Oscillators 9

Positive feedback Now consider what will happen when the loop
gain, βAv, approaches unity (i.e. when the loop
In Chapter 7 we showed how negative feedback gain is just less than 1). The denominator (1 − βAv)
can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of will become close to zero. This will have the
a stage which has a precisely controlled gain. An effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e. the overall
alternative form of feedback, where the output is gain with positive feedback applied will be greater
fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input than the gain without feedback.
(rather than to subtract from it), is known as
It is worth illustrating this difficult concept using
positive feedback.
some practical figures. Assume that you have an
Fig. 9.1 shows the block diagram of an amplifier amplifier with a gain of 9 and one-tenth of the
stage with positive feedback applied. Note that output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In this
the amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and case the loop gain (β × Av) is 0.9.
the feedback network provides a further 180°.
With negative feedback applied (see Chapter 7)
Thus the overall phase shift is 0°. The overall
the overall voltage gain will be:
voltage gain, G, is given by:
Av 9 9 9
Vout G= = = = = 4.7
Overall gain, G = 1+ βAv 1+ ( 0.1× 9 ) 1+ 0.9 1.9
Vin
By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law With positive feedback applied the overall voltage
Vin ' = Vin + βVout gain will be:
Av 10 10 10
thus G= = = = = 90
1− βAv 1− ( 0.1× 9 ) 1− 0.9 0.1
Vin = Vin '− βVout
Now assume that you have an amplifier with
and a gain of 10 and, once again, one-tenth of the
Vout = Av × Vin output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In this
example the loop gain (β × Av) is exactly 1.
where Av is the internal gain of the amplifier.
Hence: With negative feedback applied (see Chapter 7)
A × Vin ' Av × Vin ' the overall voltage gain will be:
Overall gain, G = v = Av 10 10 10
Vin ' − βVout Vin '− β ( Av × Vin ') G= = = = =5
1+ βAv 1+ (0.1 × 10) 1 + 1 2
Av
Thus, G =
1− βAv

Figure 9.1 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

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 9 Oscillators

With positive feedback applied the overall voltage

gain will be:
Av 10 10 10
G= = = = =∞
1− βAv 1− (0.1 × 10) 1− 1 0

This simple example shows that a loop gain of

unity (or larger) will result in infinite gain and an
amplifier which is unstable. In fact, the amplifier
will oscillate since any disturbance will be
amplified and result in an output.
Figure 9.2 Sine wave oscillator based on a three-
Clearly, as far as an amplifier is concerned, stage C–R ladder network
positive feedback may have an undesirable
effect – instead of reducing the overall gain the
positive so that the output signal arrives back
effect is that of reinforcing any signal present and
at the input in such a sense as to reinforce the
the output can build up into continuous oscillation
original signal.
if the loop gain is 1 or greater. To put this another
way, oscillator circuits can simply be thought of as
amplifiers that generate an output signal without Ladder network oscillator
the need for an input!
A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three-
stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig. 9.2.
Conditions for oscillation TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter
amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing base
From the foregoing we can deduce that the
bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter
conditions for oscillation are:
stabilization.
(a) the feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal
The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder
fed back must arrive back in-phase with the
network (connected between collector and
signal at the input);
base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation. The
(b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater
transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in
than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be
order to realize an overall phase shift of 360° or 0°
sufficient to overcome the losses associated
(note that these are the same).
with any frequency selective feedback
network). The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown
in Fig. 9.2 is given by:
Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need 1
an amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome f =
2π × 6CR
the losses of the network that provide positive
feedback. Assuming that the amplifier provides The loss associated with the ladder network is 29,
180° phase shift, the frequency of oscillation will thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at least
be that at which there is 180° phase shift in the 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate. In practice
feedback network. this is easily achieved with a single transistor.
A number of circuits can be used to provide 180°
phase shift, one of the simplest being a three- Example 9.1
stage C–R ladder network that we shall meet Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-
next. Alternatively, if the amplifier produces stage ladder network oscillator in which
0° phase shift, the circuit will oscillate at the C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
frequency at which the feedback network
produces 0° phase shift. In both cases, the
essential point is that the feedback should be

