Unit III.

Problem Solving and Reasoning

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the unit, the student must have:
1. distinguished inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning;
2. used different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics
and mathematical concepts;
3. solved problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four steps; and
4. organized his/her methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

Lesson 1: Mathematical Reasoning

A big part of being an adult is making decisions on your own-every day is full
of them, from simple, like what to eat for breakfast, to the critical, like a choice of major, career, job
or mate. How far do you think you’ll get in life if you flip a coin to make every decision? I’m going to
say , “ Not every’. Instead, it’s important to be able to analyze a situation based on logical thinking.
What are the possible outcomes of making that decision? How likely it is that each choice will have
positive or negative consequences? We call the process of logical thinking reasoning. It doesn’t take a
lot of imagination to understand how important reasoning is in everyone’s life.
You make not realize it, but every day in your life, you use two types of reasoning to make
decisions and solve problems: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Reasoning - the process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a
conclusion/ judgment/ or conjecture.
Inductive Reasoning - is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining the specific
examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may
not be correct.

Example 1. 1 is an odd number.

11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Therefore, all numbers ending with 1 are odd numbers.

Example 2. Essay test is difficult.

Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult.

Uses of Inductive Reasoning

1. To predict a number
Example 1: a. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ___ . What is the next number?
b. 5, 10, 15, 20, ____ , Find the missing number.
Solution
a. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third differ by 3. It appears that the
difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and
15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
b. Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next
number in the list is 5 larger than 20, which is 25.
Check your progress 1:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

2. To make a conjecture
Example 2. Pick a number multiply by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the procedure for several different numbers and make a conjecture about the
relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results.
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8 : 5 x 8 = 40
Add by 6 : 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2 : 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract by 3 : 23 – 3 = 20
.’. When 5 is the original number, the number that will result is 4 times the given.

Check your progress 2:

1. What is the conjecture?
What is the result when n = 8; n = 15; n = 100 ?
Number: 5 8 15 100

Result: 20 32 60 ?

2. What is the conjecture?

Consider the following procedure.
1. Pick a number
2. Multiply by 9.
3. Add 15 to the product
4. Divide the sum by 3
5. and subtract by 5.
*Complete the above procedure for several numbers and make a conjecture.

3. To solve an application
Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a
pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of the
pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured the period of pendulums in “heartbeats”.
Example 3:
Length of pendulum Period of pendulum
(in units) (in heartbeats)
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5∙
36 6
 *The period of the pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to swing from left to right
and back to its original position.
**1. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
2. if the length is quadrupled, what happens of its period?

Check your progress 3:

A tsunami is a sea waver produced by an underwater earthquake. The height of a tsunami as it
approaches land depends on the velocity of a tsunami. See the table below.

Velocity of Tsunami Height of Tsunami

( Ft / sec. ) ( In feet )
6 4
9 9
12 16
15 25
18 36
21 49
24 64

*1. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
2. What should be the height of a tsunami, if its velocity is 45ft. per second?

4. To find a counterexample
A statement is a true statement, if it is true in all cases. If one case for which a
statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement becomes false statement.

Example 4: Verify that each of the following statement is a false statement by finding a
counterexample.
“For all number x; a.) l x l > 0; b.) x 2 > x ; c.) √(x 2 − 1)2 > x;”
Solution
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counterexample to verify
that the statement is false.
a. Let x = 0. Then l 0 l = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus
“ for all numbers x, lxl > 0 “ is a false statement.
b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is greater than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus “ for
all numbers x, x2 = x “ is a false statement.

Check your progress:

Verify that each of the following statements is a false by finding a counterexample for each.
For all numbers x:
a. x/x = 1 b. (x+3) / 3 = x+1 c.  ( x2 + 16 ) = x + 4

Deductive Reasoning - is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying assumptions, procedures,

or principles.
Deductive reasoning is used to establish a conjecture ( an opinion or idea formed without
proof or sufficient evidence / inference / supposition / guess ).

Example 1: All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.
Example 2: Christopher is sick.
If Christopher is sick, he won’t be able to go to work.
Therefore, Christopher won’t be able to go to work.

Example 5. Let us go back to the Example 3.2

Pick a number multiply by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract by 3.
Solution: Let n = original number (1)
1. Multiply the number by 8 : 8n
2. Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
3. Divide the sum by 2: (8n + 6) / 2 = 4n + 3
4. Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
Conclusion: We started with n and ended with 4n. The new number is 4 times the original number.

Check your progress 5:

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three times
the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 5. Hint: Let n represent the original number.

Paul R. Halmos (1916 – 2006)

He advocates that you not limit yourself to only using deductive reasoning to prove theorems.
“Mathematics is not a deductive science - - that is a cliché, when you try to prove a theorem,
and then start to reason what you do is trial and error, experimentation, or guess work.”
“I want to be an Mathematician: an auto mathography (1985).”

Lesson 2: Problem Solving

Some basic terminologies in problem solving

Problem – an inquiry of a given conditions to investigate or demonstrate a fact,
result or law. It is also a question to be answered or solved, especially by reasoning
or calculating.

