Definition

The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek (athlētēs, "combatant in public games")

from (athlon, "prize") or (athlos, "competition"). Initially, the term described athletic contests

in general – i.e., sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats, but, In the 19th

century, the term athletics acquired a narrower definition in Europe and came to describe sports

involving competitive running, walking, jumping and throwing. This definition continues to be

prominent in the United Kingdom and the former British Empire. Related words

in Germanic and Romance languages also have a similar meaning.

In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general, maintaining the

historical usage of the term. The word "athletics" is rarely used to refer to the sport of athletics

in this region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer

to athletics events, including race-walking and marathon running (although cross country running is
typically considered a separate sport).

Historical background of Athletics

organized sport, having developed out of the most basic human activities —running, walking,

Athletics is comprised of track events, the field events and the events done on the road. s
.t
Track events

Track events can be further divided into three segments, each presenting athletes with a different
challenge. These include:

i. Running on a track over a defined distance,

ii. Running or sprinting with obstacles on the track,
iii. Relay runs or sprints.

The main objective of track events is to run from one location to another in the shortest amount
of time. The following track events list includes some of the most popular running activities:

▪ Sprints (100m, 200m, 400m)

▪ Middle distance (800m, 1500m)

▪ Long distance (3000m Steeplechase, 5000m, 10,000m)

▪ Hurdles (110/100m, 400m)

▪ Relays (4x100m, 4x400m, mixed 4x400m)

- 10km, senior men

- 8km, junior men - 10km, senior women
- 6km, junior women.
Walking events
Men – 20km and 50km
Women – 20km

a
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✓ The 400m Standard Track (the Track) has straight and curved sections of almost equal length
and uniform bends which are most suitable to the running rhythm of athletes. Furthermore,
the area inside the track is large enough to accommodate all throwing events and a standard
football (soccer) pitch (68m x 105m).
✓ The Track comprises 2 semicircles, each with a radius of 36.50m, which are joined by two
straights, each 84.39m in length.
✓ The Track has 8, 6 or occasionally 4 lanes but the last is not used for international running
competition. All lanes have a width of 1.22m ± 0.01m
✓ The Track comprises 2 semicircles, each with a radius of 36.50m, which are joined by two
straights, each 84.39m in length.
✓ The Track has 8, 6 or occasionally 4 lanes but the last is not used for international running
competition. All lanes have a width of 1.22m ± 0.01m.

✓ All track markings must be in accordance with the World athletics 400m Standard
Track Marking
Plan
✓ All lanes are marked by white lines. The line on the right-hand side of each lane, in the
direction of running, is included in the measurement of the width of each lane.
✓ All start lines (except for curved start lines) and the finish line are marked at right angles. to
the lane lines.
✓ Immediately before the finish line, the lanes are marked with numbers with a minimum
height of 0.50m.
✓ All markings are 0.05m wide.
✓ All distances are measured in a clockwise direction from the edge of the finish line nearer
to the start to the edge of the start line farther from the finish.
✓ The data for staggered starts for the Track (constant lane width of 1.22m)
 ✓ The essential requirement for all start lines, straight, staggered or curved, is that the distance
for every athlete, when taking the shortest permitted route, is the same, and not less than the
stipulated distance with no negative tolerance.
✓ For races of 800m or less, each athlete has a separate lane at the start.
✓ Races of up to and including 400m are run entirely in lanes.
✓ Races of 800m start and continue in lanes until the end of the first bend.

L= 2P + 2π (R + 0.2) where
L = length of track in metres
P = distance between the centres of the two curves in metres (length of straights or
parallels) =84.39m
R = radius of the curves in metres (this is the same as half the length of one of the short
sides of the rectangle) =36.5m π = 3.1416
0.2 = 20cm expressed in metres (the length of the track is actually measured 20cm from
the outside edge of the inside lane marking (kerb) because it is assumed an athlete
cannot run on the precise inside edge of the track.
Where a running rail is installed the measurement of lane 1 is taken 30cm out.).
Applying this formula to our rectangle, we have:
Therefore, for the first lane
L= L= 2P + 2π (R + 0.3)

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400 Metre Standard Running Track

➢ Track Length: Based on parallels of 84.39m and a radius of 36.5m, making the two
turns.
➢ The measurement is taken 30cm from the inner edge for Lane 1 if there is a raised
border of 20cm if there is no border.
➢ All other lane distances are measured 20cm from white line.
➢ Lane Widths: 1 .22m wide and no more than 1.25m. When the inner edge is a chalk
line: Lane 1 measure 1 .12m.
➢ The measurement being taken from the outside edge of the marking line to the outside
edge of the marking line to the outside edge of the next line, going outwards from the
track side of the inner kerb.
➢ All semicircular curves will be equal.
➢ Staggers: Lanes 2-8 measurements are taken along a 20cm line from inside edge of each
lane. On the diagram, the staggers for 1 00m and 300m apply only when the straights are
84.39m and must be adjusted for tracks of other proportions.
➢ Take Over Zones: 10 m before and after the takeover scratch line in each lane.
➢ Line Width: 5cm wide
➢ Colour: White
➢ In international competition the 800 metre race is run in lanes as far as their first bend,
making the use of the staggered starts necessary.
ected to run around the [Link]’s calculated 30cm from the kerb line for the first lane and 20cm
B
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a n 1) Level /flatness of the ground.
k 2) Space/ where track can fit. e 3)
Free from obstacles.
t 4) Avoid waterlogged areas/ swampy areas/drainage.
5) Wind direction. f 6)
Sun direction. i 7)
Accessibility.
n 8) Spectators’ facilities. i 9)
Topography of the area. s 10)
Funds available. htrack events
▪ Whistle/pistol/gun/clapper board
– ▪ Starting blocks
 Hurdles
 Steeple chase hurdles.
 Flags/sign boards white, yellow and red, green.
 Lap counter numbers /number cards.
 Batons
 Time keepers stand.
 Number discs –for showing lanes.
 Stop watch
 Bell-to signal the last lap.
 Rostrum- for winners ▪ Warning boards – for walk races.
 Finishing tape.
 Photo finish system for automatic timing ▪ Photo finish camera.
 Transponder system on athletes’ bibs or shoe for timing.