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Solution The frequency at which the phase shift will be

zero is given by:
Using
1
1 f =
f = 2π × C 1C 2R1R 2
2π × 6CR
gives When R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 the frequency at
1 which the phase shift will be zero will be given by:
f= 1 1
6.28 × 2.45 × 10 × 10−9 × 10 × 103 f = =
2π × C R
2 2 2πCR
from which
1 10 4 where R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C 2.
f= = = 647 Hz
6.28 × 2.45 × 10 −4
15.386
Example 9.2
Fig. 9.4 shows the circuit of a Wien bridge
Wien bridge oscillator oscillator based on an operational amplifier.
If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the output
An alternative approach to providing the phase frequencies produced by this arrangement
shift required is the use of a Wien bridge (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when
network (Fig. 9.3). Like the C–R ladder, this R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
network provides a phase shift which varies with
frequency. The input signal is applied to A and B Solution
while the output is taken from C and D. At one
(a) When R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ
particular frequency, the phase shift produced by
the network will be exactly zero (i.e. the input and 1
f =
output signals will be in-phase). If we connect the 2πCR
network to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C 2.
which has sufficient gain to overcome the losses
Thus
of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.
1
The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain f=
6.28 × 100 × 10−9 × 1× 103
oscillation is given by:
C1 R 2 10 4
Av = 1+ + f= = 1.59 kHz
C 2 R1 6.28

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the

minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

Figure 9.4 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien

Figure 9.3 A Wien bridge network bridge network (see Example 9.2)
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(b) When R1 = R1 = 6 kΩ
1
f =
2πCR
where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C2.
Thus
1
f=
6.28 × 100 × 10−9 × 6 × 103

10 4
f= = 265 Hz
37.68

Multivibrators
There are many occasions when we require a
square wave output from an oscillator rather than
a sine wave output. Multivibrators are a family of
Figure 9.5 This high-speed bistable multivibrator
oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms
uses two general-purpose silicon transistors and
consisting of one or more rectangular pulses. The
works at frequencies of up to 1 MHz triggered
term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact
from an external signal
that this type of waveform is rich in harmonics
(i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive)
feedback; the active devices present within the
oscillator circuit being operated as switches, being
alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
(a) astable multivibrators that provide a
continuous train of pulses (these are
Figure 9.6 Astable multivibrator using BJTs
sometimes also referred to as free-running
multivibrators);
(b) monostable multivibrators that produce a the sufficient base current will be available to
single output pulse (they have one stable state completely saturate the respective transistor. The
and are thus sometimes also referred to as values of the collector load resistors, R1 and R2,
‘one-shot’); are very much smaller than R3 and R4. When
(c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable power is first applied to the circuit, assume that
states and require a trigger pulse or control TR2 saturates before TR1 when the power is first
signal to change from one state to another. applied (in practice one transistor would always
saturate before the other due to variations in
component tolerances and transistor parameters).
The astable multivibrator
As TR2 saturates, its collector voltage will fall
Fig. 9.6 shows a classic form of astable rapidly from +VCC to 0 V. This drop in voltage will
multivibrator based on two transistors. Fig. 9.7 be transferred to the base of TR1 via C1. This
shows how this circuit can be redrawn in an negative-going voltage will ensure that TR1 is
arrangement that more closely resembles a two- initially placed in the non-conducting state. As
stage common-emitter amplifier with its output long as TR1 remains cut-off, TR2 will continue to
connected back to its input. In Fig. 9.6, the values be saturated. During this time, C1 will charge via
of the base resistors, R3 and R4, are such that R4 and TR1’s base voltage will rise exponentially
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Figure 9.9 Astable oscillator using operational

