Introduction to the Key Concepts MODULE NO.

INTRODUCTION TO THE KEY CONCEPTS

MODULE OVERVIEW / LAGOM PANANAW

In this module, you will learn what Ethics is and why it is essential to study it in higher
education. You will explore the importance of rules and regulations in society, learn how to
distinguish a moral standard from a non-moral one, and identify moral dilemmas compared
to any other types of dilemmas. Additionally, you will also discover, in this module, how to
recognize and classify moral experiences as they happen in various levels of human
existence.

Module Outline:
A. The Need to Study Ethics in Higher Education and the Importance of Rules
and Regulations in Society
B. Standards (Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards)
C. Dilemmas (Ordinary Dilemmas versus Moral Dilemmas)
D. Levels of Moral Dilemmas

PRETEST / PAUNANG PAGSUBOK

GE 8 - Pretest
Name: ________________________
Course: _______________________

Multiple Choice
1. Which statement best reflects the CHED definition of ethics?
A) Ethics is a system of laws enforced by government institutions.
B) Ethics is solely concerned with religious teachings.
C) Ethics refers to a fixed cultural tradition.
D) Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior at personal, societal, and
environmental levels.

2. The ancient Greek origin of the word “ethics” implies that ethics relates to:
A) Historical traditions.
B) Social customs.
C) One’s character.
D) Legal obligations.

3. Which of the following roles do rules play in society?

A) They allow unlimited personal freedom without any limitations.
B) They regulate behavior by setting boundaries and imposing consequences.
C) They are primarily designed to complicate social interactions.
D) They reduce fairness by favoring the strong in society.

4. Which of the following is a characteristic of moral standards?

A) They are subject to change by authoritative figures.
B) They are based on impartial considerations and are overriding.
C) They primarily reflect personal taste and aesthetic preference.
D) They are legally enforceable in all circumstances.

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5. Which example best illustrates the cultural relativity of moral standards?

A) The prohibition against texting while driving.
B) The differing views in traditional Muslim communities and Western societies
regarding the dressing style (hijab vs. daring dress).
C) The universal consensus on not stealing.
D) The legal frameworks governing public behavior.

6. Which of the following is an example of a non-moral standard?

A) “Do not kill innocent people.”
B) “Do not cheat during exams.”
C) “Do not text while driving.”
D) “Do not lie.”

7. An ordinary dilemma is best described as:

A) A situation where every choice results in a moral compromise.
B) A simple decision with only one acceptable option.
C) A problem with multiple choices, each being undesirable, but without conflicting
moral considerations.
D) A decision that affects only personal taste.

8. A moral dilemma, unlike an ordinary dilemma, involves:

A) Only one option that is less undesirable than the others.
B) A conflict between sound moral principles, where any choice compromises
some moral duty.
C) A simple choice between convenience and inconvenience.
D) A decision that has no significant impact on morality.

9. According to Karen Allen’s criteria for moral dilemmas, which of the following is
necessary?
A) Only one possible course of action.
B) Complete absence of moral conflict.
C) A situation where laws can resolve the dilemma.
D) Conflicting courses of action that force a compromise of moral principles.

10. Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies a moral dilemma?

A) Choosing between tea and coffee on a morning break.
B) Deciding whether to modify one’s dress based on personal taste when cultural
norms vary, without any significant moral impact.
C) A situation where a decision must be made between two conflicting actions that
both compromise moral principles, such as a public policy that may save lives but
also infringe on personal liberties.
D) Selecting a minor preference for a restaurant menu item.

INTRODUCTION / PANIMULA

Welcome to the start of our journey in the course Ethics. In this module, we will lay
the foundation for understanding ethics and morality by exploring the fundamental concepts
that will guide you through the complexities of moral reasoning and decision-making. Ethics

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is not just an abstract philosophical discipline, but it is a practical tool that shapes how we
live and interact with others in society.

