Location and function series by Smita Agrawal (09996648021)

Structure Diagram

Centrosome- Near the nucleus in animal cells

.
Function- Helps in spindle formation.

Centromere -Connects two sister chromatids

Function- Helps to separate sister chromatids
during anaphase

Cell membrane- Outermost in an animal

cell,lies next to the cell wall in a plant cell.
Function - Regulates the entry of certain
solutes and ions.
Maintains shape of the animal cell.

Cell wall - Outermost membrane in plant cell

Function - Allows substances in solution to
enter and leave the cell without hindrance.
Gives rigidity and shape to the plant cell.
Provides protection.

Chloroplast - In the cytoplasm of plant

cells/mesophyll cells//guard cells of stomata.

Function- Trap solar energy.

Thylakoid - Stack of flattened sac
Grana- Pile of Thylakoid
Function- Site of light reaction

Stroma- Colourless matrix

Function- Site of dark reaction
Chromatin Fiber - In the nucleoplasm in
interphase.
Carries hereditary information or genes.
Consist of Histone protein and DNA
During cell division, these fibres condense
and form chromosomes. Chromatin fibres
carry genes and play an important role in
inheritance and regulation of cell activities.

Vacuoles - Clear spaces in the cytoplasm with

water or other substances in solution.
Function-Gives turgidity to plant cells by
pressing against the cell wall. Storage of water
and other substances, food, pigments, and
waste products.

Lenticels -On the surfaces of woody

stems/old stems.
Function- Diffusion of gases for respiration.
Additionally helps in Transpiration.
Stomata (singular: stoma) are tiny pores,
usually on epidermis of leaves, regulated
by guard cells
Function- that control gas exchange for
photosynthesis and water vapor
(transpiration).

They open during the day to allow

photosynthesis and close at night to
conserve water, adjusting to light,
humidity, and water availability.

Hydathodes -On the margins of leaves

Tips of veins in a leaf.
Function -Helps in Guttation or exudation
due to high Root pressure or in absence of
transpiration.
Guttation is the process of loss of impure
water (a dilute solution of different organic
and inorganic substances)

Cuticle Waxy layer on the surfaces of

leaves.
Function- Being transparent allows
sunlight to reach the mesophyll of leaves.
Prevents evaporation of water from leaf
surface.
Mesophyll = Palisade + Spongy

The palisade layer is composed of regularly

arranged and closely packed columnar
(vertically elongated) cells. The cells contain
the largest number of chloroplasts per cell. As
the layer is immediately beneath the upper
epidermis, it is in the best position to capture
most of the sunlight and this enables it to carry
out most of the photosynthesis.

Pocket shaped valves- In the lumen of the

veins
Function Maintains unidirectional blood flow
towards the heart.

●​ Same valve present in lymph vessel.

●​ Heart is present above the wall

Antigen - on the surface of RBC

Antibody - in plasma

RBC- In blood Plasma ,carry respiratory

gases .

WBC - In blood Plasma, Provide immunity by

producing antibodies, antitoxin &
phagocytosis.

Platelets - In blood Plasma, Blood clotting

Pericardium & Pericardial fluid -
A covering surrounding the heart.
Fluid - between two pericardial membranes.

Function- Protect heart from mechanical

injury.
Pericardial fluid -Reduce friction during Heart
beat

Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Located in the

upper right atrium, it generates the
electrical impulse.

Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Situated

between the atria and ventricles, it
receives the signal from SA Node.

Bundle of His (AV Bundle): A collection

of fibers that carries the impulse from the
AV node down the interventricular septum,

Purkinje Fibers: A network of specialized

cells that rapidly distribute the electrical
impulse throughout the ventricular causing
ventricular contraction
AV Node - Near the interauricular septum/
near tricuspid valve/floor of the right atrium.
Function-
Electrically connects right atrium and right
ventricle/ carries impulse to ventricles through
Bundle of HIS and Purkinje fibres for
ventricular contraction.

Septum - Between the left and right heart

chambers
Function- Prevents the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood from mixing.