amplifiers

Assume that the output from IC2 is initially at,

or near, +VCC and capacitor, C, is uncharged. The
voltage at the output of IC2 will be passed, via R, Figure 9.10 Single-stage astable oscillator using
to IC1. Capacitor, C, will start to charge and the an operational amplifier
output voltage of IC1 will begin to fall.
Eventually, the output voltage will have fallen to a
value that causes the polarity of the voltage at the divider formed by R1 and R2. This circuit can
non-inverting input of IC2 to change from positive make a very simple square wave source with
to negative. At this point, the output of IC2 will a frequency that can be made adjustable by
rapidly fall to −VCC. Again, this voltage will be replacing R with a variable or preset resistor.
passed, via R, to IC1. Capacitor C will then start Assume that C is initially uncharged and the
to charge in the other direction and the output voltage at the inverting input is slightly less than
voltage of IC1 will begin to rise. the voltage at the non-inverting input. The output
Some time later, the output voltage will have voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at
risen to a value that causes the polarity of the the inverting input will begin to rise exponentially
non-inverting input of IC2 to revert to its original as capacitor C charges through R.
(positive) state and the cycle will continue Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will
indefinitely. have reached a value that causes the voltage
The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum at the inverting input to exceed that present at
positive value for Vout) will be given by: the non-inverting input. At this point, the output
⎛ R1 ⎞ voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC. Capacitor C will
VUT = VCC × ⎜ ⎟ then start to charge in the other direction and
⎝R2 ⎠
the voltage at the inverting input will begin to fall
The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum exponentially.
negative value for Vout) will be given by: Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will
⎛ R1 ⎞ have reached a value that causes the voltage at
VLT = −VCC × ⎜ ⎟
⎝R2 ⎠ the inverting input to be less than that present at
the non-inverting input. At this point, the output
voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and the
Single-stage astable oscillator cycle will continue indefinitely.
The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum
A simple form of astable oscillator that produces
positive value for the voltage at the inverting
a square wave output can be built using just one
input) will be given by:
operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 9.10. The
⎛ R2 ⎞
circuit employs positive feedback with the output VUT = VCC × ⎜ ⎟
fed back to the non-inverting input via the potential ⎝ R1+ R 2 ⎠

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 Oscillators 9

The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum 100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone
negative value for the voltage at the inverting operation from 20 MHz to well over 100 MHz.
input) will be given by: Fig. 9.12 shows a simple crystal oscillator circuit
⎛ R2 ⎞ in which the crystal provides feedback from the
VLT = −VCC × ⎜ ⎟ drain to the source of a junction gate FET.
⎝ R1+ R 2 ⎠

Finally, the time for one complete cycle of

Practical oscillator circuits
the output waveform produced by the astable
oscillator is given by: Fig. 9.13 shows a practical sine wave oscillator
⎛ ⎛ R 2 ⎞⎞ based on a three-stage C–R ladder network. The
T = 2CR ln ⎜1+ 2 ⎜ ⎟⎟ circuit provides an output of approximately 1 V
⎝ ⎝ R1 ⎠⎠
peak–peak at 1.97 kHz.
A practical Wien bridge oscillator is shown in
Crystal controlled oscillators Fig. 9.14. This circuit produces a sine wave output
at 16 Hz. The output frequency can easily be
A requirement of some oscillators is that they varied by making R1 and R2 a 10 kΩ dual-gang
accurately maintain an exact frequency of potentiometer and connecting a fixed resistor of
oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can 680 Ω in series with each. In order to adjust the
be used as the frequency determining element. loop gain for an optimum sine wave output it may
The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a be necessary to make R3/R4 adjustable. One way
hermetically sealed enclosure, see Fig. 9.11) of doing this is to replace both components with
vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied a 10 kΩ multi-turn potentiometer with the sliding
across its faces (this phenomenon is known contact taken to the inverting input of IC1.
as the piezoelectric effect). The frequency of
oscillation is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and
physical size.
Most quartz crystals can be expected to
stabilize the frequency of oscillation of a circuit
to within a few parts in a million. Crystals can
be manufactured for operation in fundamental
mode over a frequency range extending from

Figure 9.12 A simple JFET oscillator

Figure 9.11 A quartz crystal (this crystal is cut to

be resonant at 4 MHz and is supplied in an HC18 Figure 9.13 A practical sine wave oscillator based
wire-ended package) on a phase shift ladder network
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Symbols and connections