1. Crouch start

a) Elongated start.

b) Medium/bullet start
 c) Bunch start

(i) Straight start

This is whereby the competitors are in a straight line e.g. 100m, 110mH. (ii)
Staggered start

(a) The starter’s command.

At the beginning of the race, the competitors will be placed by the starter’s assistant in their
correct lanes on the assembly line 3m behind the starting line. gives the command ‘On your
mark’. The competitors take their position on their lanes. The (b) Set

When all competitors are motionless, the starter will command ‘Set.’

(c) Go/gunfire.

i) The runner should spring forward powerfully by pushing both feet against the blocks or
the ground.
ii) To build up running power, the arm opposite the takeoff leg should swing powerfully
forward as the other arm swings backwards.
. It’s signalled using a green flag. The particular race is restarted.

False start
It’s an offence committed during the start of a race. The following offences amount to false start;
 • Leaving one’s mark with either hand or foot before the gun is fired.  Taking
unnecessary long to settle into position. delay.
• Disturbing fellow competitors by sound or any other means after the first
command.
Penalty.
Any competitor who makes a false start is disqualified.

i) Assuming full or final set position on the command ‘On your mark’/Set’ ii) No
disturbing a fellow competitor by sound or any other means after the command
‘On your marks’ iii) A competitor should not leave the mark with the hands or feet
after the command
‘On your marks’.

Categories of track events

Rapidly moving from one place to another, also known as sprinting, is an action that is required
in many different sports and activities. Sprinting can be broken down into four different phases,
each distinguishable from the others by comparing three different variables. These variables
are stride length, stride frequency and ground contact time.

- 100m
- 100mH (women)
- 110mH (men)
- 200m
- 400m
- 400mH

• They are anaerobic in nature i.e. less oxygen is used.

• Started on blocks (starting block).
 • Started in crouch position.
• Have three commands (‘On your mark, Set, Go’)  Take a very short time to perform.
• Involve strength, power and speed.
• Result to oxygen debt.

es and training. A sprinter ’s talent is built on the following techniques.

he finish line as soon as possible (dip finish).It’s the torso that determines the finishing

▪ I
m
m
Phases of Sprinting e
d 1.
Starting
Phase
i
✓ The initial phase of sprinting is known as the starting block phase, a
✓ The sprinter is in contact with the blocks.
t
✓ This phase has the greatest amount of ground contact time, or the total time in which e
the feet are in contact with the ground or blocks. l
✓ This is when force production is the greatest. y
✓ The rear leg produces force for only 45 percent of the contact time.

✓ The front leg is believed to be of more importance at the start. a

✓ Your arms should be shoulder-width apart, and both the head and spine should be in f
straight alignment to ensure sufficient stability and power transfer as you propel t
yourself forward. e
✓ Stride length and stride frequency are not factors in this phase because the sprinter is r
not moving.

f 2. Acceleration Phase
i
✓ It is also known as the “transition phase” of your sprint, this is the point when your n
body shifts from running with horizontal forces to primarily vertical forces. i
✓ For a successful acceleration phase, the key is to achieve full leg extension for maximal
s force production into the
ground. h
✓ When the sprinter takes off from the blocks, they begin to accelerate by increasing stride
i length and stride
frequency.
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✓ The length of this phase can be anywhere from 30 to 50 meters among top sprinters g
during a 100-meter race.
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✓ During acceleration, the time in which the foot is in contact with the ground is relatively
long in order to generate high levels of force, but decreases as the sprinter achieves
maximum running speed.

3. Constant Speed/ The Drive (Top Speed) Phase

➢ This phase can be submaximal, maximal or supramaximal.

➢ It is characterized by both the stride length and stride frequency remaining the same over a
period of time.
➢ This phase is generally achieved between the 60 to 80 meter mark in men and 50 to 70 meter
mark in women.
➢ The top sprinters can sustain this phase over a distance of 10 to 20 meters.
➢ The difference between elite and sub-elite sprinters is the frequency of stride, demonstrating
that it is more important than the length of the stride.
➢ This is where you begin to run in a more upright position. i.e. your head starts to rise, your
spine elongates and straightens out, and your eyes are locked onto the end of your sprint lane.
➢ At this point, you’re using a combination of momentum and muscle power to carry you
through to the end of your sprint.
 ➢ Sprint by presenting a high cadence/frequency of strides. With faster stride turnover, your
feet make more contact with the ground,
➢ Maintain a footstrike underneath the hip (i.e., your center of gravity). This will ensure that
you minimize any braking forces upon landing and continue at top speed.
➢ The main gist of the drive phase is to minimize any potential braking forces or points of
deceleration that could slow you down!
➢ Harness those vertical forces with each step you land and driving yourself forward.

