Name, ID __________________________

ESC1000L, GLY1010L
Lab 1: Numbers, Data and Graphs

Materials:
Ruler – mm scale
Calculator
Graph paper

Introduction
Study of the Earth often requires quantitative observations and measurements. Data (a plural, the
singular form is datum) are usually in numerical form representing measured quantities such as a
length, mass, temperature or counts. Data may also represent changes in a quantity such as a rate
(change per time) or a gradient (change per distance). All observational data are subject to uncertainty
and are recorded to a finite precision. Data are also measured in a particular system of units and it is
important to know how to convert between one system and another.

For interpretive purposes, data are often presented in the form of a graph. Graphs can provide insight
into patterns and relationships in the data that are unclear in tabular form. Graphs come in many forms:
line graphs, bar or column graphs, pie charts, and scatter plots. The particular graph type depends on
the type of data and the scientific question being investigated.

1. Explore. In small groups

A: Measurements: how accurate, how precise
What is the width and the height of your lab packet? It is printed on 8 ½ by 11 inch paper, but can we be
sure if those are its actual detentions? And what are those dimensions in the metric system which is
commonly used in scientific investigations?

Use the ruler to measure the height and width of the first page of your lab packet in centimeters (cm).
Round your measurement to the nearest 0.1 mm (1 mm = 0.1 cm). Estimate the right most digit from
the distance between the marks on the ruler.

Height: ______________ cm Width _____________ cm

Accuracy, precision and resolution

Three terms that are used to describe the quality of measurements are accuracy, precision and
resolution. Are these words synonyms or do they refer to different properties of a measurement? In
small groups of 2 to 4 students, discuss the meaning of these words and then write down short
definitions of each.

Accuracy:

Precision:

Resolution:

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What is the resolution of your measurements in cm?

Let’s assume that the paper is exactly 8.5 by 11 inches. Given that assumption the international
definition of an inch, 1 inch = 2.54 cm, estimate the accuracy of your measurement. Specify the accuracy
in cm. Show your work.

Describe a procedure to determine the precision of your measurement?

Scientific results are commonly expressed in the MKS (meters, kilogram, seconds) system. Express your
width and height in meters (m) using scientific notation. Express your results to an appropriate number
of decimal places (more on this later)

Height: ______________________ m Width ___________________ m

B: An important graph
Since 1958 scientists have collected daily air samples at an observatory on the Mauna Loa volcano in
Hawaii. One particularly important gas is carbon dioxide (CO2). While the concentration of CO2 is very
small (typically measured in parts per million, ppm), it has a very important effect on climate.

Figure 1. Monthly mean atmospheric carbon dioxide at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. Source,
[Link]

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The 57 year record of CO2 measurements is shown in Figure 1. The figure contains two graphs. The red
line is uncorrected data. It shows short-period oscillations between highs and lows superimposed on an
increasing trend. The black line shows the corrected data after the short period oscillations have been
removed.

Investigate the source of the short-period oscillations shown in the red graph. Select a 10-year period
and count the number of highs (e.g. the cycles) within that period.

Number of highs: ________________.

Based on your observations of the number of cycles within a 10-year period, propose a cause of the
oscillations.

The corrected (black) graph shows a definite increasing trend. From the graph, estimate the CO2
concentration (to the nearest ppm) in 1958 (beginning of the graph) and 2016 (end of the graph)

CO2 concentration 1958: __________ ppm CO2 concentration 2015: __________ ppm

What do you think is causing the observed increase in CO2?

Part 2. Explain
A: Scientific measurements
Measurement Units
The International System of Units (SI) is a standardized form of the metric system and is the most widely
used system of measurement used in scientific inquiry worldwide. The system was first established in
1960 and is based on the meter-kilogram-second system of units (MKS). All other units in the SI system
are based on MKS measurements. In the United States, the English system (e.g. pounds, feet, miles, etc.)
is still widely used. Measurements in these units must be converted to the metric system for scientific
inquiry. Examples of units used in both the metric and English units are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. English and metric units

Measurement English Units metric (SI) Units

Length, distance inch, feet, yards, miles meter (m), mm, cm, km
Area sq. feet, Sq miles, acres sq m, sq km, hectares
Volume cup, pint, quart, gallon, cu feet liter (l), ml, cu m
Weights and masses ton, pound, ounce gram (g), kilogram (kg)
Force pound newton (nt), dyne (d)
Temperature degrees Fahrenheit (°F) degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K)
Heat, Energy and British Thermal Units (BTU), joule (J), Erg, Watt (W)
Power horsepower (HP) calorie (cal)
Pressure inches of mercury, pounds per bar, Pascal (Pa)
square inch (psi)

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Unfortunately, Earth science often uses a combination of both SI and English units, especially in the
United States where the metric system has not been fully implemented. This is especially prevalent in
map data where distances and heights are often presented in feet and miles. Examples of common
conversions in these systems is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Common metric and English For example, how do we convert miles to kilometers. It starts with
conversion factors.
the international definition of an inch, 1 inch = 2.54 cm. Then, we
Metric Conversions
determine the number of inches in a mile and the number of
1 m = 100 cm
centimeters in one kilometer.
1 km = 1000 m
English Conversions 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 = 5280 𝑓𝑡 × 12 𝑖𝑛⁄𝑓𝑡 = _________ in
1 foot = 12 inches
1 mile = 5280 feet 1 𝑘𝑚 = 1000 𝑚 × 100 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑚 =_________ cm
English to metric conversions
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1000 𝑚×100𝑐𝑚⁄𝑚 1
Thus, 1 𝑘𝑚 = × 2.54 𝑐𝑚/𝑖𝑛 = ___________𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
5280 𝑓𝑡×12𝑖𝑛⁄𝑓𝑡

Scientific Notation and Significant Figures

In Earth science, we often work with very large or very small numbers. Examples include:

 The age of the Earth = 4,600,000,000 years old

 The mass of a proton = 0. 00000000000000000000000000166 kilograms.

It seems like a lot of work to keep track of all those zeros. Fortunately, we can easily keep track of zeros
and compare the size of numbers with scientific notation.

Scientific notation allows us to reduce the number of zeros that we see while still keeping track of them
for us. For example, the age of the Earth (see above) can be written as 4.6 X 109 years. This means that
this number has 9 places after the decimal place - filled with zeros unless a number comes after the
decimal when writing scientific notation. So 4.6 X 109 years represents 4,600,000,000 years.

Very small numbers use the same type of notation only the exponent on the 10 is usually a negative
number. For example, 0.00000000000000000000000000166 kg (the weight of one atomic mass unit)
would be written 1.66 x 10-27 using scientific notation. A negative number after the 10 means that we
count places before the decimal point in the scientific notation. You can count how many numbers are
between the decimal point in the first number and the second number and it should equal 27.

An alternative to scientific notation is to use prefixes. Scientists have agreed on a standard set of Latin
prefixes to represent very large or small numbers. These prefixes are shown in the Table 3.
Table 3. Prefixes for SI units

Multiples Prefixes Symbols Submultiples Prefixes Symbols

1,000,000,000,000,000 = 1015 peta P 0.1 = 10 -1
deci d
1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 tera T 0.01 = 10-2 centi c
1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G 0.001 = 10-3 milli m
1,000,000 = 106 mega M 0.000001 = 10-6 micro µ
1,000 = 103 kilo k 0.000000001 = 10-9 nano n
100 = 102 hecto h 0.000000000001= 10-12 pico p
10 = 101 deka da 0.000000000000001= 10 -15
femto f

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For example, using this system, the age of the Earth is 4.6 Giga years (abbreviated Ga).

Another nice thing about scientific notation is that it also tells us something about significant figures.
The number of significant figures (sometimes referred to as significant digits) tell us something about
the precision to which a number is known. The certainty of a number increases with the number of
significant figures. Typically, the more sophisticated a measurement technique is, the greater the
number of significant figures. The rightmost significant figure usually contains some uncertainty or is the
result of rounding.