The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown
in Fig. 8.2. There are a few things to note about
this. The device has two inputs and one output
and no common connection. Furthermore, we
often don’t show the supply connections – it
is often clearer to leave them out of the circuit
altogether!
In Fig. 8.2, one of the inputs is marked ‘−’ and the
other is marked ‘+’. These polarity markings have
nothing to do with the supply connections – they
indicate the overall phase shift between each Figure 8.1 A typical operational amplifier. This
input and the output. The ‘+’ sign indicates zero device is supplied in an eight-pin dual-in-line (DIL)
phase shift while the ‘−’ sign indicates 180° phase package. It has a JFET input stage and produces a
shift. Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted typical open-loop voltage gain of 200,000
waveform, the ‘−’ input is often referred to as the
inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is known
as the non-inverting input.
Most (but not all) operational amplifiers require
a symmetrical supply (of typically ±6 V to ±15 V)
which allows the output voltage to swing both
positive (above 0 V) and negative (below 0 V).
Fig. 8.3 shows how the supply connections would
appear if we decided to include them. Note that Figure 8.2 Symbol for an operational amplifier
we usually have two separate supplies; a positive
supply and an equal, but opposite, negative
supply. The common connection to these two
supplies (i.e. the 0 V supply connection) acts as
the common rail in our circuit. The input and
output voltages are usually measured relative to
this rail.

Operational amplifier parameters

Before we take a look at some of the
characteristics of ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ operational
amplifiers it is important to define some of the
terms and parameters that we apply to these Figure 8.3 Supply connections for an operational
devices. amplifier

Open-loop voltage gain

Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of as
The open-loop voltage gain of an operational the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device, thus:
amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
VOUT
to input voltage measured with no feedback AV(OL) =
VIN
applied. In practice, this value is exceptionally
high (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain,
considerable variation from one device to another. VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under open-loop conditions.
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In linear voltage amplifying applications, a large Thus:

amount of negative feedback will normally be 2 2 × 106
AV(CL) = = = 5,000
applied and the open-loop voltage gain can be 400 × 10 −6
400
thought of as the internal voltage gain provided by
the device. Expressed in decibels (rather than as a ratio) this is:
AV(CL) = 20log10 (5,000) = 20 × 3.7 = 74 dB
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in
decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this case:
VOUT Input resistance
AV(OL) = 20log10
VIN The input resistance of an operational amplifier
is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
Most operational amplifiers have open-loop
current expressed in ohms. It is often expedient
voltage gains of 90 dB or more.
to assume that the input of an operational
Closed-loop voltage gain amplifier is purely resistive, though this is not the
case at high frequencies where shunt capacitive
The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational
reactance may become significant. The input
amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
resistance of operational amplifiers is very much
voltage to input voltage measured with a small
dependent on the semiconductor technology
proportion of the output fed-back to the input
employed. In practice values range from about
(i.e. with feedback applied). The effect of
2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 1012 Ω for
providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop
FET and CMOS devices.
voltage gain to a value that is both predictable
and manageable. Practical closed-loop voltage Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to
gains range from one to several thousand but input current:
note that high values of voltage gain may make VIN
RIN =
unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth (see later). IIN
Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio of where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN
output voltage to input voltage but with negative is the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the input
feedback applied, hence: current (in amps). Note that we usually assume
VOUT that the input of an operational amplifier is purely
AV(CL) =
VIN resistive though this may not be the case at high
frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance
where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and
may become significant.
VIN are the output and input voltages, respectively,
under closed-loop conditions. The closed-loop The input resistance of operational amplifiers
voltage gain is normally very much less than the is very much dependent on the semiconductor
open-loop voltage gain. technology employed. In practice, values range
from about 2 MΩ for bipolar operational amplifiers
Example 8.1 to over 1012 Ω for CMOS devices.
An operational amplifier operating with negative
Example 8.2
feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V when
supplied with an input of 400 μV. Determine the An operational amplifier has an input resistance of
value of closed-loop voltage gain. 2 MΩ. Determine the input current when an input
voltage of 5 mV is present.
Solution
Solution
Now:
Now:
VOUT
AV(CL) = VIN
VIN RIN =
IIN

