Chapter 4.

Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions

CHM 1110 – Fall 25

1
Solution Concentration and Stoichiometry

• When table salt (NaCl) is mixed with water, it seems to disappear or

become a liquid, resulting in a homogeneous mixture.

• Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.

• The minor component of the solution is called the solute (NaCl).

• The major component of the solution is called the solvent (water).

2
What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?

• There are attractive forces between the solute

particles holding them together.

• There are also attractive forces between the

solvent molecules.

• When we mix the solute with the solvent, there

are attractive forces between the solute particles
and the solvent molecules.

If the attractions between solute and solvent are strong enough, the solute
will dissolve.

3
Salt (ionic) vs Sugar (polar molecule)

4
Practice – Dissolving Ionic Compounds

Write the ions formed when the following soluble salts are dissolved in
water.

KCl MgBr2

NaOH C2H4O2

5
Electrolyte Solutions: What Are They?

• Electrolytes are classified by how they dissolve in water.

• Strong electrolytes - Completely dissociate into ions

• Example: CaCl2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq)

• Weak electrolytes - Partial dissociation into their ions

• Example: CHOOH(aq) H+(aq) + CHOO−(aq)

• Nonelectrolyte – Does not dissociate in water (ex. Sucrose)

6
Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions

• Soluble Ionic substances - Completely dissociate into

ions when dissolved in water - strong electrolytes.

• Acids and bases - Dissociate into ions when dissolved

in water:
• Complete dissociation – strong acid/base – strong
electrolyte
• Partial dissociation – weak acid/base – weak
electrolyte

• Molecular Compounds - Dissolve in water as intact

molecules (except for acids and bases) -
nonelectrolytes.

7
Practice – Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Classify each substance below as strong electrolyte, weak electrolyte or
nonelectrolyte.

8
Solubility of Ionic Compounds

NOT all ionic compounds dissolve in water.

• In general, a compound is termed soluble if it dissolves in water and

insoluble if it does not.

NO3-

9
When Will a Salt Dissolve?

10
Practice - Solubility
Predict whether each compound is soluble or insoluble.

NaBr Soluble

Mg(OH)2 Insoluble

Ca(NO3)2 Soluble

BaSO4 Insoluble

11
Practice – Dissolution
Complete the dissolution reactions with appropriate phases

NH4Cl (s)

Ni(OH)2 (s)

Fe2(SO4)3 (s)

12
Solution Concentration
• Dilute solutions have a small amount of solute compared to solvent.
• Concentrated solutions have a large amount of solute compared to solvent.

• A common way to express a solution concentration is molarity (M).

• Molarity is the amount of solute (in moles) divided by the volume of solution (in
liters).

13
Preparing 1.00 M CuSO4 Solution

39.9 g of CuSO4 250.00 mL Fill to the mark

MM CuSO4 = 159.6 g/mol volumetric flask

CHM 1110 – Fall 24

14
 Concentration: Stuff per unit of volume
1 2 3

1 2

15
Practice – Solution Concentration
A solution of KBr was prepared by putting 2.10 g of KBr into a 100.0 mL volumetric
flask and filling the flask to the mark. What is the molarity of the solution?
*Note: KBr molar mass 119.00 g/mol

16
Using Molarity in Calculations

• The molarity of a solution can be used as a conversion factor between moles of

the solute and liters of the solution.
• For example: A 0.500 M NaCl solution contains 0.500 mol NaCl per liter of
solution.

17
Practice – Using Molarity in Calculations
How many L of a 0.125 M NaOH solution contain 0.255 mol of NaOH?

18
Conceptual Practice – Molarity Calculations

Which of the following is true when you divide an entire gallon of sweet tea equally
between two jugs? *Consider that one gallon of sweet tea has a total of 288 g of sugar.

(a) Each jug has 288 g of sugar and a higher concentration

(b) Each jug has 144 grams of sugar and has the same concentration as original tea

(c) Each jug has 144 grams of sugar and is less concentrated than the original tea

(d) Each jug has 144 grams of sugar and is more concentrated than the original gallon

19
Practice – Using Molarity in Calculations
-
What is the concentration of Cl in a solution prepared by dissolving 5.00 g CuCl2
in 25.0 mL H2O? (CuCl2 – 134.45 g/mol)

20
 Solution Stoichiometry

Volume A Volume B

21
Practice – Solution Stoichiometry
What volume (in L) of 0.150 M KCl solution will completely react with 0.150 L of a
0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 solution according to this balanced chemical equation?

2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

22
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

• Precipitation reactions are reactions in which a

solid forms when two solutions are mixed.
• Soluble ionic compounds producing insoluble ionic
compound – Precipitate!

• Example:
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

Double displacement
reactions

23
Double Displacement – no reaction

• Precipitation reactions do not always occur when two aqueous

solutions are mixed.

