RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Cities of Mandaluyong and Pasig

SESSION NO. / WEEK 3

MODULE 2: TECHNICAL WRITING

1. What is Technical Writing?

2. Big Picture: Defining the Writing Situation
3. CMAPP Model
4. Ethics
5. Intercultural Communication
6. Tips for Communication Across Cultures

Overview

This module presents the definition and nature of technical writing—giving

you easy access to information by formatting and using language as related to
technical writing. It describes the writing situation and the factor that ties all technical
communication together – Ethics.
Effective technical writers must learn to employ informed and flexible
processes for writing and speaking, including finding or creating ideas about which to
write, collecting evidence and essential data, planning and drafting, editing and
proofreading, and designing or presenting a message meant for specific readers. All
of this requires technical writers to analyze different aspects of audience, purpose,
and context to convey information clearly and efficiently in written, oral, and visual
media.

Study Guide

To carefully understand this module, you are instructed to read this module
thoroughly to be enlightened more of the discussion.
Furthermore, an activity is provided at the end of this module to assess your
learning.

Learning Outcomes

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At the end of the module, you will be able to:

1. Define and understand the nature of Technical Writing

2. Identify the proper ethical practices
3. Write an ethical report

Topic Presentation

WHAT IS TECHNICAL WRITING?

Technical writing is direct, informative, clear, and concise language written

specifically for an identified audience. The content must be accurate and complete
with no exaggerations. To deliver the intended message, the text must be objective
and persuasive without being argumentative.
Technical writing can really be considered transactional writing because there
are two people or groups involved in the communication. One party has a clear goal
to inform or persuade the other party. This is real-world writing in every sense. You
may not be aware of how much it already impacts your world through textbooks,
instructions, web sites, and communications from many businesses and service
organizations.
Developing technical documents that meet these requirements and standard
guidelines is time consuming. This section provides an overview of those standards
and a process for create interesting, informative text. Before composing the text,
identify the audience, determine the message, collect adequate information,
brainstorm, and then develop a detailed outline. Details of each process are provided
below.
1. Identify the audience by answering the following questions:
Who is the intended audience (one or multiple)?
What subject knowledge, vocabulary, and biases will the intended audience
have?
How will the report be used?
What information must be conveyed and how much detail will be expected?
2. Determine the purpose of the report by evaluating the intended
message. A clear message will help focus on what to include and what to
discard.
3. Collect adequate relevant information with sufficient depth for the
intended audience before starting to write.
4. Brainstorm by listing relevant ideas. Then group related thoughts
together. Organize the key points and supporting details in a logical order.
Ensure that each section relates to and supports the message, eliminating
irrelevant ideas.
5. Develop an outline of heading and subheadings that convey key
points.

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BIG PICTURE: DEFINING THE WRITING SITUATION

Most novice writers focus on the end results of effective writing, but
experienced writers start with asking questions. Finding the right questions to ask is
the purpose of this section of the chapter. Technical communication isn't just one kind
of writing. You'll have to make choices and alter your style, the information you
include, the complexity of the information, and your tone (as well as a host of
other elements) depending on the writing situation.
This text uses the CMAPP model developed by communication scholars.
This model will help you ask the important questions that ultimately shape your
communication. CMAPP stands for context, message, audience, purpose, and
product. Communicators must think about and respond to each of these factors
appropriately.
The CMAPP method is difficult to master at first because all the factors must
be taken into account at once. You must remember the context, message,
audience, purpose, and product at every step in your writing process. The
different elements of CMAPP may often overlap; questions like, "What is my
audience's background knowledge on this subject?" pertain to context and audience,
but knowing where the elements differ-to be sure you're asking all the necessary
questions-will set you apart as an extremely effective technical communicator.

CONTEXT
The context refers to the circumstances that surround communication.
There are several factors you should consider:

• Economic context: Trends in the local and national economy could affect
your readers' attitudes toward your communication. For example, a limited
budget may be a large factor in reader decision-making, and those concerns
should be reflected in your communication.