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 8 Operational amplifiers

thus constant). Typical full-power bandwidths range

V 5 × 10−3 from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed
IIN = IN = = 2.5 × 10−9 A = 2.5 nA devices.
RIN 2 × 106
Slew rate
Output resistance Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage
The output resistance of an operational amplifier with time, when a rectangular step input voltage
is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output is applied (as shown in Fig. 8.4). The slew rate of
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed an operational amplifier is the rate of change of
in ohms. Typical values of output resistance range output voltage with time in response to a perfect
from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending step-function input. Hence:
upon the configuration and amount of feedback DVOUT
employed. Slew rate =
Dt
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit
output voltage to short-circuit output current, where DVOUT is the change in output voltage (in
hence: volts) and Dt is the corresponding interval of time
V (in seconds).
ROUT = OUT(OC) Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical
IOUT(SC)
values range from 0.2 V/μs to over 20 V/μs. Slew
where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), rate imposes a limitation on circuits in which large
VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in volts) amplitude pulses rather than small amplitude
and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in sinusoidal signals are likely to be encountered.
amps).

Input offset voltage Operational amplifier

characteristics
An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero
output voltage when 0 V difference is applied to Having defined the parameters that we use to
its inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal describe operational amplifiers we shall now
balance, there may be some small voltage present
at the output. The voltage that must be applied
differentially to the operational amplifier input in
order to make the output voltage exactly zero is
known as the input offset voltage.
Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying
relatively large amounts of negative feedback
or by using the offset null facility provided by a
number of operational amplifier devices. Typical
values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV
to 15 mV. Where a.c. rather than d.c. coupling
is employed, offset voltage is not normally a
problem and can be happily ignored.

Full-power bandwidth
The full-power bandwidth for an operational
amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which
the maximum undistorted peak output voltage
swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency (d.c.)
value (the sinusoidal input voltage remaining
Figure 8.4 Slew rate for an operational amplifier
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 8 Operational amplifiers

consider the desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ Solution

operational amplifier. These are: The slew rate can be determined from:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high DVOUT 10 V
(ideally infinite). Slew rate = = = 2.5 V /μs
Dt 4 μs
(b) The input resistance should be very high
(ideally infinite).
Example 8.4
(c) The output resistance should be very low
(ideally zero). A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as of 15 V/μs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit with
possible. a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible. 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible. taken for the output to change level.
The characteristics of most modern integrated Solution
circuit operational amplifiers (i.e. ‘real’ operational
The output voltage change will be 20 × 100 =
amplifiers) come very close to those of an ‘ideal’
2,000 mV (or 2 V). Re-arranging the formula for
operational amplifier, as witnessed by the data
slew rate gives:
shown in Table 8.1.
DVOUT 2V
Dt = = = 0.133 μs
Table 8.1 Comparison of operational amplifier Slew rate 15 V/μs
parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices
Parameter Ideal Real Operational amplifier
Voltage gain Infinite 100,000 applications
Input resistance Infinite 100 MΩ
Table 8.2 shows abbreviated data for some
Output resistance Zero 20 Ω
common types of integrated circuit operational
Bandwidth Infinite 2 MHz
amplifier together with some typical applications.
Slew rate Infinite 10 V/μs
Input offset Zero Less than 5 mV Example 8.5
Which of the operational amplifiers in Table 8.2
Example 8.3 would be most suitable for each of the following
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input applications:
of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 μs for (a) amplifying the low-level output from a
the output voltage to change from –5 V to +5 V, piezoelectric vibration sensor
determine the slew rate of the device. (b) a high-gain amplifier that can be used to
faithfully amplify very small signals