Tricuspid Valve- Present at the aperture

between Right auricle and Right ventricle
Function- Prevents backflow of blood from
right ventricle to right auricle.
Bicuspid valve- Between left atrium & left
ventricle

Coronary artery- Arises from base of Aorta to

the walls of heart

Function- Provides oxygenated blood to the

heart muscles

If the coronary arteries are blocked, the heart

muscles do not receive sufficient oxygen,
which may lead to a heart attack (cardiac
arrest).
Pulmonary semi lunar valve - At opening of
right ventricle into pulmonary artery,
Function- Prevent backflow of blood from
Pulmonary artery to right ventricle

Aortic semi lunar valve - At the point of

origin of aorta from left ventricle
Location- ,Prevent backflow of blood from
aorta to left ventricle

Hepatic portal vein- From capillaries of gut

to capillaries of liver
Function- Detoxify wastes: Regulate quantity
of nutrients in tthe general blood circulation
 Spleen- Behind stomach above left kidney in
abdomen

Function - The spleen is a large lymphatic organ.

The spleen acts as a blood reservoir in case of
emergency such as haemorrhage, stress or
poisoning. It produces lymphocytes and destroys
worn out [Link] reservoir;

Kidney-Either side of backbone protected by

last two ribs
Function - The kidneys are vital excretory
organs that filter blood to remove
nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid.
They help in the regulation of water balance,
salt (ion) balance, and blood pH, thereby
maintaining homeostasis. Kidneys also help
in regulating blood pressure and produce
hormones such as erythropoietin, which
stimulates red blood cell formation.

Ureter- Arises from hilum in the median

surface of each kidney & connects
behind with the urinary bladder at the
lower abdomen

Function - Conducts urine from kidney to

urinary bladder

Pelvis- Funnel shaped expanded end of

ureter in kidney.
Collects urine from collecting tubules
Glomerulus-In Bowman’s capsule
Function- The main function of the
glomerulus is to filter plasma to produce
glomerular filtrate, which passes down the
length of the nephron tubule to form urine. It
is concerned mainly with the process of
ultrafiltration.

Hilum- Notch in median surface of kidney.

Renal artery enters & ,Renal vein, Ureter
arises from hilum

Urinary bladder- In the lower abdomen just

above & behind the pubic bone

Function- Urine stored temporarily till it is

expelled

Urethra- Opening of urinary bladder through a

tube to outside the body
PCT- Between the Loop of Henle and
Bowman's capsule in the renal cortex.

Function- Selective reabsorption, two third of

water and much of Glucose is reabsorbed.

Loop of Henle- Renal medulla, between PCT

and [Link] in Some absorption of water
and sodium ion.

DCT- Between Loop of Henle and collecting

Duct in Renal Cortex. Helps in Tubular
secretion and reabsorption of remaining
chlorides and some water.

Dendrite- Cytoplasmic projections of cell body

of [Link]- Picks up nerve impulses
Myelin sheath- Covering of axon, Insulates
axon, protects axon, allows impulse to move
faster.
Synapse- Junctional gap between axon
endings of neuron and dendrite of another
neuron.
Function- Impulse transmission from one
axon ending to dendrite of the next neuron.

Duramater- outermost toughest layer,

meaning "Provide protection.
Arachnoid Mater: The middle, thin,
web-like layer, meaning "spider-like". It
forms the subarachnoid space with the pia
mater, which is filled with CSF.

Pia Mater: The innermost, delicate layer,.

It's rich in blood vessels and adheres
directly to the brain and spinal cord.
 Hypothalamus- Forebrain/Below thalamus
in diencephalon Control body temperature &
pituitary gland, anger, hunger, thirst.
Pons- Centre of brain below
cerebellum,Transmits impulses between two
hemispheres of cerebellum to coordinate
muscular activities on both sides
Mid brain- Small tubular part of the brain
between fore brain and hind brain.
Function- Control reflexes involving eye
and ear.

Cerebrum- In the forebrain inside the skull.