4. Deceleration Phase

✓ The last phase is categorized by a decrease in sprinting speed, usually occurring between the
80 and 100-meter mark in top sprinters.
✓ this is typically the point in a sprint where athletes run low on power and have to work harder
to stave off any fatigue or factors that may cause slow-down.
✓ Velocity begins to decrease on a scale of .5 to 1.5 meters per second and is caused by central
and peripheral fatigue.
✓ The decrease in speed is mainly caused by a decrease in stride frequency, as stride length and
ground contact time is increased when compared to the third sprinting phase.
✓ That last 20 meters can pose quite a challenge for both your physical and mental fortitude,
so be sure to apply all your effort to that final portion of the race.
✓ To help maintain that maximal force output, in your final stretch of the sprint, be sure to
achieve high knee action and plenty of arm drive (keep those elbows bent at 90 degrees).

I
n

, relays are held at distances of 800 m, 3,200 m, and 6,000 m. In the less frequently run medley
relays, however, the athletes cover different distances in a prescribed order of relay —
as in a sprint a) Shuttle relay
 ➢ The athletes line up opposite one another e.g. two athletes up one end and two at the
other. The first person starts with the baton, runs to the other end and passes it to the first
runner there.
➢ They continue back and forth until the last runner crosses the finish line. Or a competitor
runs from one point straight to another and back. No baton is carried.
➢ The exchange is done by touch and contact must be made within the clearly defined area.
➢ The baton is held vertically at the bottom. It is received at chest level with the receiver’s
arms outstretched and their hands creating the shape of a butterfly.

b) Medley relay
T
h
c)i Circuit relay
s
i. 4x100m (short relay) i ii. 4x400m
(long relay) n ➢ These events are for both men
and women. v ➢ Each team has four competitors.
o ➢ The race involves the use of batons to be handed over from the one athlete to the l
next. v
Baton Exchange e
s
This is done in the relay race, when team mates come together passing the baton from one

member to the other using the various techniques. d

i

Checkmarkf
f
The baton exchange requires matching the speeds of the incoming and outgoing athletes so that
e they are together towards the end of the changer -over zone. It requires the outgoing runner
to commence their run when the incoming runner reaches a checkmark. The distance of the e

checkmark from the start of the zone needs to take into consideration the following:n
t
• running speed of the incoming runner

• reaction and acceleration capacity of the outgoing runner c

The following is a general guide on the distance of the checkmark from the outgoing runner's o
starting point:m
p
e Men - 7 to 9 metres

t Women - 6 to 7 metres

i Children - 5 to 6 metres
t
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A more accurate calculation of the checkmark
❖ Strict correspondence of speeds by the outgoing athlete and the incoming athlete within
the passing zone is an essential condition of a successful change-over. Consequently,
the optimum correlation of speeds of the athletes in the passing zone may be achieved
using a precisely calculated checkmark.
❖ Deciding on the position of the checkmark is a vital aspect of the relay running
technique. For this, we put a checkmark on the running track in front of the zone. The
moment of crossing the checkmark by the incoming athlete is the signal for the outgoing
athlete to start running.
❖ The method of deciding the position of the checkmark begins with establishing the exact
spot of baton exchange (25 metres into the zone). We need to determine the following:
✓ Time the outgoing athlete takes to run 25m from a standing or modified crouch start,
e.g. 3.24 seconds
✓ The time it takes the incoming athlete to run the last 25m of their leg, e.g.
2.25 seconds
✓ Difference for the two athletes, e.g. 3.24 - 2.25 = 0.99 seconds
✓ Average velocity of incoming athlete over the last 25 metres, e.g. 25 ÷ 2.25 =
11.11 m/s.
❖ With the difference in time (0.99 secs) and the incoming athlete's average velocity
(11.11m/s), we can work out the checkmark as 11.11 x 0.99 = 10.99m
❖ The reaction of the outgoing athlete to the incoming athlete hitting the checkmark must
also be considered. Investigations with top-class athletes indicate that this reaction time
is +0.20 seconds. By the time the outgoing athlete commences their running, the
incoming athlete will have travelled 0.20 x 11.11 m/s = 2.22 metres which will mean
the outgoing athlete will begin from a shorter start of 10.99 - 2.22 = 8.77m rather than
the calculated 10.99m. The checkmark, therefore, needs to be placed at 10.99 + 2.22 =
13.21m
✓ For 4 x 100m Circular Relays, there is a 30m takeover zone in which the baton must be
passed. There is a 20m takeover zone for 4 x 400m relays.
✓ For the Swedish Relay, the 30m takeover zone for the 4 x 100m and 4 x 200m and 20m
takeover zone for the 4 x 400m are used for baton passing.

✓ If the baton is dropped, the athlete who dropped it must pick it up.
✓ Athletes may leave their lane to do this as long as they do not interfere with any of the other
runners on the track.
✓ Once the baton has been retrieved, the athlete can return to their lane and continue with the
race from the point at which the baton was dropped.

When will a team be disqualified?

✓ If the baton is thrown between runners.
✓ If the baton is not carried by hand the whole way.
✓ If an athlete interferes with any other competitors.
✓ If the baton is not changed in the 30 or 20m takeover zone.

A baton should be a smooth hollow tube made of metal or wood.

It shall be coloured to make it visible.

Length =28-30cm
Circumference =12-13cm
Weight =50g

✓ Non-visual exchanges are used for shorter events that are run at full speed.

✓ In these events, athletes will use a block start for the first leg.

✓ In a relay, the mechanics and technique used for a block start are the same as in other sprinting
events. The one difference is that the athlete must hold the baton.
✓ All parts of the athlete's hands must be behind the starting line, but the baton may extend
beyond the line.

✓ The baton is held at one end with the pinky, ring, and middle fingers holding the baton against
the palm of the hand. The thumb and index fingers form a bridge to support the upper body.

✓ For athletes who are too small to hold the baton with this grip while in the blocks, an upright
starting position is advisable.

✓ At the starting command, the first runner accelerates to full speed and races toward the first
exchange zone.