Table 8.2 Some common examples of integrated circuit operational amplifiers

Device Type Open-loop ­ Input bias Slew rate Application
voltage gain (dB) current (V/μs)
AD548 Bipolar 100 min. 0.01 nA 1.8 Instrumentation amplifier
AD711 FET 100 25 pA 20 Wideband amplifier
CA3140 CMOS 100 5 pA 9 Low-noise wideband amplifier
LF347 FET 110 50 pA 13 Wideband amplifier
LM301 Bipolar 88 70 nA 0.4 General-purpose operational amplifier
LM348 Bipolar 96 30 nA 0.6 General-purpose operational amplifier
TL071 FET 106 30 pA 13 Wideband amplifier
741 Bipolar 106 80 pA 0.5 General-purpose operational amplifier

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 8 Operational amplifiers

(c) a low-frequency amplifier for audio signals.

Solution
(a) AD548 (this operational amplifier is designed
for use in instrumentation applications and it
offers a very low input offset current which
is important when the input is derived from a
piezoelectric transducer).
(b) CA3140 (this is a low-noise operational
amplifier that also offers high gain and fast
slew rate).
(c) LM348 or LM741 (both are general-purpose
operational amplifiers and are ideal for non-
critical applications such as audio amplifiers).
Figure 8.5 Frequency response curves for an
Gain and bandwidth operational amplifier

It is important to note that the product of gain

Table 8.3 Corresponding values of voltage gain
and bandwidth is a constant for any particular
and bandwidth for an operational amplifier with a
operational amplifier. Hence, an increase in
gain × bandwidth product of 1 × 106
gain can only be achieved at the expense of
bandwidth, and vice versa. Voltage gain (AV) Bandwidth

Fig. 8.5 shows the relationship between voltage 1 d.c. to 1 MHz

gain and bandwidth for a typical operational 10 d.c. to 100 kHz
amplifier (note that the axes use logarithmic 100 d.c. to 10 kHz
rather than linear scales). The open-loop voltage 1,000 d.c. to 1 kHz
gain (i.e. that obtained with no feedback applied) 10,000 d.c. to 100 Hz
is 100,000 (or 100 dB) and the bandwidth 100,000 d.c. to 10 Hz
obtained in this condition is a mere 10 Hz. The
effect of applying increasing amounts of negative
feedback (and consequently reducing the gain Inverting amplifier with
to a more manageable amount) is that the feedback
bandwidth increases in direct proportion. Fig. 8.6 shows the circuit of an inverting amplifier
The frequency response curves in Fig. 8.5 show with negative feedback applied. For the sake
the effect on the bandwidth of making the closed- of our explanation we will assume that the
loop gains equal to 10,000, 1,000, 100, and 10. operational amplifier is ‘ideal’. Now consider what
Table 8.3 summarizes these results. You should happens when a small positive input voltage is
also note that the (gain × bandwidth) product for applied. This voltage (VIN) produces a current (IIN)
this amplifier is 1 × 106 Hz (i.e. 1 MHz). flowing in the input resistor R1.
We can determine the bandwidth of the amplifier Since the operational amplifier is ‘ideal’ we will
when the closed-loop voltage gain is set to 46 dB assume that:
by constructing a line and noting the intercept (a) the input resistance (i.e. the resistance that
point on the response curve. This shows that appears between the inverting and non-
the bandwidth will be 10 kHz (note that, for this inverting input terminals, RIC) is infinite
operational amplifier, the (gain × bandwidth) (b) the open-loop voltage gain (i.e. the ratio of VOUT
product is 2 × 106 Hz (or 2 MHz). to VIN with no feedback applied) is infinite.
As a consequence of (a) and (b):

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 8 Operational amplifiers

shall refer to the input resistance as RIN and

the feedback resistance as RF (instead of the
more general and less meaningful R1 and R2,
respectively).