• Physical context: The physical locations where your readers will interact
with you or your document.
• Ethical context: Any ethical or legal issues that affect the communication.
• Political context: Relevant laws or attitudes of stakeholders char affect your
communication. This may only apply in some situations, bur when it does, you
should be aware of your message’s political implications and read carefully.

Let's look at one example of how context can affect the writing situation:

Laboratory technician, Ralph Greene, was asked to write an instructional

poster detailing thorough cleaning procedures in his lab. Because he knew that the
poster would be high on the wall and above a large sink where readers couldn't get
close to it, Ralph designed the poster with large words and pictures to illustrate them.
His coworkers appreciated that Ralph accounted for the physical context in which

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they'd interact with the poster because they could read it and follow the instructions
from almost anywhere in the room.

MESSAGE

When we talk about the message of your communication, we're referring to its
content. Recognizing your message and being able to formulate it concisely in your
head before attempting to communicate it is essential in technical communication. A
message can be long or short. The longer the message, however, the more important
it is to communicate it clearly. Long, rambling paragraphs can distort the meaning of
a message, as well as bore or confuse your audience. You can be sure your
audience is missing the message if they ask, "What’s your point?" You begin to avoid
this common problem by understanding your own point as the first seep in crafting
your message. It can also help you decide the best way to communicate it.

Hillary Small wanted to draft a message to her employees about the

importance of workplace safety. Recently, there had been a few different incidents
regarding working with chemicals without protective gear, clothing getting stuck in
machinery, and lifting heavy pallets without a forklift, resulting in a strained back and
a compensation claim. Hillary began to create a presentation on safety. She made
slides on using step stools or ladders to reach high objects, exercising caution
around heavy machinery, and lifting correctly. But she still felt frustrated.
Hillary decided to take a closer look at what message she wanted to share.
After half an hour with pen and paper, Hillary realized that what she wanted to
communicate to her employees was to use common sense and that she cared about
them and wanted them to be safe. Instead of using slides, Hillary asked Mark, a
maintenance staff member, to do a funny skit about using common sense to be safe
at work. Everyone laughed and the mood was light as Hillary then expressed concern
for her employees and her wish for them to be happy and safe. Because Hillary took
time to figure out what her real message was, her employees felt valued and a few of
them even came up afterward to thank her for being such a kind and caring
employer.

AUDIENCE
The needs of your audience will determine many of your choices as you
communicate technical information. You can expect your documents to be read by
four types of audiences:

 Primary readers: These readers are your intended audience. Generally, the
information you provide will allow them to make decisions or make action, so
you must understand why they want to receive your technical communication
and what they'll do with it. These readers may have any level of technical
expertise.

 Secondary readers: These readers may not be your intended audience, but
they'll often read your documents and advise primary readers in how they

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should approach your communication. They're usually experts in their field

and will know what to look for, good or bad, in your communication.

 Tertiary readers: As the name suggests, these are third-party readers who
are unassociated with you as the creator of a document, or with the primary
audience of the document. These individuals search for problems in your
technical writing. They can be journalists, activists, auditors, or competitors of
your primary readers. They often are motivated to protect themselves or
others from inaccurate information, incomplete logic, or unethical practices
that could occur in documents they examine.

 Gatekeepers: These readers review technical communication before it

reaches the primary readers. They could be individuals who advocate for you
or for another party. Typically, your own supervisor will act as gatekeeper, but
other administrators or lawyers from your organization may need to approve
your documents as well. Gatekeepers' interests lie in protecting you and your
organization from ethical or legal problems, as well as ensuring that the
information communicated is accurate and effective.

It's your responsibility as the sender of the message to initiate a clear channel to your
readers. It's your job as the technical writer to anticipate the questions your audience
will have and answer them before they're asked. Lastly, while remaining objective, it's
essential that you represent all sides of a situation truthfully.