Controls all voluntary actions, thinking,
reasoning, inventing, plan, memory.
Cerebellum- Just at the base of the brain
under the [Link] muscular
activity and maintain the body balance,

Medulla oblongata-Base of skull, lowest

portion of the [Link] activities of
internal organ and other involuntary
[Link]- Forebrain/ Diencephalon
,Relay pain and pressure from body parts to
cerebrum

Corpus callosum- Sheet of nerve fibre

connecting two cerebral hemispheres./

Function- Transfers impulses from the right

cerebral hemisphere to the left cerebral
hemisphere and vice versa
 Lobes in brain -

●​ Frontal Lobe: reasoning, planning,

Parietal- touch, temperature, pain,
●​ Occipital-Vision
●​ Temporal -Auditory

Autonomic nervous system

Pair of chains of nerves and ganglia on

either side of the back bone.
Function- Prepares the body for violent
actions and also brings the body back to
normal once the action is over.
Note- The sympathetic nervous system
inhibits urination.

Cerebrospinal fluid - between meninges

Function- Acts like a cushion or protects
CNS from injury by absorbing mechanical
shock/ forms a medium for exchange of
nutrients, wastes and respiratory gases.
Lacrimal gland-Upper sideward portion of
orbit, Secrete tear for eye protection. Tears
containing Lysozyme act as antiseptic.

why we feel a bitter or medicinal taste in

the throat after using eye drops

1.​ Eye drops are put into the eye.

2.​ Excess drops drain through the
nasolacrimal duct.
3.​ The duct opens into the nasal cavity.
4.​ From the nose, the liquid moves to the
throat.

Yellow spot- Back of eye almost at centre, on

eyeball’s,horizontal axis on retina.

Function- Area of best vision due to

maximum number of cone cells.

Blind spot- Lateral to yellow spot on nasal

side of retina. Point of origin of optic nerve,
area of no vision.

Lens- Just behind the pupil in front of vitreous

Helps in Refraction of light & focusing image
on retina

Ciliary body- part of the choroid, lies at the

junction of choroid and iris Alter the shape of
the lens as per the distance of the object/
Suspensory ligament- Hold the eye lens in
position.
Iris- Extension of choroid -Impart colour to
eye,control size of pupil.
Pupil- Aperture between iris ,allows light to
pass.
Aqueous Chamber- Front chamber in the eye
ball between the lens and cornea.

Function- Filled with aqueous humour which

keeps the lens moist/ helps to refract light and
also absorbs shock

Conjunctiva- Continues with the inner lining

of eyelids,over cornea Eye layer protection

Sclera- the outermost layer, tough, white

protective covering that maintains the shape
of the eyeball and provides attachment to the
eye muscles.

Choroid- The middle layer, lies between the

sclera and the retina; it is rich in blood
vessels, supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
eye, and prevents internal reflection of light
due to melanin pigment.

Retina- The innermost layer which is

light-sensitive and contains rods and cones.
The retina receives light rays and converts
them into nerve impulses that are transmitted
to the brain, enabling vision.
Vitreous Chamber- Large cavity between
lens and retina Filled with vitreous humour.

Function- to maintain the shape of the eye

ball and protects the retina and also
nourishes the inside eye.

Ear drum- Between auditory canal & ear

ossicles, Convert sound waves to sound
vibrations.

Ear ossicles- Middle ear, between ear drum &

oval window, Amplifying sound waves by their
lever like movement & transmits vibration to
oval window

Eustachian tube- Connects middle ear cavity

with pharynx, Equalizes air pressure on either
side of ear drum,allowing it to vibrate freely
Cochlea- Inner ear, Helps in hearing
,Converts sound vibrations into nerve impulse
Organ of Corti- Middle canal of Cochlea,
Function- Helps in hearing ,Converts sound
vibrations into/nerve impulse

Membranous labyrinth - It is filled with a fluid

called endolymph .
Utricle, saccule, - help maintain static
balance.
Semicircular canal- dynamic equilibrium,
allowing the body to sense position and
movement.
Auditory nerves - carry impulses from ear to
brain.