Operational amplifier
configurations
The three basic configurations for operational
Figure 8.6 Operational amplifier with negative
voltage amplifiers, together with the expressions
feedback applied
for their voltage gain, are shown in Fig. 8.7.
Supply rails have been omitted from these
(i) the voltage appearing between the inverting diagrams for clarity but are assumed to be
and non-inverting inputs (VIC) will be zero, and symmetrical about 0 V.
(ii) the current flowing into the chip (IIC) will be
All of the amplifier circuits described previously
zero (recall that IIC = VIC /RIC and RIC is infinite)
have used direct coupling and thus have
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law at node A
frequency response characteristics that extend
gives:
to d.c. This, of course, is undesirable for many
IIN = IIC + IF but IIC = 0 thus IIN = IF (1) applications, particularly where a wanted a.c.
(this shows that the current in the feedback signal may be superimposed on an unwanted
resistor, R2, is the same as the input current, IIN ). d.c. voltage level or when the bandwidth of the
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to loop A gives: amplifier greatly exceeds that of the signal that it
VIN = (IIN × R1) + VIC is required to amplify. In such cases, capacitors
but VIC = 0 thus VIN = IIN × R1 (2) of appropriate value may be inserted in series
with the input resistor, RIN, and in parallel with the
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in loop B gives:
feedback resistor, RF, as shown in Fig. 8.8.
VOUT = –VIC + (IF × R2)
The value of the input and feedback capacitors,
but VIC = 0 thus VOUT = IF × R2 (3)
CIN and CF respectively, are chosen so as to roll-
Combining (1) and (3) gives: off the frequency response of the amplifier at
VOUT = IIN × R2 (4) the desired lower and upper cut-off frequencies,
The voltage gain of the stage is given by: respectively. The effect of these two capacitors
VOUT on an operational amplifier’s frequency response
Av = (5) is shown in Fig. 8.9.
VIN
By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the
Combining (4) and (2) with (5) gives: frequency response of an inverting operational
IIN × R 2 R 2 voltage amplifier may be very easily tailored to
Av = =
IIN × R1 R1 suit a particular set of requirements.
The lower cut-off frequency is determined by
To preserve symmetry and minimize offset
the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input
voltage, a third resistor is often included in
resistance, RIN. The lower cut-off frequency is
series with the non-inverting input. The value of
given by:
this resistor should be equivalent to the parallel
1 0.159
combination of R1 and R2. Hence: f1 = =
2πCINRIN CINRIN
R1× R 2
R3 =
R1+ R 2 where f1 is the lower cut-off frequency in hertz,
CIN is in farads and RIN is in ohms.
From this point onwards (and to help you
remember the function of the resistors) we Provided the upper frequency response it not
limited by the gain × bandwidth product, the
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 8 Operational amplifiers

Figure 8.9 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and

CF, to modify the frequency response of an
operational amplifier

upper cut-off frequency will be determined by

the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback
resistance, RF, such that:
1 0.159
f2 = =
2πC FRF C FRF

where f2 is the upper cut-off frequency in hertz, CF

is in farads and R2 is in ohms.

Example 8.6
An inverting operational amplifier is to operate
according to the following specification:
Voltage gain = 100
Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kΩ
Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz
Figure 8.7 The three basic configurations for Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
operational voltage amplifiers Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification
using an operational amplifier.

Solution
To make things a little easier, we can break
the problem down into manageable parts. We
shall base our circuit on a single operational
amplifier configured as an inverting amplifier with
capacitors to define the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies, as shown in Fig. 8.9.
The nominal input resistance is the same as the
value for RIN. Thus:
RIN = 10 kΩ
Figure 8.8 Adding capacitors to modify the
To determine the value of RF we can make use of
frequency response of an inverting operational
the formula for mid-band voltage gain:
amplifier
R2
Av =
R1
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 8 Operational amplifiers

thus R2 = Av × R1 = 100 × 10 kΩ = 100 kΩ number of other uses, including voltage followers,