PURPOSE
The purpose of technical communication varies by the document. According
to tradition, communication can serve three general purposes: to instruct, persuade,
and to delight. For technical communication, we might add to define, to inform, to
explain, and to propose.
 To instruct
Most of the time you'll aim to reach or inform your audience about a
technical subject; use clear, precise language to ensure readers correctly
interpret your text. Anticipate questions or confusion and overcome those issues
beforehand by changing your wording, including a definition, or explaining in
more detail.
 To persuade
You can think of writing with persuasion as employing three writing
moves. First, you begin with good reasons the audience should think, do, or
believe what you want them to think, do, or believe. Second, you provide critical
information that they need to understand your reasons. Third, you end with what
good things will result from them thinking, doing, or believing this new way. This
persuasive strategy can help you organize different parts of your writing, at the
paragraph and document level.
 To delight
Technical writing can delight by being as useful and informative as
possible. When you conform to technical conventions and provide a useful

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resource to your audience, you can provide a kind of delight in the practicality
and effectiveness of your communication. Your readers can admire your work
as being highly useful in solving the problems they face.
While taking these traditional purposes into account, an important
element to remember is that you understand the driving force behind your
particular communication-that is, what real-life problem needs to be solved
with your document? What's the issue at hand? What's the situation that
requires you to respond?

PRODUCT
The product refers to the form that your communication takes, both to the
type of document (proposal, email, report, and so on) and the mode of
communication (written, oral, visual, or any combination of the three).

ETHICS
The factor that ties all technical communication together is ethics. No matter
the genre, audience, or purpose, you must be ethical. Ethics affect colleagues, the
company, and customers. Unethical behavior can lead to legal and other
consequences, including loss of personal credibility, your job, and future
opportunities.

SIX ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

 Legality
 Honesty
 Confidentiality
 Quality
 Fairness
 Professionalism

These principles apply as you write and also essential as you complete any
professional task or interact with colleagues and clients.

 LEGALITY
Plagiarism is a violation of the law. Plagiarism can be committed by either
directly taking credit for work you didn't do, or by failing to give credit to the
person or group who did the work. To protect yourself and your organization from
plagiarism claims and also to avoid hurting someone whose work may have
assisted you, it's always better to over-cite than to under-cite. If you got an idea
from reading someone else's work, include a reference to it in your sources or
notes.

 HONESTY
Leaving out the negative parts of customer reviews if you're using quotes
on a webpage, for example, is unethical. Every company wants to present the
best view of themselves, but if you have to heavily edit someone's review for

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content before placing it on the page, it's ethical to find a different, positive review
rather than changing the meaning of what a client meant to express.
The concept of going "off the record" can be tricky to negotiate. If an
employer or colleague asks you to go off the record, let them know your personal
ethics or values and that you won't bend any rules or break any laws to protect the
company or anyone inside it.

 CONFIDENTIALITY
You may often be responsible to protect the private information-and
sometimes even the identity-of clients and organizations for whom you work.
Protect this information by nor discussing it with others who don't have a
legitimate need to know, publishing it online, or distributing it in any other
form.

 QUALITY
Ethical behavior includes doing your best work. Referred to as "taking
pride in your work”, the characteristic of doing your best in all circumstances
is part of workplace ethics and will earn you the loyalty and respect of
coworkers and employers.

 FAIRNESS
If you hear gossip around the office, resist passing it on (in written or
other communication), as this can potentially open you up to harassment in
the best-case scenario or to charges of libel and slander if the gossip
becomes more serious.
If there were rumors circulating about you, you'd want people to give
you the benefit of the doubt. Extend the same courtesy to them and respond
with fairness by refusing to pass gossip on verbally or through emails or
memos to coworkers and others.

 PROFESSIONALISM
Professionalism can refer to the amount of rime char you lee pass
before responding to an email or phone call. It manifests in the way you
handle disappointment on the job or when someone is rude to you.
Another mark of professionalism is how you refer to people who are
different from you. There's no excuse for discriminatory language in the
workplace, and some organizations have a "one strike and you're out" policy.
It's inappropriate to refer to a person or a group of people with any terms
related to their race, ethnicity, religion, gender, age, or sexual orientation.
If you are talking about someone who holds a title that's historically
gendered, choose a gender-neutral title instead (for example, "salesperson''
instead of “salesman"). As laws and policies change on the best way to refer
to people, stay educated and make a commitment to do your best to avoid
offensive terms and apologize if you offend unintentionally.

