Transformers & Generators – BEE304

Module 4

Synchronous Generator Analysis

Two Reaction Theory of Salient Pole Alternator

In cylindrical rotor alternator (non salient pole), the air gap is uniform so that the reluctance of
the magnetic path is the same in all directions. Therefore, the effect of armature reaction can be
accounted for only one reactance called synchronous reactance. But in a non cylindrical rotor
(salient-pole) alternator, the air-gap is highly non-uniform. Consider a synchronous machine
having a 2-pole salient-pole rotor rotating in the anti-clockwise direction within a 2-pole stator,
as shown in Figure-1.
In Figure-1, the axis shown along the axis of the rotor is known as direct axis or d-axis and the
axis perpendicular to the d-axis is called quadrature axis or q-axis. It can be seen that the two
small air-gaps are involved in the path of d-axis flux (ϕd), thus the reluctance of the path is
minimum. The q-axis flux (ϕq) path has two large air-gaps and it is the path of maximum
reluctance.

If a lagging power factor load is connected to the alternator, an armature current (Ia) will flow.
The armature current (Ia) lags behind the excitation voltage (Ef) by an angle ψ. The armature
current (Ia) produces the stator MMF (Fs) which lags behind Ia by 90°. The stator MMF (Fs)
produces the stator magnetic field (Bs) along the direction of Fs.
According to Blondel’s Two Reaction Theory, the stator MMF (Fs) can be resolved into two
components viz. the direct-axis component (Fd) and the quadrature axis component (Fq).
𝑭𝒅
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 (∅𝒅 ) =
𝑹𝒅
𝑭𝒒
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 (∅𝒒 ) =
𝑹𝒒

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Where Fd - direct-axis component of mmf & Fq - quadrature axis component of mmf

𝑅𝑑 Reluctance of direct axis flux path & 𝑅𝑞 Reluctance of quadrature axis flux path
As, Rd < Rq, the direct axis component of MMF Fd produces more flux than the quadrature axis
component of the MMF. The fluxes of the direct and quadrature axis produce a voltage in the
windings of the stator by armature reaction.
 Ead be the direct axis component of the armature reaction voltage.
 Eaq be the quadrature axis component of the armature reaction voltage.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸𝑓 + 𝐸𝑎𝑑 + 𝐸𝑎𝑞
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 + 𝑗 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑
 Xad is the armature reaction reactance in the direct axis per phase.
 Xaq is the armature reaction reactance in the quadrature axis per phase.
The reactance Xd is known as the direct-axis synchronous reactance 𝑋𝑑 = 𝑋𝑙 + 𝑋𝑎𝑑
and the reactance Xq is called the quadrature-axis synchronous reactance 𝑋𝑞 = 𝑋𝑙 + 𝑋𝑎𝑞

Parallel Operation of Alternators

In practice, a very large number of 3-phase alternators operate in parallel because the various
power stations are interconnected through the national grid. Therefore, the output of any single
alternator is small compared with the total interconnected capacity.
The figure below shows an alternator (generator 2) being paralleled with a running power system
(generator 1). These two machines are about to synchronize for supplying power to a load.
Generator 2 is about to parallel with the help of a switch, S1. This switch should never be closed
without satisfying the above conditions.

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Advantages of Parallel Operation of Alternators

i) Continuity of service: The continuity of service is one of the important requirements of any
electrical apparatus. If one alternator fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained through
the other healthy units. This will ensure uninterrupted supply to the consumers.
(ii) Efficiency: The load on the power system varies during the whole day; being minimum
during die late night hours. Since alternators operate most efficiently when delivering full-load,
units can be added or put off depending upon the load requirement. This permits the efficient
operation of the power system.
(iii) Maintenance and repair: It is often desirable to carry out routine maintenance and repair of
one or more units. For this purpose, the desired unit/units can be shut down and the continuity of
supply is maintained through the other units.
(iv) Load growth: The load demand is increasing due to the increasing use of electrical energy.
The load growth can be met by adding more units without disturbing the original installation.
Conditions for Paralleling Alternator with Infinite Busbars
(i) The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator must be the same as busbars
voltage.
(ii) The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to the
busbars frequency.
(iii) The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the busbars
voltage. In other words, the two voltages must be in phase with each other.
(iv) The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same as that of
the busbars.
Load Sharing Between Two Alternators :

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Consider two alternators with identical speed-load characteristics running in parallel with a
common terminal voltage of V volt and load impedance Z.
E1 & E2 = Induced EMFs of alternators 1 and 2 respectively,
I1 & I2 = Respective currents, and
Z1 & Z2 = Respective phase impedances.