• Example:
KI (aq) + NaCl (aq) → NaI (aq) + KCl (aq)

Is this really what it

looks like in
solution?

24
Predicting Precipitation Reactions
1. Determine what ions each of the aqueous reactants has.
2. Determine formulas of possible products.
• Switch ions - Cation [(+) ion] from one reactant pairs up with the anion [(–) ion] from
the other reactant - Balance charges to get the formula of each product.
3. Determine the solubility of each product in water - Insoluble or soluble compound
4. If neither product will precipitate, write “no reaction” after the arrow.
5. If products are insoluble, write their formulas as the products of the reaction using (s)
after the formula to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq) after the
formula to indicate aqueous.
6. Balance the equation - Remember to only change coefficients, not subscripts.

25
Predicting Precipitation Reactions

26
Practice - Precipitation
• Complete the table below deciding whether a precipitate forms when aqueous
solutions A and B are mixed. If a precipitate forms, write its empirical formula in
the last column.
Empirical
Solution A Solution B Products Precipitate? formula of
precipitate
Cadmium Manganese(II)
acetate bromide O yes
O no

Iron(II) chloride Sodium hydroxide

O yes
O no

27
Practice - Precipitation

Complete the equation and balance it:

1. K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) 

2. NaNO3(aq) + Li2SO4(aq) 

28
Representing Aqueous Reactions

• An equation showing the complete neutral formula for each compound in the
aqueous reaction as if they existed as molecules is called a molecular equation.

2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

• In actual solutions of soluble ionic compounds, dissolved substances are

present as ions (do NOT break up weak and nonelectrolytes). Equations that
describe the material’s structure when dissolved are called complete ionic
equations.

2 K+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

29
Representing Ionic Equation
• Rules of writing the complete ionic equation:
• Aqueous (aq) strong electrolytes are written as ions.
• Soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases

• Insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes are written in

molecular form.
• Solids (s), liquids (l), and gases (g) are not dissociated; hence, they remain in
molecular form.

2 K+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

Remove
spectator ions!

30
Net Ionic Equations
• A net ionic equation differs from a complete ionic equation because it does NOT
have spectator ions in the equation.

• Example:
Molecular 2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
Equation

Ionic
Equation

Net ionic
Equation

31
Practice – Writing Equations
Molecular:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Complete ionic:
2 Na+(aq) + CO32−(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) 2 Na+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Net ionic:
CO32-(aq) + 2 H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

32
Practice – Writing Equations
Molecular:
K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

Complete ionic:
2 K+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

Net ionic:
2 Ag+(aq) + SO42−(aq) Ag2SO4(s)

33
 Solution Stoichiometry

Volume A Volume B

34
Practice – Solution Stoichiometry
What volume (in L) of 0.150 M KCl solution will completely react with 0.150 L of a
0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 solution according to this balanced chemical equation?

2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

35
Practice – Solution Stoichiometry
How much precipitate is formed when we mix 165.0 mL of 0.125 M Pb(NO3)2 with
100.0 mL of 0.650 M (NH4)2CO3?

(NH4)2CO3(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCO3(s) + 2 NH4NO3(aq)

36
Practice – Solution Stoichiometry
What is the molarity of NH4+ after the reaction is complete?

What is the molarity of CO32- after the reaction is complete?

What is the molarity of Pb2+ after the reaction is complete?

37
Acids
• Acids are molecular compounds that form
H+ when dissolved in water.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

• Properties of acids:
• Sour taste
• Dissolve many metals such as Zn, Fe, Mg

38
Arrhenius Acids-Base Classifications
• Acid: Substance that have a reactive H

HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

• Polyprotic acids
• These acids contain more than one ionizable proton (H+) and release them
sequentially.
• For example, sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a diprotic acid.
• It is strong in its first ionizable proton but weak in its second.

• Base: Substance that produces OH− ions in aqueous solution

NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

39
Common Acids and Bases

Table 4.2
Chemistry: The Central Science
Theodore Brown

40
Acid-Base Reactions

• When an acid and a base react, the reaction is called a neutralization reaction.
• Example:
Just like double-
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
displacement!
Acid + Base  Salt + Water

• As long as the salt that forms is soluble in water, the net ionic equation for an
acid–base reaction involving a strong acid is:

• A neutralization reaction is completed when the moles of acid equal the moles of
base in the solution. Neutralization reaction does NOT always mean that the pH
of the solution is 7.

41
Practice – Acids-Base Reactions

Predict the products formed in this neutralization reactions

2 HCl (aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + BaCl2(aq)

H2SO4 (aq) + 2 LiOH (aq) → 2 H2O(l) + Li2SO4(aq)

42
Acid-Base Titration
• In a titration, a substance in a solution of known
concentration is reacted with another substance in a
solution of unknown concentration.

