GMM 2110-INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES _4
ROCKS
Minerals – The Building Blocks of Rocks
Minerals – The Building Blocks of Rocks
Minerals – The Building Blocks of Rocks
◼ Bowen Reaction Series
✓ Bowen's reaction series is a means of ranking common igneous silicate
minerals by the temperature at which they crystallize
✓ Minerals at the top have a relatively high crystallization temperature, which
means that they will be the first minerals to crystallize from a magma that is
cooling. IF they are chemically compatible with the magma as it continues to
cool, they will grow larger by addition of external layers of additional material.
If they are chemically incompatible, they will react with the melt
✓ What ultimately determines this chemical compatibility is in large part the
total silica content of the melt.
Minerals – The Building Blocks of Rocks
◼ Bowen Reaction Series
Minerals – The Building Blocks of Rocks
✓Minerals on the left part of the "Y" of the diagram are what are called
ferromagnesian minerals, because they contain iron (Latin: ferrum) and
magnesium in their composition. This part of the series is referred to as the
discontinuous series, since these minerals, if chemically incompatible with the
melt as it cools, will usually completely react to form totally new minerals with
different crystal structures
✓Olivine (island silicate) completely re-reacting with the melt may recrystallize
into pyroxene (single-chain silicate), and a pyroxene may completely
recrystallize into a hornblende (a double-chain silicate) or ultimately a biotite (a
sheet silicate), if enough free silica (and time!) is available during cooling
◼ Bowen Reaction Series
✓A rock that contains both olivine and hornblende is not in an equilibrium state,
because these minerals form and are stable under different conditions; olivine and
pyroxene are stable pairs, as are pyroxene and hornblende or hornblende and
biotite
✓Biotite is the lowest temperature iron-bearing silicate mineral that can form from
a melt, and will be found only in rocks relatively rich in silica (e.g., in granites, or
sometimes as phenocrysts in rhyolites, their volcanic counterpart).
◼ Bowen Reaction Series
◼ Bowen Reaction Series
Common Rock Forming Mineral
ROCK CYCLE
⚫ In describing the rock
cycle, we can start
anywhere we like,
although it’s convenient
to start with magma.
1. Igneous rocks-primary
rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
ROCK CYCLE
⚫ magma is rock that is hot to the point of being entirely molten. This happens at between about 800°
and 1300°C, Magma can either cool slowly within the crust (over centuries to millions of years) —
forming intrusive igneous rock, or erupt onto the surface and cool quickly (within seconds to years)
— forming extrusive igneous rock.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
⚫Intrusive igneous rock typically crystallizes at depths of hundreds of metres to
tens of kilometres below the surface.
⚫To change its position in the rock cycle, intrusive igneous rock has to be uplifted
and exposed by the erosion of the overlying rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ACTIVITIES
IGNEOUS NOMENCLATURES
IGNEOUS NOMENCLATURES
⚫All types of rocks are/can be uplifted and exposed at the surface. Once exposed,
they are weathered, both physically (by mechanical breaking of the rock) and
chemically (by weathering of the minerals), and the weathering products —
mostly small rock and mineral fragments — are eroded, transported, and then
deposited as sediments
⚫Transportation and deposition occur through the action of glaciers, streams,
waves, wind, and other agents
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
⚫Sedimentary rocks are formed through the accumulation and solidification of
sediments over time. These rocks possess unique characteristics that distinguish
them from other types of rocks, such as igneous and metamorphic rocks
⚫Understanding these characteristics of sedimentary rocks is crucial for
geologists and enthusiasts alike to identify and interpret sedimentary
formations accurately.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
⚫ Composition
One of the key characteristics of sedimentary rocks is their varied composition. These rocks are
primarily composed of mineral and organic particles, which are deposited and compacted over
time. The composition can range from predominantly mineral-based to organic-rich, depending on
the source materials and environmental conditions during deposition
⚫ Texture
The texture of sedimentary rocks provides insights into their formation processes and depositional
environments. Sedimentary rocks can exhibit a range of textures, including clastic, crystalline, and
granular. Clastic textures consist of discrete particles cemented together, while crystalline textures
feature interlocking mineral crystals. Granular textures are characterized by well-rounded grains,
indicative of prolonged transport and erosion
⚫ Color
Color is another notable characteristic of sedimentary rocks, influenced by the presence of various
minerals and organic matter. Sedimentary rocks can display a diverse spectrum of colors, including
earth tones like brown, red, and yellow, as well as shades of gray, black, and white. These colors often
reflect the mineral composition and environmental conditions during deposition.