The adrenal glands are a pair of small,

triangular glands located on top of each
kidney. They secrete hormones such as
adrenaline, cortisol, and aldosterone, which
help the body respond to stress, regulate
metabolism, maintain blood pressure, and
balance water and salts in the body.
Adrenal cortex- cortisone hormone
(Glucocorticoid,Mineralocorticoid,Androgen)
Adrenal Medulla- Adrenaline ,noradrenaline
The pancreas is a long, leaf-shaped gland
located behind the stomach in the abdomen. It
has dual functions: as an exocrine gland, it
secretes digestive enzymes (amylase, trypsin,
lipase) as an endocrine gland, it releases
hormones like insulin and glucagon into the
blood to regulate blood sugar levels.
Insulin-beta cells of langerhans
Glucagon- Alpha cells

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped

endocrine gland located in the front of the
neck, just below the larynx and on either side
of the trachea. It secretes the hormone
thyroxine, which regulates the body’s
metabolism, controls growth and
development, and helps maintain normal body
temperature and energy levels.
Testes – Located in the scrotum; produce
sperms and the hormone testosterone.​

Scrotum – External pouch below the

abdomen; keeps testes at a lower temperature
for sperm production.​

Epididymis – Coiled tube on the surface of

each testis; stores and allows maturation of
sperms.​

Vas deferens (sperm duct) – Tube from

epididymis to urethra; transports sperms.​

Urethra – Runs through the penis; passage

for semen and urine (not at the same time).​

Penis – External copulatory organ; helps in

insemination and discharge of semen.

Seminal vesicles – Located behind the

urinary bladder; secrete fructose-rich fluid that
nourishes sperms.

Prostate gland – Below the urinary bladder,

around the urethra; secretes alkaline fluid that
increases sperm motility.​

Cowper’s (bulbourethral) glands – Below

the prostate; secrete lubricating fluid and
neutralize acidity
Ovaries – Located one on each side of the
lower abdomen; produce ova (eggs) and
hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian tubes (Oviducts) – Extend from

ovaries to uterus; carry the ovum and are the
site of fertilization.

Uterus – Thick-walled, muscular organ in the

pelvic cavity; site of implantation and
development of the foetus.

​
Endometrium – Inner lining of the uterus;
nourishes the embryo and is shed during
menstruation if fertilization does not occur.

​
Cervix – Lower narrow part of the uterus
opening into the vagina; regulates passage
between uterus and vagina and helps during
childbirth.

​
Vagina – Muscular tube opening to the
outside; receives sperms, acts as birth canal,
and passage for menstrual flow.
The placenta is a temporary organ formed in
the uterus during pregnancy that connects the
mother and the foetus. It allows the exchange
of nutrients, oxygen, and wastes between
maternal and foetal blood without mixing
them.

The chorion is the outer embryonic

membrane that develops finger-like
projections called chorionic villi, which attach
to the uterine wall and help in the formation of
the placenta.

The allantois is an embryonic membrane that

helps in the formation of umbilical blood
vessels and plays an important role in
transporting nutrients and oxygen to the
embryo and removing wastes.

A sperm is a microscopic male gamete

Head – Contains a haploid nucleus with

genetic material and an acrosome that
releases enzymes to penetrate the ovum.

Neck – Short connecting region between head

and middle piece; contains centrioles that help
in cell division after fertilization.

Middle piece – Rich in mitochondria arranged

spirally; provides energy (ATP) for sperm
movement.

Tail (flagellum) – Long whip-like structure;

helps in locomotion of sperm towards the
ovum.
The ovum is the female gamete

Plasma membrane – The outer membrane

that regulates entry of sperm and substances.​
Cytoplasm – Contains nutrients required for
early development of the embryo.​
Nucleus – Haploid nucleus containing the
female genetic material.​
Zona pellucida – A thick, transparent
protective layer around the ovum that prevents
entry of more than one sperm.​
Corona radiata – Outermost layer of follicle
cells that protects and nourishes the ovum.

Smita agrawal

Biology with Smita 9996648021

Practice following test

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