Problem solving – is a mathematical process of identifying, prioritizing, and

selecting alternatives for a solution, and implementing a solution. It enables us to
use the skills in a wide variety of situations.

Math Patterns – are sequences that repeats based on a rule or rules. A rule is a
set way to calculate or solve a problem.

Sequence in mathematics – is an enumerated collection of objects in which

repetitions are allowed and order does matter. It is an ordered list of numbers. Each
number in a sequence is called a term of the sequence.

nth - term formula is formula that can be used to generate all the terms of a
sequence

Difference table is a table which shows the differences between successive terms
of the sequence and in some cases, it can be used to predict the next term in a
sequence.
Lesson 2.1: Problem Solving Involving Patterns
Numbers are everywhere in our daily lives and mathematics is based on numbers.
Mathematics is useful to predict and number pattern is about prediction. Number pattern leads
directly to the concept of functions in mathematics in relation to different quantities which is defined
as a list of the same numbers following a particular sequence. Number pattern can also be applied to
problem-solving whether a pattern is present and can be used to generalize a solution to a problem.
Pattern can be in the form counting up or down. One of the most famous number patterns is 0,
1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21, . . . the Fibonacci sequence. Some types of pattern are prime number pattern,
imaginary number pattern, geometric number pattern, and growing number pattern.

Terms of sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65,… is called a sequence. The number in
sequence that are separated by commas are called terms, a1 = 5, a2 = 14, a3 = 27,…a5 = 65. The 3
dots means the sequence continues beyond 65.
It is customary to use the subscript notation an to designated the nth term of a sequence.
a1 represents the first term of a sequence
a2 represent the second term of a sequence
a3 represents the third term of a sequence
.
.
.
an represents the nth term of a sequence.

In the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30,…, n2 + n,… a1 = 2, a2 = 6, a3 = 12, a4 = 20, a5 = 30; an = n2

+ n, when we examine the sequence, it is natural to ask; (1) what is the next term? (2) what formula
or rule can be used to generate the terms?
To answer these questions, we construct a difference table.
A difference table shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. The
differences in rows maybe the first, second, and third differences. In the first differences each
number in the first row of the table is the difference between the closest numbers just above it (
subtract the upper left number to the upper right number). If the first differences are not the same,
compute the successive differences of the first differences ( called the second and third differences).

Example 1: the following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14,…

Sequence 2 5 8 11 14

First difference 3 3 3 3
The first differences of the sequence are all the same. If we predict the next number in the sequence,
we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence.

Example 2. Use a difference table for: 5, 14, 27, 44, 65,…

Solution:
Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 …

1st difference 9 13 17 21 ….(1)

2
2nd difference 4 4 4 … (2)
5
 In this table, the 1st differences are not all the same. It is helpful to compute the successive
difference of the first differences. These are shown in row (2). These differences of the first
differences are called second differences, the differences of the second are called third differences.

To predict the next term look the pattern in a row difference. Therefore , the next term is 90.

Exercises: Predict the next term of a sequence. (use different able)

1. 2,7,24,59,118,207,…
2. 1,14,51,124,245,426, …

Nth – Term Formula for a sequence

Exammple1. Consider the formula an= 3n2 + n. This formula defines a sequence. If we
replace n with 1,2,3,4,5, and 6 then the formula an = 3n2 + n generates the sequence.
4,14,30,52,80,114. To finds the 40th term, replace each n with 40; a40 = (40)2 + 40 = 4840

Example 2. Find an nth term formula (see the figure tables below)

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the nth term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
2. How many tiles are in the 8th figure of sequence?
3. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?

Example 3: Given: 1,5,11,19,29,………..(see the figure)

Answer the following:

a. What is the nth term formula for the number tiles in the nth figure of sequence?
b. How many tiles in the tenth figure of sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 419 tiles?
Lesson 3: Problem – Solving Strategies
Ancient mathematics such as Euclid and Poppus were interested in solving mathematical
problems, as well as, heuristics – The study of the method and rules of discovery and invention.
Rene Descartes (1596- 1650), are mathematician and a philosopher contributed to the field
of heuristics.
Gottfried WilkelmLeibuitz (1646-1716)wrote a book on heuristics entitled “Art of invention”
Descartes developed a universal problem solving method
One of the foremost recent mathematician to make a study of problem solving was George
Polya (1887-1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to US .in 1940. The basic problem solving
strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps.

3.4. Polya’s 4- Step in Problem Solving Strategy

1. Understand the Problem
Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem itself. To help us
understand the problem, we might consider the following:
 What is the goal?
 What is being asked?
 What is the condition?
 What sort of a problem is it?
 What is known or unknown?
 Is there enough information?
 Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
2. Devise a Plan
Devising a plan (translating) is a way to solve the problem by picturing
how we are going to attack the problem.
 Make a list of the known information.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Act it out.
 Work backwards.
 Make a table or chart.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Use a variable, such as x.
 Look for a formula / formulas.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.