Throughout the course, each module is structured around the three fundamental
aspects of a moral experience. In Module 2, you will explore the concept of the moral agent,
considering the broader cultural and environmental contexts that influence decision-making.
Next, in module 3, you will venture into the act itself, examining its nature and implications.
Finally, in module 4, you will investigate the reasons and basic frameworks that guide
decisions and actions.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES / MGA LAYUNIN SA PAGKATUTO

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. Define ethics and morality, and the need to study ethics in higher education
2. Explain the importance of following various rules (home, community, and school
rules and regulations)
3. Differentiate between moral and non-moral standards, and differentiate between a
dilemma and a moral dilemma
4. Identify a moral dilemma in a given situation, and classify moral dilemmas
according to the three levels of moral dilemmas

PRESENTATION OF THE LESSON / PAGLALAHAD NG ARALIN

Topic 1. The Need to Study Ethics in Higher Education and the Importance of Rules to
Social Beings

What is Ethics, and what is Morality?

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) defines that “ethics deals with
principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and in
interaction with the environment and other shared resources” (CMO 20 series of 2013).

Etymologically, the English word ethics is derived from the ancient Greek word
“ethikos”, which means “relating to one’s character”. Alternatively, ethics, which is also called
“Moral Philosophy,” is a branch of philosophy that studies the morality of human conduct
using moral frameworks, theories, principles, and standards.

In our course, “ethics” and “morality” can be used interchangeably, like using the term
“unethical” instead of the term “immoral” or vice versa.

However, philosophically speaking, there is a very thin dividing line between the
terms ethics and morality. Ethics is the specific branch of philosophy that studies morality,
while morality refers to the system of beliefs or principles of rightness or wrongness of
actions. In other words, “ethics is the science of ‘morals’”, while morality is the practice of
ethics” ([Link], 2018).

To explain further, morality is “a system of beliefs about what is right behavior and
wrong behavior” (Rubin, 2015). Morality refers to “the principles of right and wrong behavior

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or rightness and wrongness (that is, goodness and badness) of human actions”
([Link], 2018). In his book, Elements of Moral Philosophy, author and university
professor Dr. James Rachels – a philosopher who specialized in Ethics – asserted that “at
the very least morality is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reason, to act based on the
best reasons for doing so – while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual
affected by one’s decision” (Gallinero, 2018).

Rationale on the Need to Study Ethics in Higher Education

College students have already developed a set of moral standards by which they use
to understand the world and a moral compass to navigate it. The end goal of studying Ethics
in higher education is for the student to become a person who makes sound judgments,
sensitive to the common good (Gallinero, 2018). Thus, the focus is on moral decision-
making and critical thinking.

Furthermore, the study of Ethics in higher education is vital in determining “morally

conscious” citizens who can help the country grow. Understanding Ethical norms and moral
values can help students develop the ability to navigate real-world challenges with integrity
and fairness, and approach critical issues such as fair labor practices, disinformation,
corruption, and human rights issues with ethical reasoning.

According to the Philosophical Association of the Philippines (PAP), “the discipline of

Ethics at the tertiary level engages students in moral reasoning, critical analysis of ethical
frameworks, and applied reflection on contemporary moral dilemmas. It cultivates not just
virtue, but also discernment – a capacity appropriate to the cognitive maturity of university
students.” Hence, ethics is not just basic GMRC–Values Education or moral training.
According to PAP, GMRC-VE focuses on teaching appropriate conduct and courteous
behavior, emphasizing good manners and right action. In contrast, ethics centers on guiding
moral and ethical decision-making through the lens of ethical theories and systems.

The Importance of Rules and Regulations in our Society

Have you ever considered why rules and regulations exist in every place and activity
you encounter? Why do we have rules and regulations?

Rules serve as the foundation for a well-functioning society by establishing guidelines

that promote fairness, protection of rights, and safety. Without these rules and regulations,
social interactions would be chaotic, leading to conflicts and human rights violations that
would hinder progress.