The terminal voltage V is given by,

V = E1 − I1 Z1 & V = E2 − I2 Z2
Load current I, is given by,
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐸1 − 𝑉 𝐸2 − 𝑉
𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 =
𝑍1 𝑍2

𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 𝐼1 𝑍1 − 𝐼2 𝑍2

From the above diagram, the terminal V is equal to IZ i.e., V = IZ. Therefore, the emf E1 induced
in the alternator 1 is,
𝐸1 = 𝑉 + 𝐼1 𝑍1
𝐸1 = 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼1 𝑍1
𝐸1 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑍 + 𝐼1 𝑍1
𝐸1 = 𝐼1 𝑍1 + 𝑍 + 𝐼2 𝑍 … … … … . (1)

Similarly,
𝐸2 = 𝐼2 𝑍2 + 𝑍 + 𝐼1 𝑍 … … … … . (2)
Solve equation (1) & (2),
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 𝑍 + 𝐸1 𝑍2
𝐼1 =
𝑍 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 𝑍2

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𝐸2 − 𝐸1 𝑍 + 𝐸2 𝑍1
𝐼2 =
𝑍 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 𝑍2
Circulating current,
𝐸1 − 𝐸2
𝐼𝑆𝑌 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2

Synchronization:
The process of switching of an alternator to another alternator or with a common bus bar without
any interruption is called synchronization. Many alternators and loads are connected into a grid,
and all the alternators in grid are having same output voltage and frequency (whatever may be
the power). It is also said that the alternator is connected to infinite bus-bar. An infinite bus bar is
one whose frequency & phase voltages remain unaffected by changes in the load condition.
Before connecting an alternator into grid, following conditions must be satisfied:
1. Equal voltage: The terminal voltage of incoming alternator must be equal to the bus-bar
voltage.
2. Same frequency: The frequency of generated voltage must be equal to the frequency of the
bus-bar voltage.
3. Phase sequence: The phase sequence of the three phases of alternator must be similar to
that of the grid or bus-bars.
The first condition of voltage equality can be satisfied by a voltmeter. To satisfy the conditions
of equal frequency and identical phases, one of the following two methods can be used:
(i) Synchronization using incandescent lamp
(ii) Synchronization using synchroscope

Synchronization of Alternator Using

Incandescent Lamp:
Let, alternator 2 is to be synchronized in a grid
and the alternator 1 is already in the grid as
shown in above figure. The alternator 2 is
connected to grid through three synchronizing
lamps (L1, L2 and L3) as shown in above
figure. If the speed of the alternator 2 is not such
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that the frequency of output voltage is equal to the frequency of the grid, there will also be a
phase difference in the voltages, and in this case the lamps will flicker. Three lamps are
connected asymmetrically, because if they were connected symmetrically, they would glow or
dark out simultaneously (if the phase rotation is same as that of bus-bars). Asymmetrically
connected lamps indicate whether the incoming machine is running slower or faster.

If the alternator 2 is running slower, the phase rotation of alternator 2 will appear to be
clockwise relative to the phase rotation of the grid and the lamps will light up in the order 3, 2, 1
: 3, 2, 1, …
If the alternator 2 is running faster, the phase rotation of alternator 2 will appear to be
anticlockwise relative to the phase rotation of the grid and the lamps will light up in the order
1,2,3;1,2,3....
When the speed of the alternator 2 reaches so that, the frequency and phase rotation of output
voltage is similar to that of the grid voltage, lamp L1 will go dark and lamps L2 and L3 will be
dim but equally glow (as they are connected between different phases and due to this there will
be phase difference of 120 degree). The synchronization is done at this very moment. This
method of synchronization is sometimes also known as 'two bright and one dark method'.

Drawbacks of synchronization using incandescent lamps method:

 Synchronization by using incandescent lamps depends on the correct judgement of the
operator.
 This method does not tell how slow or fast the machine is.
 To use this method for high voltage alternators, extra step down transformers need to be
added as ratings of lamps are normally low.
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Synchronization of Alternator Using Synchroscope

A synchroscope is a device which shows the correct instant of closing the synchronizing
switch. Synchroscope has a rotating pointer which indicates the exact moment of closing the
synchronizing switch. Any two bus bar lines are connected to the terminals of synchroscope
while its other terminals are corresponding lines of incoming machine. The phase sequence from
bus bar & the machine must be same. It can be checked with the help of phase sequence
indicator. The voltmeter can be used to check the equality of voltages of bus bar & incoming
machine.