Take the number 2000. It may be expressed using scientific notation in various ways, each of which
expresses a different level of certainty.
Table 4. 2000 expressed to different numbers of significant figures.
Scientific notation # of significant figures Lies between
2 x 103 One 1.5 x 10 (1500) and 2.5 x 103 (2500)
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2.0 x 103 Two 1.95 x 103 (1950) and 2.05 x 103 (2050)
2.00 x 103 Three 1.995 x 103 (1995) and 2.005 x 103 (2005)
2.000 x 103 Four 1.9995 x 103 (1999.5) and 2.0005 x 103 (2000.5)
Thus, 2000 expressed as 2 x 103 (one significant figure) may actually fall somewhere between 1500 and
2500 whereas 2000 expressed as 2.000 x 103 (four significant figures) should fall between 1999.5 and
2000.5 .

Significant figures are especially important to consider when the numbers are used in calculations. In
general, two rules are applied to the result.

1. When using multiplication and division, round the result to the least number of significant
figures used in the calculation.
(21.63)(2,90)
For example: = 22.5
2.789
Your calculator might express the result to 6 or 7 decimal places, but since the number with
the least number of significant digits (2.90) has three significant digits, the result must be
rounded to three digits.
2. When using addition and subtraction, round the result to the least number of decimal places.
For example: 1.003
13.45
+ 0.0057
14.4587 Rounds as 14.46

Basic Calculations
Percentages and proportions.
Scientific quantities are often small fractions expressed as a proportion of a larger number. The most
commonly expressed proportion is the percentage, the number of parts per 100. This is denoted with
the % symbol.
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 % = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
× 100 Eqn. 1

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For example, let’s say you received a score of 68 on an exam worth 75 points. Your percentage score
68
would be, 75
× 100 = 91%
Note that we have expressed our result to two significant figures and rounded up to 91.
Often measurements are very small fractions of a number such that the percentage is much smaller
than one. In that case, we can express our quantity in parts per thousand (‰), parts per million (ppm) or
parts per billion (ppb). For example, to calculate a quantity in parts per million,
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑝𝑚) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
× 106 Eqn. 2

Changes or differences in a quantity are often expressed as a percentage or other proportion of that
quantity. For example, to express a change as a percentage, use the following formula:
𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
× 100 Eqn. 3

To express a difference between a measured quantity and a reference value,

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
× 100 Eqn. 4

Gradients, slopes, and rates.

Measured quantities are also expressed in terms of a change over a distance or a period of time. A
gradient is the change of a measurement over a fixed distance. If the measurement is a change in height
(known as a rise) over a given distance (known as a run), then the gradient is an example of a slope.
Slopes are often expressed as a percentage. For example, consider the slope between two points A and
B separated by a run of 2 kilometers. If A is at 500 m and B is at 900 m, the slope is given by,
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) (900−500) 𝑚
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (%) = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
= 2000 𝑚
× 100% = 20% Eqn. 5

B: Graphs
Graphs allow is to recognize patterns in data and relationships
between data. In a simple x-y scatter plot:

 there are two axes - horizontal (often called the x-axis) and
vertical (often called the y-axis)
 A point on the graph is denoted by an ordered pair (or
coordinates (e.g., (3,1)) where:
o the first number, the abscissa, refers to horizontal
position on the x-axis
o the second number, the ordinate, refers to vertical
position on the y-axis.
 the two axes intersect at point called the origin with
coordinates (0,0).

Scatter plots are used to determine relationships (correlations) between two different quantities. If both
variables increase at the same time, they have a positive correlation (Figure 2A). If one variable

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decreases while the other increases, they have a negative correlation (Figure 2B). Sometimes the
relationship is more complicated or there is no relationship or correlation (Figure 2C)

A B C

Figure 2. Examples of data relationships

Identifying trends and constructing a best fit line

If you are trying to describe a positive or negative relationship in the data, it is probably best not to
“connect the dots”. Instead, you should try to find a straight line that best fits the data. While most
scientists use a computer program to plot the best fit line using a method known as least squares, it is
best to learn how to do this by hand in order to understand this concept.