Generally speaking, sedimentary rocks have the following characteristics;
⚫ Fossils: Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils, which are preserved remains
or traces of ancient plants, animals, or other organisms. Fossils provide
valuable information about past life forms and help in understanding Earth’s
history
⚫ Stratification: Sedimentary rocks are typically layered or stratified. These
layers, called strata, are formed by the deposition of sediments over time. Each
layer represents a distinct period of deposition and can vary in grain size,
composition, or color.
Sedimentary Rocks Characteristics
⚫ Bedding Plane: The strata in sedimentary rocks are commonly horizontal or
gently sloping, reflecting the original horizontal deposition of the sediments.
However, in some cases, geological forces can cause the strata to become tilted
or folded, resulting in steeply dipping layers
⚫ Porosity and Permeability: Sedimentary rocks often exhibit varying degrees
of porosity and permeability, influencing their ability to store and transmit fluids.
Porosity refers to the volume of open spaces or pores within the rock, while
permeability relates to the interconnectedness of these pores and the ease of
fluid flow. These characteristics are critical for applications such as groundwater
storage, oil and gas reservoirs, and aquifer dynamics.
NOTE: The above characteristics are typical of sedimentary rocks, but it’s important to note that not all
sedimentary rocks may exhibit all these features. The specific characteristics of a sedimentary rock depend on
factors such as the type of sediment, depositional environment, and subsequent geological processes that have
affected the rock.
Sedimentary Rocks Characteristics
⚫The sedimentary rocks are classified into three different types: Organic,
Clastic and Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.
⚫ Organic Sedimentary Rocks
This rock type mainly comprises coal and limestones, which are formed due to the
accumulation and deposition of dead plants and animals in rock layers.
⚫ Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
This type of rock is formed when rock layers are formed due to the mechanical
weathering of different rock types.
⚫ Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
This type of rock is created when minerals that are present in rock forms undergo
a chemical reaction that causes them to cool as precipitates over time before
changing back to rock form.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphism
⚫ Any type of rock—igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic—can become a
metamorphic rock. All that is needed is enough pressure and/or heat to alter the
existing rock’s physical or chemical makeup without melting the rock entirely.
⚫ Rocks change during metamorphism because the minerals need to be stable
under the new temperature and pressure conditions. The need for stability may
cause the structure of minerals to rearrange and form new minerals. Ions may
move between minerals to create minerals of different chemical composition.
Metamorphic Rocks
Temperature
⚫ Temperature is another major factor of metamorphism. There are two ways to think about
how the temperature of a rock can be increased as a result of geologic processes.
✓ If rocks are buried within the Earth, the deeper they go, the higher the temperatures they
experience. This is because temperature inside the Earth increases along what is called the
geothermal gradient, or geotherm for short. Therefore, if rocks are simply buried deep enough,
they will experience temperatures high enough to cause metamorphism. This temperature is
about 200ºC (approximately 400ºF)
Pressure
⚫ Extreme pressure may also lead to foliation, the flat layers that form in rocks as the rocks are
squeezed by pressure. Foliation normally forms when pressure is exerted in only one direction.
Metamorphic rocks may also be non-foliated.
Metamorphic Rocks
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Types of metamorphic rocks are:
•Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
•Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rock
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
⚫ On these rocks, one can witness the arrangement of certain mineral grains
appearing like parallel stripes. Foliation occurs when pressure forces compress
minerals within a rock to align in an elongate or flat way. These rocks form a
sheet-like structure which reflects pressure applied direction.
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are granite, gneiss, and biotite schist.
Metamorphic Rocks
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
✓ These types of rocks are formed of minerals that are not flat or elongated. Here,
the grains will not be aligned when pressure is applied. Layered or banded
appearances are not seen on non-foliated metamorphic rocks.
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are skarn, novaculite, marble,
hornfels, and quartzite
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks