologs). meiosis fertilization zygote mitosis gametes fertilization zygote emppe re 1h, meiosis i, spores js gametes Kk, fertilization Lon im. zygote n, meiosis 133. Thediploid number for this animal cell (21) is 6 a. metaphase Il b. prophase T anaphase T dd, metaphase 1 e. anaphase Il f. telophase I, beginning of cytokinesis Proper sequence: b. d.c. fae.