✓ Baton exchange is done within the takeover zone/box. Each take over zone is 20m long with
the scratch line at the centre.

✓ The zones shall start and finish at the edge of the zone lines nearest the start line in the running
direction.
✓ Takeover zones for the second and last takeover in 4x400m will be the normal 10m lines
either side of the start/ finish lines.
✓ For the first take over the outgoing runner remains at scratch line.
✓ In 4x400m relay the first lap as well as part of the second lap will be run entirely on individual
lane until after the first bend where break line is drawn.
✓ 2nd, 3rd x 4th runners are not allowed to commence running outside take over zones.
✓ Members of the team other than the 1st runners may commence running not more than 10m
outside the takeover zone.
✓ Each athlete is designated to run100m/400m, but this changes depending on where the baton
is being handed and taken over.

• The baton shall be carried by hand throughout the race.

• The baton shall be passed literally to the next person and should not be hurled (thrown
Failure to pass the baton properly, or losing the baton may result in disqualification.

• If dropped the same athlete should pick it.

• The passing of baton shall take place with the changeover box.
• A competitor after passing the baton shall not escort the fellow competitor but waits for the
area to clear and then leaves the track.
• In 4x400m, in the1st round the competitor shall maintain his/her lane throughout.
• Each team shall have 4 competitors and shall wear identical uniforms.
• For a team to win the last competitor (anchor) must have a baton with him/her.
 • The competitor receiving the baton is allowed to move within the changeover box but not
beyond the acceleration zone 10m.
• Athlete who willingly impedes(block) members of the opposing teams will be disqualified.
• Pushing or assisting during the exchange is not allowed.
• At the end of the race, the baton must not be thrown away in triumph or disgust.

Types of Baton exchange (a) Non-Visual Exchanges

❖ A non-visual exchange means that the runner who is going to receive the baton will not
see the baton place into his or her hand. Non-Visual Exchanges or hand-offs are
commonly used in 4x100m relays. This means that four runners run 100m each to
complete the race. Typically, the athlete running the first leg carries the baton in the
right hand and passes it to the second runner's left hand. the second runner will pass it
to the third runner's right hand who will bring it to the fourth or anchor leg's left hand.
This pattern is however not mandatory as coaches may decide to allow athletes or
teachers allow students to pass and receive the baton in the hand that they are
comfortable using.
❖ Non-visual exchanges are used for shorter events and so a block start will be used for
the first leg. This is the same start used in other sprint races with the exception being
the baton in the hand of the athlete. In this case, all parts of the athlete's hand must be
behind the line, but the baton maybe extended beyond the line.
❖ Once the outgoing athlete has seen the incoming athlete reach the checkmark, they will
start as if reacting to the starting gun in a sprint race. The incoming athlete will call
'Hand' when they are in a position to pass the baton to the outgoing athlete safely. The
outgoing athlete puts back their hand, the incoming athlete places the baton into the
hand, and the exchange is complete. The outgoing athlete does not watch the baton into
their hand, hence non-visual.
b) Visual Exchanges: This exchange is used when doing long distance relays as it
is not a requirement for runners to be at top speed. This exchange requires
receiving runners to looking back for help.

(a) Non-Visual Exchanges (i) Upsweep Pass

➢ The outgoing runner's (receiver’s) hand should be extended at waist height with palm
facing down slightly behind the hip
➢ The incoming runner then swings the baton up in the outgoing runner's hand placing it
between the thumb and fingers.
 Advantages

This is a standard position for the receiving hand.

Disadvantage

It may require some manipulation of the baton in hand to make the next exchange safely.

(ii) Down Sweep Pass

➢ The outgoing runner holds the receiving hand back with the palm facing up with the
thumb forming a V-shape turned towards the torso.
➢ The arm is straight and held higher than the hip
➢ The incoming runner uses a downsweep motion to place the baton in the runner's hand.
➢ The outgoing runner reaches back and receive a third of the baton that is swung
downwards by the incoming runner.

➢ This method will require no manipulation of the baton to make the following baton
exchange safely.

➢ It is not a natural position of the outgoing athlete's hand to receive the baton.
 (iii) Push Pass
➢ The outgoing runner holds the receiving hand at shoulder height with the thumb
down
➢ The palm facing the incoming runner, and the fingers pointing to the inside of the
track.
➢ The incoming runner holds the baton straight up and down and pushes the baton
into the hand.
➢ Team mates rely on spoken words to organize passes.

s
✓ The incoming runner can easily adjust the baton's position up, down or sideways and observe
the outgoing runner's hand take hold of the baton.
✓ It will require no manipulation of the baton by the outgoing runner to safely make the
following baton exchange.
✓ It is perhaps the safest method of baton exchange

✓ It is not a natural position of the outgoing athlete's arm and hand to receive the baton.

(b) Visual Exchange

 • Receiver has good visibility of the incoming runner.
• He is protected from crowding during exchange.
• Athletes starting position is balanced and relaxed.
• There are less chances of button being knocked out of hand.

Selection of team members

The performance in the relay event primarily depends upon the baton exchange's perfection
and the team's sprinting ability. For the selection of athletes for the different relay legs, it is
sensible to find their capacities for a particular section (the second and third runners cover
longer distances). Establishing each athlete's full potential for running sections on the straight
and around the bend is also advisable. These individuals' abilities must be considered in
deciding the running order of a relay team, considering the following:

- Good is starting /reaction time.

- Good in curves.
- Good in handing over the baton.
- Very fast.

- Good at receiving and handing over the baton.

- Runs well in the straight
- Possesses sufficient speed endurance.
- The athlete should perhaps be a 200 metres specialist.