If the pointer rotates in anticlockwise direction, it indicates that incoming machine is running
slow whereas clockwise rotation of pointer indicates that the machine is running fast. The
rotation of pointer is proportional to the difference in the two frequencies.
When the rotating pointer reaches the vertical position at slow speed, the switch must be closed.
The pointer will oscillate about some mean position instead of rotating if difference frequency is
large. In such cases the speed of incoming machine is adjusted properly.

Synchronizing Power:
When two alternators are operating in parallel, each machine has an inherent tendency to remain
synchronized. Consider two similar single-phase alternators 1 and 2 operating in parallel at no-
load. Suppose, due to any reason, the speed of machine 2 decreases. This will cause E2 to fall
back by a phase angle of a electrical degrees as shown in Fig. b. (though still E1 = E2). Within
the local circuit formed by two alternators, the resultant e.m.f. Er is the phasor difference E1 -

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E2. This resultant e.m.f. results in the production of synchronizing current Isy which sets up
synchronizing torque. The synchronizing torque retards machine 1 and accelerates machine 2 so
that synchronism is reestablished. The power associated with synchronizing torque is called
synchronizing power. Machine 1 is generating and machine 2 is motoring. The power supplied
by machine 1 is called synchronizing power. Referring to Fig. b we have,
Synchronizing power, 𝑃𝑆𝑌 = 𝐸1 𝐼𝑆𝑌 𝐶𝑂𝑆 (𝜑1 )
𝑃𝑆𝑌 = 𝐸1 𝐼𝑆𝑌 𝐶𝑂𝑆 90 − 𝜃 = 𝐸1 𝐼𝑆𝑌 𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝜃
𝑃𝑆𝑌 = 𝐸1 𝐼𝑆𝑌 𝑆𝐼𝑁 90 = 𝐸1 𝐼𝑆𝑌

The synchronizing power goes to supply power input to machine 2 and the Cu losses in the local
circuit of the two machines.

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Power Angle Characteristics for Non Salient Pole Alternator:

Power Angle Characteristics is the plot of power output (P) versus the power angle(𝜹 ).
The power output of an alternator is given by:
𝑬𝑽
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑷 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜹
𝑿𝑺
𝟑𝑬𝑽
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜹
𝑿𝑺
𝟑𝑬𝑽
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷𝒎 =
𝑿𝑺

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Figure: Power angle characteristics of Non Salient Pole Alternator

Note that power output varies sinusoidally with power angle 𝜹. Figure shows the power angle
characteristic of the alternator. The alternator delivers maximum power when 𝜹 = 90°.
If 𝜹 becomes greater than 90°, the machine will lose synchronism. The machine can be taken
upto Pm only by gradually increasing the load. This is known as steady state stability limit. The
dotted portion of the curve refers to unstable operation, i.e., machine loses synchronism.
Salient Pole Alternator:
𝑬𝒐 𝑽 𝑉 2 𝑋𝑑 − 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑑 = sin 𝛿 + sin 2𝛿
𝑿𝒅 2𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑒𝑚 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑬𝒐 𝑽
𝑃𝑒𝑚 = sin 𝛿
𝑿𝒅
𝑉 2 𝑋𝑑 − 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = sin 2𝛿
2𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
 In Salient pole alternator power is more.
 Salient pole alternator is more stable as small change in is required to supply for extra
load compared to cylindrical rotor machine.

Figure: Power Angle Characteristics of Salient Pole Alternator

Reluctance power:
The power obtained with zero excitation is called reluctance power. It should be noted that
reluctance power is independent of the excitation.
Power Developed in Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator: If we neglect armature resistance Ra
(and hence Cu loss), then power developed (Pd) by an alternator is equal to the power output

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(Pout). Figure shows the phasor diagram of the salient-pole synchronous generator. The per
phase power output of the alternator is, Pout = Pd = VIa cosϕ

From the phasor diagram,

𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜑 = 𝐼𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 sin 𝛿
𝐸𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑
𝐸𝑜 − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
∴ 𝐼𝑑 =
𝑋𝑑
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞
∴ 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑉 𝐼𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 sin 𝛿
Substituting the values of 𝐼𝑞 & 𝐼𝑑 on simplifying,
𝑬𝒐 𝑽 𝑉 2 𝑋𝑑 − 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑑 = sin 𝛿 + sin 2𝛿
𝑿𝒅 2𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
The total power developed would be three times the above power. The following points may be
noted:
(i) If there is no saliency, Xd = Xq
𝑬𝒐 𝑽
𝑃𝑑 = sin 𝛿 − − − − − 𝑬𝒙𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑿𝒅
(ii) The second term in the above equation, introduces the effect of salient poles. It represents the
reluctance power i.e., power due to saliency.
(iii) If E0 = 0, then
𝑉 2 𝑋𝑑 − 𝑋𝑞
𝑃𝑑 = sin 2𝛿 − − − − − 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
2𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞

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Capability Curve for large Turbo Generator

Capability Curve of Generator defines the boundaries within which it can deliver reactive power
continuously without overheating. It is also known as Operating Charts or Capability
Charts. Generator rating is specified in terms of MVA and power factor at a particular terminal
voltage. Active power delivered by generator is only limited by the power delivering capability
of turbine. But the reactive power which a generator can deliver continuously without over
heating is governed by three limits: Armature Current Limit, Field Current Limit and End Part
Heating Limit.
i) Armature Current Limit: Armature current is the load current in the stator winding. Let the
armature current is I. This current will lead to heating of stator winding due to ohmic loss I2R in
the resistance of stator winding. This means that, a constraint is put by the limit of cooling of
generator stator winding. Ideally there is a balance between the heat produced by I2R loss and
cooling of stator winding. But if the
heating of stator winding is more than
its cooling then it will lead to excessive
heating and consequent damage to
armature of generator.
ii) Field Current Limit: A maximum
limit on the value of field current is
imposed by the heating in the field
winding due to If2R loss where R is
the resistance of field winding. This
means that generator can only supply /
absorb a fixed maximum value of
reactive power.
iii) End Part Heating Limit: End part heating puts a limit on generator reactive power when
machine is operating under leading power factor condition. Leading power factor means, the
machine is under excited, therefore field current will increase to meet the required working flux.
This will cause more end flux in the machine which will link with the stator lamination to cause
eddy current heating.
Following points can be observed and noted from the capability curve:

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1) Armature heating and field heating limits are shown by curve QR and QT respectively. Both
these curve cut at point Q which means the generator shall be operated at this point under
lagging load condition.
2) End part heating is shown by curve RS for leading load condition. It shall be noted that
armature heating limit and end part heating limit curves cut each other at point R. This point is
the point of operation of generator under leading load condition.
3) Generator operation shall always be confined within the capability curve at all the time else it
may damage due to overheating.
4) Capability Curve is supplied by the manufacturer and works as a guideline for operator of
generator.
5) Capability Curve is all about heating of different parts. This means that if the cooling of
machine is increased then the limits of generator operation will also increase. This means the
individual limits will increase and the operation boundary will broaden.

Hunting and Damper Windings:

When an alternator or synchronous generator is running under normal condition, the armature
field and the rotor magnetic field will be rotating in the same direction at synchronous speed.
When either a sudden change in the load of the alternator or a change in the torque of turbine
occurs, then the speed of the rotor decreases with respect to that of armature (or stator) field by
some angle called as load angle. Once this happens, the alternator rotor starts to hunt, i.e., search
for a new equilibrium position. Although the rotor has high inertia, it cannot achieve its final
position instantaneously and hence the rotor starts oscillating. This process of oscillating of the
rotor to obtain its new equilibrium position is called as hunting.
In other words, when the driving torque applied to an alternator is pulsating such that produced
by a diesel engine, then the rotor of the alternator may be pulled periodically ahead of or behind
the normal position as it rotates. This oscillating action of the alternator rotor is known
as hunting.
Effect of Hunting in Alternator:
An alternator will not operate satisfactorily in parallel with the others due to hunting. The effect
of hunting causes the alternators to shift the load from one to another. In some cases, the
oscillation of power becomes cumulative and violent enough to cause the alternator to pull out of
synchronism.

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In salient-pole type alternator, the effect of hunting can be reduced by providing damper
winding. The damper winding consists of short-circuited copper bars which are embedded in the
pole faces as shown in the figure.

When hunting occurs in the alternator, the shifting of armature flux takes place across the pole
faces, thereby inducing currents in the damper winding. According to Lenz’s law, the induced
current in the winding opposes the cause that produces it. Therefore, the hunting action is
opposed and reduced by the flow of induced currents in the damper winding.
The following points may be noted:
(i) Hunting generally occurs in alternators driven by engines because the driving torque of
engines is not uniform.
(ii) Alternators driven by steam turbines generally do not have a tendency to hunt since the
torque applied does not pulsate.
(iii) In cylindrical rotor machines, the damper windings are generally not used. It is because the
solid rotor provides considerable damping.
(iv) Under normal running condition damper winding does not carry any current because rotor
runs at synchronous speed.

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