3. Carry Out the Plan

In carrying out the plan ( solve ), we need to execute the equation we came
up in step 2. The main key is to be patient and careful, even if we have
necessary skills.
 Be patient.
 Work carefully.
 Modify the plan or try a new plan.
 Keep trying until something works.
 Implement the strategy and strategies in step 2.
 Try another strategy if the one isn’t working.
 Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.
 Be determined and don’t get discouraged if the plan does not work immediately.
4. Look back
This step helps in identifying if there is a mistake in the solution. It is time to
reflect and look back at what is done, what worked, and what didn’t.
Look for an easier solution.
 Does the answer make sense?
 Check the results in the original problem.
 Interpret the solution with facts of the problem.
 Recheck any computations involved in the solution.
 Can the solution be extended to a more general case?
 Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met.
 Determine whether there is another method of finding the solution.
 Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem.

Examples: Use Polya’s 4 steps to solve the problems:

1. A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different
orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution

a. Understand the Problem

There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight
games and lost the last two or maybe they lost the first two games and
won the last two games. Of course, there are other possibilities such as
WLWL.

b. Devise a Plan
Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that each of the
different orders is accounted for only once.

c. Carry Out the Plan

Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. Use a strategy to
each order. One strategy is to start to write Ws, then write L if it is not
possible to write W. This strategy produces six different orders.
WWLL LWWL
WLWL LWLW
WLLW LLWW

d. Look Back
The list has no duplications. So we are confident that there are 6 different
orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.

2. Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4. Find
the number.
Solution

a. Understand the Problem

We need to make sure that we have read the question carefully several times.
Since we are looking for a number, we will let x be a number.

b. Devise a Plan
We will translate the problem mathematically. Two times the sum of a
number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4.
2(x + 3) = 3x + 4

c. Carry Out the Plan

We solve the value of x, algebraically.
2(x + 3) = 3x + 4
 2x + 6 = 3x + 4
3x – 2x = 6 – 4
x=2

d. Look Back
If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the same as thrice the
number2 plus 4 which is 10, so this does check, Thus, the number is 2.

3. Three siblings Sofia, Achaiah and Riana. Sofia gave Achaiah and Riana as much
money as each had. Then Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money as each
had. Then Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as much money as each had. Then each
of the three had P128. How much money did each have originally?

Solution
a. Understand the Problem
The problem is a little bit confusing and needs to be carefully analyzed.

b. Devise a Plan
We will be working backwards.

c. Carry Out the Plan

There are four stages to this problem. We will number it from fourth to first.
Fourth: Each has P128.
Third: Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as much money as each has.
Second: Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money as each has.
First: Sofia gave Achaiah and Riana as much money as each has.
Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana
Fourth P128 P128 P128

Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana

Third 64 64 256
Second 32 224 128
First 208 112 64
Initially Sofia had P208, Achaiah had P112, and Riana had P64.

d. Look Back
We check the result.
Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana
First 208 112 64
Second 208 – 112 – 64 = 32 112 + 112 = 224 64 + 64 = 128
Third 32 + 32 = 64 224 – 32 – 128 = 64 128 + 128 = 256
Fourth 64 + 64 = 128 64 + 64 = 128 256 – 64 – 64 =
128
Thus, Sofia, Achaiah, and Riana’s initial money are P208, P112, and P64, respectively.

4. If the length of the top of a rectangle is 15 inches more than its width and the
area is 1,350 square inches. Find the dimension of the table.

Solution

a. Understand the Problem

We are looking for the length and width of the rectangular table; and we will let
l be the length and w be the width. It is indicated in the problem that the length
is 15 inches longer than the width (l = 15 + w).

b. Devise a Plan
We will apply the area of the rectangle formula Area = lw.
1,350 = lw = (15 + w) w

c. Carry Out a Plan

1,350 = (15 + w)
1,350 = 15w + w2
w2 – 15w = 1,350
(w + 45) (w – 30) = 0
w + 45 = 0 w – 30 = 0
w = - 45 w = 30
Since, measurement cannot be negative, the width of the rectangle is 30. The
length is, l = 15 + w = 15 + 30 = 45 inches.

d. Look Back
If the width of the rectangle is 30 inches and the length is 15 inches longer than
the width which is 45 inches. The area of a rectangle is Area = lw = 30(45) =
1,350 square inches. Thus, the width is 30 and the length is 45 inches.

3.5. Problem Solving Strategies

a. Make an organized list

b. Guess and test on trial and error
c. Elimination
d. Draw a diagram / model, etc.
e. Works backwards
f. Look for patterns
g. Write an equation / use a formula, etc.
h. Perform an experiment
i. Invented strategy ; and other methods.
j. Algorithm , and any other methods.

These strategies can be used to solve any problem by combining them or using any particular
method.

Applications….

Logic Puzzles
Can be solved by using deductive reasoning, and a chart that enables us to display
the given information in a visual manner.

Example: Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah and Brian has a different occupation; (Editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbors.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not an editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution:
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
(4) Sean x3 x3 x4
(1) Maria x1 x3 x1
(2) Sarah x2 x2 x3
(3) Brian x3 x3 x3
(4)