- Good at curves.
- The sprinter must be confident and reliable in receiving and passing the baton, - Possess
sufficient speed endurance.
- The athlete should perhaps be a 200 metres specialist.

- Good at receiving the baton.

- Good in running straights.
- Good in fast acceleration.
- Good finisher.
- Very fast.
- Has a high degree of competitive spirit.
 runner is on the inside, and the 2nd runner is on the outside and fatiguing! With more
distance to cover, you only have once chance to get it right. Being a right handed 3rd
“leg ”, this is why Usain Bolt prefers the 3rd leg

Hurdling races

Hurdling is a rhythmical sprinting over barriers. It’s a run over action and not a jumping

▪ 100m H(women)
▪ 110m H(men)
▪ 400m H(men and women)
 of the line
hurdles

A competitor shall only clear the hurdles on his/her lane.

A competitor shall not trail the leg around the hurdle.
A competitor shall not deliberately knock down the hurdles. If it is an accident, there
is no penalty
A hurdler’s whole body must clear the hurdle
When standard hurdles are used a competitor may knock down as many hurdles
without being penalized.
The first person to cross the line with the torso is the winner; the leg or the arm does
not count.
No avoiding any hurdle or go through or under the hurdle.

W
h ❖ False start
a ❖ Intentionally knocking over the hurdles
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❖ If the runner goes outside the assigned lane

❖ Avoiding the hurdle by going round it in any way

;
 thletes should assume a ‘dip finish’ as in sprints.

✓ Steeplechase in athletics is a footrace run over an obstacle course that includes such obstacles
as water ditches, open ditches, and fences.
✓ Runners of the standard course face a total of 7 water jumps and 28 hurdling jumps. Hurdles
are 91.4 cm (36 inches) high, and one of them, which has a top bar of 12.7 cm (5 inches), is
placed immediately in front of the water jump, which is 3.66 metres (12 feet) long.
✓ A competitor may jump, vault, or stand on the hurdles.
 ✓ The hurdles numbered 3 and 4 are positioned after the competitors have passed by on the
first lap.
✓ Competitors run outside the water jump on the first lap.

C a - Men -3000m t -
women -3000m e-
2000m
g - Introduced to women in 1996
o r - It requires, strength, stamina of 5000m and speed of 1500m runner and
hurdles skill.
i - Hurdles are made of heavy timber so that are they are not
overturned easily. e s

o
f

 Water jumps should have floor.

- Water jump hurdles must be firmly fixed.

- To go over the barrier a competitor may jump, hurdle, vault by placing the hands on the
barrier, or step on it.
- A keen competitor steps in the barrier with one foot and step on the shallow water with the
other foot.
- The competitors concentrate as he approaches the barrier.
- He keeps his body low as he pivots his supporting leg.
- Places the sole of the supporting foot firmly on top of the hurdles.
- In 3000m steeplechase, there are dry 28 jumps/dry hurdles and 7 water/wet jumps in
3000msteeple chase 3000m/400=7.5laps - In the first 270m, there is no barrier.
- 7 laps are run with barriers.
- In total there are 35 times jumping over barriers.
- In the 2000m steeplechase race has 18 barriers and five water jumps.
Steeplechase barrier height

There’s a difference when it comes to the height of the barriers in the steeplechase for men and
women. The barrier heights for men are 0.914m (36in) and the barrier heights for women are
0.762m (30in).
- Stepping on either side of the jump.
- Trailing the leg or foot around the hurdle.
- Avoiding a hurdle.
- Failing to go over or through the water
- Trails his foot or leg below the horizontal plane of the top of the hurle

➢ These are races started at the same linee.g.800m, 1500m (middle distance), 5,000m,
10,000m (long distance).
➢ NB: In 800m when competitors are many, the event is done in heats and started on
staggers. They are expected to run on their lanes for 120m after which they can get in to
the inner lane. This is to minimize congestion.
• They take longer time to finish.
• Covers long distances
• They involve both cardio-vascular and muscular endurance.
• They are aerobic in nature.

➢ Only two commands are given ‘On your marks’ and ‘Go’.
➢ During the ‘On your marks’ position, the athlete should lean forward with a bend at the knee
of the leading leg.

- These are races started on different points. For these races balloting of lanes is done.
- When the number of competitors is greater than the lanes, the races are done on heats and
then finals.

1. A competitor shall maintain his/her lane when the track events demand so
e.g.100m,200m and 400m etc.
2. A competitor shall not obstruct his/her opponent e.g. pushing, blocking the way etc.
3. A competitor shall not run inside the track or move out of the track and come back again to
resume the race.
4. A competitor shall overtake to the right of the opponent unless there is enough space to the
left.
5. All the competitors shall be registered by the recorder.
6. Running shall be done anti-clockwise. This is because it is easier to negotiate curves on the
left as opposed to right.
7. Each competitor shall wear a Number and colour allocated to his/her team.
T h e

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This is taken fromh the smoke or the flash of the gun or any approved apparatus to the moment
any part of the torso comes over the finishing line. Every competitor shall be timed by 3 i
timekeepers and in the event of the times disagreeing the middle time is taken. When taken c
by 2h timekeepers and the time disagree the longer time is taken.
th 1. Hand
timing.
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a
2. Fully automatic timing and photo finish.
3. Timing by transponder system (for races out of stadium).