• A chemical is added that changes color when the solution

undergoes large changes in acidity/alkalinity – indicator

• The indicator is selected so that the endpoint is reached

when the number of moles of H+ equals the number of
moles of OH– (i.e. the reactants are in their stoichiometric
ratio).
• This is known as the equivalence point.

43
Acid-Base Titration

Addition of NaOH to a dilute HCl solution.

Phenolphthalein indicator changes color to
pink at the equivalence point

44
Practice – Acid-Base Titration
The titration of a 10.00 mL sample of an HCl solution of unknown concentration requires 12.54
mL of 0.100 M NaOH solution to reach the equivalence point. What is the concentration of the
unknown HCl solution in M?

45
Practice - Titration
Determine the volume of 0.100 M NaOH needed to neutralize 25.0 mL of
0.0500 M H2SO4

46
Practice - Titration
1.500 g of an unknow acid was titrated with 0.850 M NaOH according with the
reaction below. The equivalence point was determined to be 25.78 mL,
determine the molar mass of the acid.
HA + NaOH  NaA + H2O

47
Effect of Dilution in Concentration

• A dilution is when a new solution is prepared from a stock solution (more

concentrated solution).

• To make solutions of lower concentrations from these stock solutions, more

solvent is added. The amount of moles of solute doesn’t change.

• The mathematical relationship is M1V1 = M2V2

48
Effect of Dilution in Concentration

Preparing 3.00 L of 0.500 M CaCl2 from

a 10.0 M stock solution.

49
Practice – Dilution Calculation
To what volume should you dilute 200 mL of a 15.0 M NaOH solution to obtain a
3.00 M NaOH solution?

50
Practice – Solution Concentration
If I use a pipette to withdraw a 10.0 mL aliquot from a 500.0 mL stock solution of
0.270 M CaCl2:
a. What is the concentration of my aliquot?

b. I then added 90.0 mL of water to the aliquot, bringing the total solution
volume to 100.0 mL. What is the concentration of my diluted solution?

51
Oxidation and Reduction (REDOX)
• The reactions in which electrons are transferred from one reactant to the other
are called oxidation–reduction or redox reactions.
• Atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized.
• The reaction is referred to as oxidation.
• Atoms that gain electrons are being reduced. OIL RIG
• The reaction is referred to as reduction.

Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2 NaCl(s)

Na → Na+ + 1 e– (oxidation; sodium lost electrons)
Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– (reduction; chlorine gained electrons)

52
Identifying Redox

• Oxidation: An increase in oxidation state

• Reduction: A decrease in oxidation state

• Carbon changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an oxidation state of +4.

• Carbon loses electrons and is oxidized
• Sulfur changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an oxidation state of –2
• Sulfur gains electrons and is reduced.

53
Oxidation Numbers
• Oxidation state - Allows us to determine the electron flow in the reaction.
• Even though they look like them, oxidation states are not ion charges!
• Oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based on a set of rules.
• Ion charges are real, measurable charges.

The following rules are in order of priority:

1. Free elements have an oxidation state = 0.
• 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)  Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0
2. Monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal to their charge.
• Na+ = +1 and Cl- = −1
3. (a) The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a compound is 0.
• NaCl  Na = +1 and Cl = −1  (+1) + (−1) = 0

54
Oxidation Numbers
3. (b) The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the
charge on the ion.
• NO3–  N = +5 and O = −2  (+5) + 3(−2) = −1
4. (a) Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1 in all their compounds.
• Na = +1 in NaCl
4. (b) Group II metals have an oxidation state of +2 in
all their compounds.
• Mg = +2 in MgCl2
5. In their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation states
according to the table on the right.
• Nonmetals higher on the table take priority.

55
Practice – Oxidation State

Assign an oxidation state to each atom in each element, ion, or compound.

a. Cl2 d. CO2

b. Na+ e. SO42-

c. KF f. K2O2

56
Practice – Oxidation State
Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized and the element that is
reduced in the redox reaction

Mg(s) + 2 H2O(l)  Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

57
Redox Reactions
• Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously (transfer of electron).

• The reactant that reduces an element in another reactant is called the reducing
agent - The reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized.

• The reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant is called the oxidizing
agent - The oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced.

• Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)

Na is oxidized, while Cl is reduced.
Na is the reducing agent, and Cl2 is the oxidizing agent.

58
Practice – Redox Reactions
Determine whether or not each reaction is an oxidation–reduction reaction. For
each oxidation–reduction reaction, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing
agent.

a. 2 Mg(s) + O2(g)  2 MgO(s)

b. 2 HBr(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  2 H2O(l) + CaBr2(aq)

c. Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s)

59