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Communicating across cultures is a skill- a skill that not everyone has, but
that everyone can develop. Developing this skill - the ability to communicate and
engage appropriately with people from various cultural and language backgrounds -
is becoming increasingly viral in our globalized society.

Intercultural communication is fundamentally the phenomena whereby people

from different cultures engage in a symbolic process to create shared meanings
(Sadri and Flammia 10). In other words, intercultural communication happens any
time that people who identify with different bur equally valid internally cohesive
groups-cultures-attempt to exchange meaning with each other.

The difficulties with intercultural communication generally stem from the

tendency of the members of different cultural groups to assume that their behaviors,
traditions, and beliefs are "normal" or superior when compared to the conflicting
behaviors, traditions, and beliefs of other cultural groups. For most, it takes
conscious training and repeated exposure to different perspectives to learn to "go
beyond our initial perceptions of our own culture-whichever culture that may be-as
the one right way of being in the world" (Sadri and
Flammia 34).

TIPS FOR COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES

In addition to becoming aware of and embracing cultural differences, there
are some practical tips that can help those of different cultures to interact
successfully through oral, written, and visual communication. To master these tips,
it's first essential to consider the medium of communication: the English language.
Keeping the international nature of the language in the back of your mind,
with an eye to an audience of second-language learners, will help you engage more
successfully with various intercultural audiences. The following are some tips that
can help you do this:
 Use simple grammatical structures.
Avoid complex sentence structures when possible, such as passive voice,
cleft sentences ("it was your sister whom I called"), existential clauses (beginning
with "there is" or "there are"), conditionals, and so on. Whenever possible, use simple
subject-verb-object sentence structures.
 Use high frequency words.
 Avoid figurative language, idioms, jargons, and slang.
 Look for common scripts.
 Focus on body language
 Use universal images and symbols.
 Listen and ask questions.

In any technical communication situation-before you draft an email, write a

document, or create a presentation-take time to consider the implications and be
deliberate about following ethical principles.

Guided Exercises / Learning Activities

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ACTIVITY NO. 1
Research online for a technical document, such as a report, proposal,
literature review, or cover letter. Write a brief, one-page analysis of the document in
which you discuss what you can observe or imply about the document regarding
each of the elements of the CMAPP model.

Below is the criteria for scoring your output:

 CONTENT – 35 points
 ORGANIZATION - 15 points
___________
50 points
Save your work in a word file or PDF format then upload it on the posted
classwork in the google classroom.

Assessment

Each year, the John J. Reilly Center for Science, Technology, and Values at
the University of Notre Dame releases a list of the top ten ethical dilemmas in
Science and Technology. Research your chosen issue and compose a one-page
mem to your instructor about how you’d solve the ethical challenge. Include at least
two of the six ethical principles as you write your report.
The list of top ten ethical dilemmas are as follows:
1. The datafication of children
2. Pet cloning
3. DIY Neurohacking
4. Sidewalk Labs
5. Insect Allies
6. Autonomous Translation
7. Behavioral Biometrics
8. 5G
9. The Suicide Machine
10. Seeding trials

Below is the criteria for scoring your output:

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 CONTENT – 35 points
 ORGANIZATION - 15 points
___________
50 points
Save your work in a word file or PDF format then upload it on the posted
classwork in the google classroom.

References

Baker, W. (2015). Culture and identity through English as a Lingua Franca:

Rethinking concepts and goals in intercultural communication. Boston,
Massachusetts: De Gruyter, Inc.
Ethical Principles of Society for Technical Communicators. [Link]
stc/ ethical-principles/.

Rosaldo, R. I. (2006). Foreword: Defining culture. In J. R. Baldwin, S. L. Faulkner, M.

L. Hecht, & S. L. Lindsley (Eds.). Redefining culture: Perspectives across the
disciplines (pp. ix-xiii). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.

Sadri H. A. & Flammia M. (2011). Intercultural communication: A new approach to

international relations and global challenges. New York: The Continuum International
Publishing Group.

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