One of the main reasons why rules are important is their role in maintaining peace
and security in a society. “Rules are necessary to protect the greater good. Even the freest
societies ought to have rules to avoid exploitation and tyranny while upholding the common
welfare” (De Guzman, 2018). Human societies have rules to guarantee that the rights of
everyone are protected by regulating behavior and producing a sense of justice in society.

To learn more about the lesson, read: “The Importance of Rules to Social Beings” by
De Guzman, [Link].
Topic 2. Standards (Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards)

As discussed in Topic 1, morality may be understood as the set of norms held by

individuals, groups, or communities concerning what is considered right or wrong, moral or
immoral.

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Moral standards or moral rules are those that “individuals or groups have about the
kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what
we believe to be morally good or morally bad” ([Link], 2018). In this sense,
conforming to a moral standard makes you a good person, while violating it makes you a
bad person.

According to Angeles, moral standards prescribe what humans ought to do regarding

rights and obligations. Moral standards have the following characteristics (Angeles, 2021):
1. Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals, and the environment.
2. Moral standards have a universal appeal.
3. Moral standards are overriding – they take precedence over other
considerations, especially self-interest.
4. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
5. Moral standards are associated with special emotions (guilt and shame)
and vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad).

On the other hand, non-moral standards or non-moral rules refer to regulations “by
which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way” ([Link],
2018). In this sense, violating a non-moral standard does not necessarily make you a bad
person. Examples of non-moral standards are the standards of etiquette (good or bad
manners), aesthetics, language, athletics, and legal standards.

To learn more about the lesson, please read “Moral and Non-Moral Standards” by
[Link].

Topic 3. Dilemmas (Ordinary Dilemmas versus Moral Dilemmas)

An ordinary dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made

between two or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones
([Link], 2017). In other words, an ordinary dilemma is a problem solely about
choices, for example, deciding what career path to take or simply choosing what you want to
do on a Sunday.

Moral dilemmas (ethical dilemmas), on the other hand, are “situations where persons
are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the
situation in a morally acceptable manner” ([Link], 2018).

Moreover, according to Co, when our “choice-problem relates between two equally
good or two equally evil, such a problem of choice is an example of a moral dilemma” (Co,
2019). In other words, a moral dilemma is a situation wherein no matter what one chooses to
do, one will do something wrong; yet, no matter what one chooses to do, one will also do
something right.

According to Karen Allen, the following three conditions must be present for a
situation to be considered a moral dilemma ([Link], 2018):
1. The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to decide which course of
action is best.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from.
3. No matter what action is taken, some moral principles are always
compromised.

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To learn more about the lesson, please read “Moral Dilemmas” by

[Link].

Topic 4. Levels of Moral Dilemmas?

The three levels of moral dilemmas are: 1) Personal dilemmas, 2) Organizational

dilemmas, and 3) Structural dilemmas.

Personal dilemmas are those that are encountered and resolved personally by the
individual. Personal dilemmas may be caused by the individual him/herself, by another
person, or by a group.

The Group Chat Leak

Mei is a student who has been assigned a group project with four classmates.
The team maintains a group chat through which they exchange research, ideas,
and sometimes vent their frustrations. One evening, there's a post on one of the
group members' social media profile, featuring screenshots of this chat that
contain sarcastic remarks that Mei said regarding their professor's grading
system. The post goes viral in their university community.

Now Mei’s friends are urging her to deny all and claim the screenshots are
doctored. They contend that it's not right for private messages to be made public
and that she should defend herself against any liability and punishment.

Organizational dilemmas are those “encountered and resolved by social

organizations. This includes moral dilemmas in business, the medical field, and the public
sector” (De Guzman, 2018).

The ICU Bed Allocation Conflict

You are a part of the ethics board at a regional hospital facing a spike in critical
care cases due to a dengue outbreak. The hospital’s ICU has limited beds, and
more patients are arriving daily. A well-known local official is rushed in with
symptoms, while a rural patient—an elderly farmer with severe complications—
has already been waiting for ICU admission.

The admitting doctor asks the ethics board to decide: Is it more important to save
the official, who enjoys power and visibility, or the farmer, who has a slightly
worse condition but less social standing?