✓ Race walking, or racewalking, is a long-distance discipline within the sport of athletics

which is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in contact with the
ground at all times.
✓ Walking is a progression of steps such that there is unbroken contact to the ground to the
visible eye.
 ✓ The advancing leg must be straightened from the moment it touches the ground to the
moment it reaches a vertical position. It must remain straightened until the leg passes
under the body
✓ Race walking is an event contested in all levels of the sport of track & field, from youth
athletics up to and including the Olympic Games. Race walking combines the endurance
of the long distance runner with the attention to technique of a hurdler or shot putter.
Producing less impact, this technically demanding event continues to grow in popularity
across the younger and older age groups for its fitness and competitive aspects.
✓ Race judges carefully assess that this is maintained throughout the race.
✓ It is held on either roads or running tracks
✓ The common distances range from 3,000 metres (1.9 mi) up to 100 kilometres
✓ There are two race walking distances contested at the Summer Olympics: the 20
kilometres race walk (men and women) and 50 kilometres race walk (men only) ✓ Both
are held as road events.

Categories of walking races

Olympic race walking

➢ Race walking made its debut at the Olympics in 1904 at St Louis, USA, but it was clubbed
as a part of the ‘All-Around Championship’ - today’s version of the decathlon.
 ➢
It made its debut as a standalone sport at the 1908 Games in London as a men’s event,
featuring a 3500 metre and a 10-mile race walk.
➢ A 10km short-distance walk was introduced at the 1912 Summer Olympics in
Stockholm and the 50km long-distance event made its first appearance at the 1932
Games in Los Angeles.

➢ The Olympics has a 20km race walking category for both men and women. The 50km
category, however, is only for men.
➢ The 20km, the second category under short distance, was introduced at the 1956
Olympics in Melbourne.
➢ A women’s category was eventually added at the 1992 Barcelona Games in the form of
a 10km event. It was upgraded to the 20km at Sydney 2000.
➢ As things currently stand at the Olympic Games, men and women compete in the 20km
short distance category while the 50km long distance features only men.

Stages of Walk race

i) Double support: -Where one foot is landing on the ground as the other is about to
leave the ground.
ii) Traction Stage: - where the leading foot steps down using the heel as the other foot
comes forward then makes contact with the ground.
iii) Relaxation stage: - point where the centre of gravity is not fully on landing leg.
iv) Drive stage: - pushing off from the ground.

Refreshments

➢ Ensure that the knee is straightened before the heel makes contact with the ground.
➢ Get full rotation of the hips with each stride.
➢ Carry the arms loosely across the body for balance.
➢ Keep the head steady without turning from side to side.
➢ No flights in walking.
Move in a straight line to avoid wasting time and increasing distance.
➢ The longer the stride the better the results.
 ➢
➢ Maintain rhythm of movement throughout the whole distance.

ing
➢ In a walk race, each judge should be independent and rely on his own observation. He
shouldn’t seek the opinion of other judges.
➢ Judges ranging from five to nine, depending on the category of the event, inspect the
race with their naked eyes. They carry paddles with symbols for ‘loss of contact’ (~)
and ‘bent knee’ (<).

yellow colour

yellow in colour

Disqualification is red in colour NB:

➢ For road races there should be a minimum of 6 judges and a maximum of 9 judges.
For track races there are 6judges.
➢ In a road race the route should be circular because judges don’t walk along with the

• Obstruction
• Dragging
• Hopping or trotting (run at a moderate swift pace)
➢
• Momentarily running
• Lifting both feet in the air
• Creeping or limping

➢ Participants will be cautioned with a white flag if they contravene the rules i.e. break of
contact to ground.
➢ The same judge will not caution an athlete twice for the same mistake ➢ Each caution
constitutes a warning.
➢ If three judges offer the same opinion for loss of contact or bent knee during any part
of the competition the athlete is disqualified.
➢ Disqualification is communicated to the competitor by the Chief Judge using a red flag
immediately.
➢ During the race signs are used, i.e. A yellow board with the mistaken drawn.
➢ A red flag is used by the Chief Judge after the third warning on disqualification, the
competitor leaves the track and in case of a road race, he/she must remove his number
immediately
➢ Races must take place and end during day time.

➢ This is an event run on different landscapes, seasons, climatic conditions etc.

➢ The course, typically 3–12 kilometres long, may include surfaces of grass and earth,

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The course should be designed on an open or woodland area covered by grass with
natural obstacles, which can be used by course designer to build a challenging and
interesting racecourse.
➢ The area must be wide enough to accommodate not only the course but all the necessary
facilities.
➢ The course should be clearly designed using a tape on both sides.
➢ If necessary, a small loop can be added in order to adjust the distances to the required
overall distance of the various events in which case the same loop must be run in the
early stages of the event.

Course designH
Y
➢ A course may include natural or artificial obstacles, P
➢ cross country courses support continuous running,
E
➢ It does not require climbing over high barriers, through deep ditches, or fighting through
R
the underbrush, as do military-style assault courses. L
➢ This is an event where competitors start by making one lap on the athletic track and
I
then follow a marked course of track with red flags (right side) and white flags (left
N
side).
K
➢ A course of at least 5 metres wide full allows competitors to pass others during the race.

➢ Clear markings keep competitors from making wrong turns, and" spectators from
interfering with the competition. h
➢ Markings may include tape or ribbon on both sides of the course, chalk or paint on the
t ground, or cones. t
➢ Some classes use colored flags to indicate directions: red flags for left turns, yellow p
flags for s right turns, and blue flags to continue straight or stay within ten feet of the
flag. Courses also commonly include distance markings, usually at each kilometer or :
each mile/ .
➢
➢ The course should have 400 to 1,200/ m of level terrain before the first turn, to reduce
contact and congestion at the start. However, many courses at smaller competitions e
have their first turn after a much shorter distance. n
➢ The course should also have a corral or chute. (funnel) after the finish line to facilitate
the recording of finiw shing positions.
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✓ In cold conditions, long-sleeved shirts and tights can be worn to retain warmth without
losing mobility.
✓ The most common footwear are cross country spikes, lightweight racing shoes with a
rubber sole and five or more metal spikes screwed into the forefoot part of the sole.
✓ Spike length depends on race conditions, with a muddy course appropriate for spikes
as long as 25mm.
✓ If a course has a harder surface, spikes as short as 6 millimetres may be most effective.
✓ While spikes are suitable for grassy, muddy, or other slippery conditions, runners may
choose to wear racing flats, rubber-soled racing shoes without spikes,

❖ Courses for international competitions consist of a loop between 1750 and 2000 meters.
❖ Consist of three to six loops, depending on the race.
❖ Senior men and women compete on a 10 kilometre course.
❖ Junior men compete on an 8-kilometre course
❖ Junior women compete on a 6-kilometre course
❖ C
❖
❖ Distance is determined by age and sex.