Start by taking a look at the data and as yourself these questions:

 Does the data look like a line? or a big blob? Try to approximate the general trend of the data
with your mind (even if it's just a blob)
 Does the trend of the points look positively correlated (like they rise up to the right; see Figure
2A) or negatively correlated (like they start high near the x-axis and get lower as they approach
the y-axis; see Figure 2B)?

Your trendline (when you're finished with the next steps) should mimic those correlations. If you blur
your eyes, can you see a thick line trending in one direction or another? This is another way to visualize
the trend of the data.

Now that you have an idea of the general trend of the data, construct a best-fit line by eye. A simple
method involves enclosing the data in an area and bisecting the area with a line (Figure 3). First,
Estimating. Then draw a line with a ruler that divides the area that encloses the data in two even sized
areas. In other words, bisect the area with a line that goes from one edge of the plot to the other. Do
you see that there are approximately the same number of data points on each side of the line?

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 X2=70.5
Y2=43.0

x1=55.0
y1=36.5

Figure 3. Using the area method to construct a best fit line.

Evaluate your best fit line. The points should be evenly distributed above and below the line and the line
should minimize the average distance to each of the data points.

The best fit line can now be used to estimate rates of change, gradients and slopes or to extrapolate
values outside the range of the data. The equation of a straight line is given by,

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 Eqn. 5

where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.

Then read two pairs of coordinates off the line, (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) (Figure 3). After a little algebra, it is
easy to show that the slope and intercept are given by,
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 and 𝑏 = 𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑥1 Eqn. 6
2 1

The slope may be used to estimate rates of change and Equation 5 can then be used for extrapolation.

3: Elaborate
In all cases, show your work and express your answers to an appropriate number of significant figures.

A: Scientific measurements
1) The mass of the Earth = 5,973,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms. Assume that the zeros are
not significant digits. Express the mass of the Earth in scientific notation.

2) Using your measurements of the sheet of paper from Part 1, calculate the area of the paper in
meters using scientific notation expressed to an appropriate number of significant figures.

3) You drive from FIU East on 8th Street to Brickel Avenue and the odometer says that you have driven
11.2 miles. How many km have you driven?

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4) What is the proportion in percent of the width of the paper relative to the height of the paper.

5) From your measurements of CO2 concentrations in 1958 and 2016 from Figure 1, calculate the
percent change in CO2 between 1958 and 2016 using Equation 3.

B: Interpreting Graphs

6) The extent of floating sea ice in the Arctic Ocean reaches a minimum each September. Figure 4
below shows the change in sea ice in the Arctic Ocean in the month of September as measured from
satellites between 1979 and 2015.

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Arctic Sea Ice Extent (millions of square kms)

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1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015
Year
Figure 4. Monthly September ice extent for 1979 to 2015 in millions of square kilometers. Source National Snow and Ice Data
Center. [Link]

a. Is the sea ice extent increasing, decreasing or generally staying the same? Propose an explanation
for your observed change.

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b. Using the procedure described in Part 2, construct a best fit trend line to the data extending from
the left to the right axis. Record the year (x) and area (y) values where the line intersects the axis on
the left (year1, area1) and right (year2, area2) sides of the graph.
year1: ________ area1: ________ year2: _______ area2: ________

c. Using your area measurements and Equation 3, calculate the percent change in Arctic sea ice extent
between 1979 and 2015.

d. Your trend line is described by the formula,

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 × 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 + 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡. Eqn 6

Using a little algebra and area measurements from the line at two different years, this equation may
be rearranged to estimate the slope and intercept of the trend line. Calculate the slope and
intercept from your answers in (b).
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎2 −𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎1
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = _____________
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟2 −𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟1

𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎1 − 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 × 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟1 ______________

e. Once the slope and intercept are calculated, the area may be predicted at any year from equation 6.
In addition, we may predict the year when the Arctic is free of sea ice in September (area = 0)
0 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 × 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟0 + 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 Eqn 7

Use equation 7 to solve for the year when the Arctic ocean will be ice free.

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