Structural dilemmas are dilemmas encountered and resolved by a network of

organizations. Structural dilemmas are multi-sectoral and larger in scope than organizational
dilemmas (De Guzman, 2018).

The Bridge Between Us

In a mountainous area in the Philippines, a partnership of government agencies,

NGOs, donors, and community organizations is set to construct a climate-
resilient suspension bridge connecting remote sitios with basic services. The
local government insists on urgent construction to fulfill political commitments,
while national engineers caution against it due to safety issues. A global donor
insists on the project initiation within the budget year, while environmental and
cultural organizations protest against the suggested site because of ecosystem
threats and heritage land disputes. Cooperatives also ask for employment

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assurances and participation in planning.

The stakeholders are presented with a dilemma: speed up the project and
jeopardize ethical compromises, or slow down and risk losing support and
funds—exposing the underlying tensions among urgency, equity, sustainability,
and cultural integrity.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES / MGA GAWAIN SA PAGKATUTO

Activity 1: “Gear-up” Activity

Instructions: Recall/ review all the rules you must follow at home, at the church, in the
community, and Pangasinan State University. Consider the following study questions after
recalling the rules:

1. Among the rules (i.e., rules at home, in the community, in PSU), which rule do you find
constricting?
2. What do you think are the reasons behind these rules?
3. What would your home be without these rules? Your community? PSU?

Activity 2: Reading and Self-Reflection

Instructions: Read the reading materials entitled “Moral and Non-Moral Standards” and
“Moral Dilemmas” by [Link]. Consider the following reflection questions after
reading:
 Differentiate between standards and moral standards.
 What features should a moral standard and non-moral standard have?
 Think of a dilemma and a moral dilemma that you have recently experienced. What
features should a moral dilemma have? How does it differ from an ordinary dilemma?

Activity 3: Written Activity on Moral vs Non-Moral Standards and Dilemmas vs Moral

Dilemmas:

Respond to the following guide questions. Follow the given format below/on the next page.

 “Not all rules are moral rules or standards”. Give three differences between moral
standards and non-moral standards.
 Enumerate five specific examples of moral standards and five specific examples of
non-moral standards.
 Recall an experience that you consider a moral dilemma. Briefly explain why it is a
moral dilemma and not just any other dilemma.

GE 8 - Ethics
Name: ________________________
Course: _______________________

Moral Standards and Moral Dilemmas

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Introduction to the Key Concepts MODULE NO. 1

1. “Not all rules are moral rules or standards”. Give three differences between moral
standards and non-moral standards.

2. Enumerate five examples of moral and five examples of non-moral standards.

Moral Standards: Non-Moral Standards:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

3. Recall an experience that you consider a moral dilemma. Briefly explain why it is a
moral dilemma and not just any other dilemma.

GENERALIZATION

Rules are important because they protect social beings by regulating behavior; they
help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom; they produce a sense of justice
among social beings; and they are essential for a healthy economic system.

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Introduction to the Key Concepts MODULE NO. 1

There are different standards, i.e., etiquette, policy, law, and commandment. In ethics,
a moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors
or beliefs.

A moral dilemma is a situation where there are two or more actions that you can do,
there is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions, and you cannot do all the possible actions
presented to you; you only need to choose one.

There are three levels of moral dilemmas. These are: personal moral dilemma,
organizational moral dilemma, and structural moral dilemma.

ASSESSMENT

Module 1 - Assessment
Name: ________________________
Course: _______________________

1. What do you think is the difference between Values Education and Ethics?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

2. What could be the difference between Ethics and Morality?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

3. Why is it important to follow rules in the community?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

4. Can you enumerate five examples of a moral standard and five examples of a non-
moral standard?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

5. What conditions must be present for a situation to be considered a moral

dilemma?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

POSTTEST / PANGWAKAS NA PAGSUBOK

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Introduction to the Key Concepts MODULE NO. 1