➢ Started by firing a gun.

➢ Commands used are for long races(‘On your mark’ and ‘Go’)
➢ The athletes assemble at the starting point and the member of each team lines up behind
each other.
➢ The starter should ensure that the athletes have chest numbers.
 • The best way to finish a cross country is the funnel. -
• After entering the finishing area/funnel the athlete is given a number by the position
judge.
• The athlete will take these number to his team recorder.
• The team recorder will record the first four members of team in order of arrival and
take the result to the chief recorder.

• To avoid congestion at the finish.

• To avoid overtaking once the athlete closes the finishing line.
• For more accuracy and fair positioning of athlete in order of arrival.

The top five finishers of each team score.

The sum total of the place numbers of the first five runners from a team is its score in a meet.
For example, if members of a team place 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th and 10th, those numbers are
added together to give the team a score of 31 points (3+4+6+8+10=31).

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 TEAM ORDER OF ARRIVAL TOTAL POSITION
SCORE
University of Nairobi 3,6,11,16 36 3
Meru University 1,8,13,14 36 2
Kenyatta University 2, 4,7,10, 23 1
Moi University 9,12,17, 22 60 5
Daystar University 5,15,18,19. 57 4

e.g. Between University of Nairobi and Meru university, Meru takes second position because
their last winning athlete is position14, while for UON is position 16
Strategy and tactics
✓ Coaches and cross-country runners debate the relative merits of fast starts to get clear
of the field, versus steady pacing to maximize physiological efficiency.
✓ Some teams emphasize running in a group in order to provide encouragement to others
on the team.
✓ While others hold that every individual should run his or her own race.
✓ Run ahead 'of the pack' or behind it and pull ahead in the end is important, but can vary
according to the runner's individual skill, endurance, and the length of the race.

e measures the course and prepares the assembly, pens, scum funnel, and recorders’
– He or she checks the results sheet against the position cards and records the final position of

This can be either St. John’s Ambulance or Red Cross Society. These official are to give first
icials’ hand over tot eh Guest of Honour the prizes and/or certificates to be awarded to
➢ The standard distance for both men and women shall be 10km, 15km, 20km, half
marathon and full marathon and road relay.
➢ It is a road race for both women and men.
➢ Half marathon, 21km, full marathon, 42km.
➢ The races are done on made up roads.
➢ The start and finish may be within athletics arena or stadium.
➢ The distance to be covered is announced to the athletes every 5km of the race.
➢ Road safety is ensured for all competitors.
➢ After 15km they get refreshment points, water points are also placed after every 5 km.
➢ Sponging is allowed in marathon to help in preventing dehydration.
➢ This is individual event.

• Mombasa
• Nairobi Standard Chartered
• Lewa-Meru
• UAP Ndaka-ini

and team’s trophy awarded

 t r a c  5 events done by junior men and

women. k  Takes one day.

 Long Jump, Javelin, 200m, Discus, 1500m.

n d  Category for women.  Consists of seven

events. f  Held in two days i  Day1; 100mH, Shot
Put, High Jump, 200m.
e  Day2; Long Jump, Javelin, 800m
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.

 Consists of ten events

 Held In Two Consecutive Days
 Day1; 100m, Long Jump, Short Put, High Jump, 400m.
 Day2; 110mH, Discus, Pole-vault, Javelin, 1500m
Octathlon –Boy’s youth. 
Boys event.
 8 events done in two days.
 Day1-100m, Long Jump, Shot Put, 400m.
 Day2 -110mH,High jump, Javelin, 1000m
 • There are intervals of 30 minutes between events.
• Athletes compete in groups.
• Long jump and throwing events have three chances.
• In track events two false starts lead to disqualification.
• Failure to participate in one event leads to disqualification.
• The winner is the competitor with the highest number of points.

1. Chairman of the meeting:

• Normally head of the institution
• In charge of the meeting
• Sees smooth running of the programme
• Checks on the officials and substitutes where necessary
• Settles disputes
2. Guest steward
 •
Normally deputy head of institution in case of institutions competitions
• Welcomes guests of honour and other guests
• Minds about their sitting and feeding arrangement
3. Organizing secretary
• Corresponds to other team officials
• Responsible for programmes
• Certification
• Invitation cards
4. Technical manager (clerk of the course)
• Ensures that field is marked before meeting and according to required standards.
• Ensure that equipment are of the required weight and are available.
• Prepare score sheets and result cards before meeting.
5. Referee:
• Ensures that the rules are observed.
• Settle any disputes
• Checks on the final results.
• Decides when judges fail to agree.
• Has power to disqualify competitors with improper conduct.
• Allocates duties to judges of particular events.
• He signs the result cards at the end of each event before handing them over to the recorder.
6. Chief time keeper
• Assign duties to assistant timekeepers.
• Collects stop watches from the clerk of the course and returns them back.
• Gives signal to the starter when other timekeepers are read by use of flags
• Decides the official time for each competitor in case of disagreement between assistant
timekeepers' times.
• Signs the time keeping cards before handing them over to the chief track judge.
• Instructs other timekeepers to clear their watches.
7. Time keeper
• Answerable to the chief time keeper
• Times the races and keeps the records of each athlete i.e. they must have records of
time taken by each athlete to finish the race
Must have a clear view of both starter and finish line.
 •
8. Chief track judge
• Allocates duties to the other track judges..
• Controls his officials.
• Signal the starter when judges are ready by use of flag.
• Makes final decision on placing competitors when watches have the same reading or
disagree.
• Helps to run the programme, he can change the position of the track event in the
programme.
• Ensures that stationery and track score cards are available.
• Ensures that track equipment are available and in good condition i.e. buttons ,huddles,
water jumps
• Solves disputes that may arise in the track e.g. if an athlete gets into somebody's lane
or drops his baton
• Signs the result card at the end of each track event before handing it over to referee.