To determine the value of CIN we will use the differentiators, integrators, comparators and
formula for the low-frequency cut-off: summing amplifiers. We shall conclude this section
0.159 by taking a brief look at each of these applications.
f1 =
CINRIN Voltage followers
from which: A voltage follower using an operational amplifier
0.159 0.159 is shown in Fig. 8.11. This circuit is essentially an
CIN = = inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output
f1RIN 250 × 10 × 103
is fed back to the input. The result is an amplifier
hence: that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high
0.159 input resistance and a very high output resistance.
CIN = = 63 × 10−9 F = 63 nF
2.5 × 106 This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is
used for matching a high-impedance circuit to a
Finally, to determine the value of CF we will use
low-impedance circuit.
the formula for high-frequency cut-off:
Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage
0.159
f2 = follower are shown in Fig. 8.12. Notice how the
C FRF
input and output waveforms are both in-phase
from which: (they rise and fall together) and that they are
0.159 0.159 identical in amplitude.
CF = =
f2RIN 15 × 103 × 100 × 103

hence:
0.159
CF = = 0.106 × 10−9 F = 106 pF
1.5 × 109
For most applications the nearest preferred values
(68 nF for CIN and 100 pF for CF) would be
perfectly adequate. The complete circuit of the
operational amplifier stage is shown in Fig. 8.10.
Figure 8.11 A voltage follower

Operational amplifier circuits

As well as their application as a general-purpose
amplifying device, operational amplifiers have a

Figure 8.10 See Example 8.6. This operational

amplifier has a mid-band voltage gain of 10 over Figure 8.12 Typical input and output waveforms
the frequency range 250 Hz to 15 kHz for a voltage follower
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 8 Operational amplifiers

Differentiators opposite function to that of a differentiator (see

A differentiator using an operational amplifier earlier) in that its output is equivalent to the area
is shown in Fig. 8.13. A differentiator produces under the graph of the input function rather than
an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate its rate of change. If the input voltage remains
of change of its input. This may sound a little constant (and is other than 0 V) the output voltage
complex but it simply means that if the input will ramp up or down according to the polarity of
voltage remains constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the input. The longer the input voltage remains
the output also remains constant. The faster the at a particular value the larger the value of output
input voltage changes the greater will the output voltage (of either polarity) will be produced.
be. In mathematics this is equivalent to the Typical input and output waveforms for an
differential function. integrator are shown in Fig. 8.16. Notice how the
Typical input and output waveforms for a square wave input is converted to a wave that
differentiator are shown in Fig. 8.14. Notice how has a triangular shape. Once again, note that the
the square wave input is converted to a train of output waveform is inverted.
short duration pulses at the output. Note also
Comparators
that the output waveform is inverted because the
signal has been applied to the inverting input of A comparator using an operational amplifier is
the operational amplifier. shown in Fig. 8.17. Since no negative feedback
has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum
Integrators gain of the operational amplifier. The output
An integrator using an operational amplifier is voltage produced by the operational amplifier will
shown in Fig. 8.15. This circuit provides the

Figure 8.13 A differentiator Figure 8.15 An integrator

Figure 8.14 Typical input and output waveforms Figure 8.16 Typical input and output waveforms
for a differentiator for an integrator
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 8 Operational amplifiers

Figure 8.17 A comparator

Figure 8.19 A summing amplifier

Figure 8.18 Typical input and output waveforms

for a comparator
Figure 8.20 Typical input and output waveforms
thus rise to the maximum possible value (equal for a summing amplifier
to the positive supply rail voltage) whenever the
voltage present at the non-inverting input exceeds Summing amplifiers
that present at the inverting input. Conversely,
A summing amplifier using an operational
the output voltage produced by the operational
amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.19. This circuit
amplifier will fall to the minimum possible
produces an output that is the sum of its two
value (equal to the negative supply rail voltage)
input voltages. However, since the operational
whenever the voltage present at the inverting
amplifier is connected in inverting mode, the
input exceeds that present at the non-inverting
output voltage is given by:
input.
VOUT = – (V1 + V2)
Typical input and output waveforms for a
where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that
comparator are shown in Fig. 8.18. Notice how
all of the resistors used in the circuit have the
the output is either +15 V or –15 V depending on
same value). Typical input and output waveforms
the relative polarity of the two inputs. A typical
for a summing amplifier are shown in Fig. 8.20.
application for a comparator is that of comparing
A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input
a signal voltage with a reference voltage. The
signals to produce an output voltage that is the
output will go high (or low) in order to signal the
sum of the two.
result of the comparison.
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