GE 8 - Ethics
Name: ________________________
Course: _______________________

Part 1: Identification

1. From which ancient language is the word “ethics” derived? ________

2. What are those that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed
to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believe to be
morally good or morally bad? ______
3. What refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two or
more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones? ______
4. What is a situation wherein no matter what one chooses to do, one will do
something wrong; yet, no matter what one chooses to do, one will also do
something right? ______
5. What conditions must be met to qualify a situation as a moral dilemma?
_______________________________________________________,
_______________________________________________________,
_______________________________________________________
6. What are the three levels of moral dilemmas?
_________________________,
_________________________,
_________________________

Part 2: Multiple Choice

11. Which statement best reflects the CHED definition of ethics?
A) Ethics is a system of laws enforced by government institutions.
B) Ethics is solely concerned with religious teachings.
C) Ethics refers to a fixed cultural tradition.
D) Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior at personal, societal, and
environmental levels.

12. The ancient Greek origin of the word “ethics” implies that ethics relates to:
A) Historical traditions.
B) Social customs.
C) One’s character.
D) Legal obligations.

13. Which of the following roles do rules play in society?

A) They allow unlimited personal freedom without any limitations.
B) They regulate behavior by setting boundaries and imposing consequences.
C) They are primarily designed to complicate social interactions.
D) They reduce fairness by favoring the strong in society.

14. Which of the following is a characteristic of moral standards?

A) They are subject to change by authoritative figures.
B) They are based on impartial considerations and are overriding.
C) They primarily reflect personal taste and aesthetic preference.
D) They are legally enforceable in all circumstances.

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Introduction to the Key Concepts MODULE NO. 1

15. Which example best illustrates the cultural relativity of moral standards?
A) The prohibition against texting while driving.
B) The differing views in traditional Muslim communities and Western societies
regarding the dressing style (hijab vs. daring dress).
C) The universal consensus on not stealing.
D) The legal frameworks governing public behavior.

16. Which of the following is an example of a non-moral standard?

A) “Do not kill innocent people.”
B) “Do not cheat during exams.”
C) “Do not text while driving.”
D) “Do not lie.”

17. An ordinary dilemma is best described as:

A) A situation where every choice results in a moral compromise.
B) A simple decision with only one acceptable option.
C) A problem with multiple choices, each being undesirable, but without conflicting
moral considerations.
D) A decision that affects only personal taste.

18. A moral dilemma, unlike an ordinary dilemma, involves:

A) Only one option that is less undesirable than the others.
B) A conflict between sound moral principles, where any choice compromises
some moral duty.
C) A simple choice between convenience and inconvenience.
D) A decision that has no significant impact on morality.

19. According to Karen Allen’s criteria for moral dilemmas, which of the following is
necessary?
A) Only one possible course of action.
B) Complete absence of moral conflict.
C) A situation where laws can resolve the dilemma.
D) Conflicting courses of action that force a compromise of moral principles.

20. Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies a moral dilemma?

A) Choosing between tea and coffee on a morning break.
B) Deciding whether to modify one’s dress based on personal taste when cultural
norms vary, without any significant moral impact.
C) A situation where a decision must be made between two conflicting actions that
both compromise moral principles, such as a public policy that may save lives but
also infringe on personal liberties.
D) Selecting a minor preference for a restaurant menu item.

REFERENCES / MGA SANGGUNIAN

Angeles, M.A., Tabile, S. 2021. Ethics in the Contemporary World. Malabon City: Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.

Co, M., [Link]. 2019. Ethics in the Contemporary Perspectives. Malabon City: Mutya

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Introduction to the Key Concepts MODULE NO. 1

Publishing House, Inc.

De Guzman, J. M., [Link]. 2018. Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society.
Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Gallinero, W.B., [Link]. 2018. Ethics. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

PHILO-notes: Learn Philosophy Online. [Link]/[Link]

Rachels, J. 2004. The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 4th ed. New York: McGRaw-Hill
College.

Prepared by:

Jufri Jan Louis M. Narvas

Faculty, General Education Department
PSU-Lingayen Campus

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