9. Track judges
• Decide the order in which the competitors finish the race i.e. place competitors in the
order of their finish.
• In case of dispute, they refer it to the chief track judge.
• Stand at different points in the field and watch the competition closely and incase or
violation of rules in either track or field events they report to the referee: e.g.
a. They supervise the relay take over boxes to ensure that baton is exchanged within the
proper -zone so that there is no obstruction.
b. Ensure that athlete keeps to their lanes throughout the competition.
c. Ensures that the competitors clear the hurdles or steeplechase hurdle dearly.
d. Acts as walk judges and communicates by use of flags once they notice any
infringement.

10. Field judges

• In charge of various field events. Usually there are 2 judges per event assisted by other
officials.
Calls names of competitors.
 •
• Records performance.
• Controls the spectators and keeps the field clear.
11. Starter
• Starts the races/track events.
• Signals to the chief track judge.
• Controls all competitors at the start of race
• Disqualifies the competitor for false start
• Keeps programme running to schedule

12. Starter assistant /Marksman /recallers

• Assembles athletes in their correct lanes.
• Assists the starter in supervising the start of races.
• Signals starter when all are in 'on your marks.’
• Indicates starter’s failure (fault start) by raising a green flag.
• Indicates false start and who the offender is by raising the flag.
• Prepares batons in relays.
• Enforces the rule of ‘on your marks’.
• Checks that the athletes are competing in the right heat.
• He has the flags- White:- go ahead - Yellow- warning - Red - disqualification -Green –
fault start
13. Marshals (call room judges)
• Gives competitors notice to prepare.
• Registers all competitors by taking their names.
• Checks competitor bib numbers.
• Assembles athletes at the starting point.
• Ensure that all teams are represented in the race in case of a big meeting.
14. Walk judge
• Ensures that athletes follow the walk rules, gives warning and communicates to the
chief walk judge.
• Chief walk judge disqualifies the participants.
15. Lap scorer
• Minimum of 2 in any race.
 • Keeps records of laps covered by each competitor in each race.
• Indicates to the competitor the number of laps remaining after each lap.
• Rings the bell to inform the athlete that only one lap is left.
16. Announcers
• Call athletes to start the event.
• Announce results.
• Announce new records set.
• Help keep programme running.
• Silences the spectators at the start of the race
• Gives spectators information of what is going on in the field and gives them any
important information e.g. arrival of important guests, what event is going on etc. 17.
Recorder
• Collects the full results of each event.
• Relays the results to the announcer.
• Records the results of each event together with time, height, distance covered by
athletes.
• Allocate points depending on position of athletes going by the result from the track
arid field events e.g.

Position 1 2 3 4 5 6
Points 6 5 4 3 2 1

18. Prize and certificate stewards

• Ensures that certificates are awarded to the winners after each event is over.
• Make proper arrangements for the trophies to be awarded at the end of the day by the
guest of honour.
19. Refreshment steward
• Provides drinks during the meeting.
• Feeds guests and officials during the meeting.
20. Hurdles stewards
• Ensures that the hurdles are available before the race starts.
• Places the hurdles during the hurdles races and removes them after the event.
• Adjusts the hurdles for different sex and ages.
21. First aider
  Gives the competitors the necessary first aid.
22. Black board officials

23. Wind Gauge Operator

 Operates the wind gauge and keeps records of wind direction throughout the
competition.
24. Team Manager
• In charge of his team.

 Ensures that all requirements are ready e.g. uniform, meals and transport.
• Keeps the team informed of what is going on e.g. events in progress and what to follow.

 Keeps the team psychologically motivated.

• In charge of the registration of the team at the time of competition.

 Launches any complaint on behalf of the team.

25. Chaperon
• In charge of ladies/female affairs
• Provide psychological boost and encouragement.
• Provide materials needed.
• Gives exercise for physical fitness.
• Gives skills to the athletes.
• Enhances maximum performance during competition.

26. Trainer/Coach
• Gives tactics to the athletes.
• Gives skills to the athletes.
• Enhances maximum performance during competition
• Their duty is mainly to discuss and solve disputes, objections or any other problem
that may arise in the course of the competition.
• To make final decisions in case the officials cannot solve out problems
27. Jury of appeal
• Consists of 3- 5 or 7 people.
• Their duty is mainly to discuss and solve disputes, protests, objections or any other
problem. that may arise in the course of the competition which are referred to them
for decision making.
• They make final decisions in case the officials cannot solve out a problems.

• Chairman of the meeting

• Chief track judge
• Chief field judge
• Clerk of the course/secretary of the organization.
• Referee of the meeting

• Match past.
• Theme of the sports i.e. our spirit in motion.