MODULE 8 excellences of character.

HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER  Aristotle believed that practice creates a habit of

DEVELOPED? acting in a virtuous way.

Moral Character and its Development  For Aristotle, virtue depends on “clear judgment,
self-control, symmetry of desire, and artistry of
 Moral Character means”.
- existence or lack of virtues;  Virtue can be viewed as a fruit of intelligent
- analysis of an individual’s steady moral qualities. pursuit.

- it is the moral qualities of an individual that they  But how can a person be virtuous?
have as a person. - It is important to note that a virtuous behavior for
 Virtue/s Aristotle means practicing moderation, that is,
avoiding both excess and deficiency.
- moral excellence;
 Doctrine of the Mean
- a behavior that shows high moral standards:
- a principle that suggests that a moral behavior is
- doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong one that is in the middle of two extremes.

- a behavior that shows high moral standards. - we can be a virtuous person if we practice the
Doctrine of the mean, wherein the moral behaviour
 Development of moral character can be
should be practice in moderation.
explained by the following approaches: virtues,
disposition, and circular relations of acts and Moral Character as Dispositions

character, and theoretical perspectives. Dispositions

Moral Character and Virtues - particular kinds of properties or characteristics

that objects can possess.
 Character
- Moral Character Traits are those dispositions of
- ancient Greek term character - to the mark
character for which it is appropriate to hold agents
impressed upon a coin.
morally responsible.
o charaktêr - any distinctive feature by which one
Virtue
thing is distinguished from others.
- trait for which the agent is deserving of a positive
 In philosophy, typically used to refer to the
reactive attitude, such as praise or gratitude.
particularly moral dimension of a person.
Vice
Virtue Ethics
- trait for which the agent is deserving of a negative
- represents the concept that individual’s actions are
reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame.
based upon inner moral virtue where Aristotle was
the leading figure of it. Moral character affects one ’ s moral decision.

 Virtue Moral Character

- is a central concept in his Nicomachean Ethics - not something that is imposed from the outside,
wherein there are two distinct of human but something that springs from the will of the
excellences, (1) excellences of thoughts and (2) moral agent.
- our moral character will be developed if we grow   Human beings own their actions and the
in maturity. consequences of them.

Circular Relations of Acts and Character   Will

- The other side of the relation between moral o is the rational power of human beings to act.
character and action is the effect of action on
character. o is the ability to choose what is good (or what one
thinks is good) directed by reason.
1. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the
Person o Responsibility and intention are rooted in the will

 Repetition of action can have impact on our  the source of the self-possession and self
character. governance of human beings.

 Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at  The human being is self-governing in that he can
least) three different ways: by habit, by education, carry out a human action or not carry it out as he
and by habitus. wills.

 Actions become skills through repetition and  Most people acts based on intention but don’t
experience. look forward on the consequences of this action.

 When an action is constantly repeated, over time  We will have moral character if we take full
it can become a habit. responsibility on our action but if we don’t take
responsibility then our moral character will not be
o Habitus developed.

 inclination or disposition, an inclination, a

willingness, to respond charitably to anyone in need
as the situation arises. Module 9 Stages of Moral Development

2. The Type of Action ● Lawrence Kohlberg

 Because human beings are body/soul unities, ○ American psychologist

actions of the body are actions of the self. ○ known for his theory of moral development
o Ex: Digestion of food is certainly an action, as is ○ modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's
jumping when startled or yawning when tired. ( heteronomous morality and autonomous morality)
o Aquinas calls these acts of a human being (actus previous work
humanus) and distinguishes them from human acts ○ based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas
(actus humanis) “The Heinz Dilemma”
 Actus humanus – natural response of the self. ■ "Should the husband have done that?"
 Actus Humanis- Based on the decision and ■ interested in the reasoning for each participant's
choice of human beings. decision
3. Intention and Responsibility ● Stages of Moral Development
  Two important aspects of the revelatory - Level 1. Pre-conventional morality
nature of action are responsibility and
intention. ○ Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)- people at
this stage see rules as fixed and
absolute ● Reason commends what it commends, regardless
of our feelings, attitudes, opinions, and
○ Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange)- judge
actions based on how they serve desires.

individual needs Moral truths are truths of reason.

- Level 2. Conventional Morality Impartiality

○ Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal ● it is the quality of being unbiased and objective in
Relationships)- there is an emphasis on creating moral decision

conformity ● also called even handedness or fair-mindedness.

○ Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)- focus is on ● Impartiality in morality requires that we give
maintaining law and order by following equal and/or adequate consideration to the

the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority interests of all concerned parties.

- Level 3. Postconventional Morality ● Impartiality as a requirement in morality.

○ Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)- Feelings

rules of law are important for
● a response to stimuli based on past experiences
maintaining a society, but members of the society which is made instinctively
should agree upon these standards
Feeling-based Theories in Ethics
○ Stage 6 (Universal Principles)- based on universal
ethical principles and abstract 1. Ethical Subjectivism

Reasoning. ● holds that there are no objective moral properties

and that ethical statements are in fact arbitrary
because they do not express immutable truths

Module 10 and 11- Reason, Impartiality, and ● a theory that limits knowledge to subjective
Feelings experience.

How significant reason is in ethics? ● morality is a matter of sentiment rather than fact

● the ability of the mind to think, understand, and Variants of Ethical Subjectivism:
form judgments by a process of logic
- Simple Subjectivism- ethical statements reflect
● an innate and exclusive human ability that utilizes sentiments, personal preferences and
new or existing information as bases to consciously
make sense out of thing while applying logic. feelings rather than objective facts.

● a form of personal justification which changes - Individualist Subjectivism- a form of Egoism

from person to person based on their own ethical - Moral Relativism- the view that for a thing to be
and moral code morally right is for it to be approved of
● allows a person to make conscious decisions by society
based on fact.
- Ideal Observer Theory: the view that what is right
Morality is not arbitrary. is determined by the attitudes that a

hypothetical ideal observer would have.

2. Emotivism ● Ask: Do you have all the facts that are necessary
to make a good decision?
● refers to a theory about moral judgments,
sentences, words, and speech acts; it is sometimes What do we know? What do we need to know?

also extended to cover aesthetic and other nonmoral 2. Determine the ethical issues
forms of evaluation
● This section must likewise clearly state the major
● Most popular form of non-cognitivism moral dilemma involved in the case.

● Moral judgments, according to Emotivism, are ● Ethical interests are stated in terms of legitimate
not statements of fact but are mere expressions of competing interests or goods.
the emotions of the speaker especially since they
are usually feelings—based (De Guzman ● Moral values and virtues must support the
competing interests.
et al. 2017).
● Often people hold these positions strongly and
with passion because of the value / virtue

Module 12-7 Steps of Moral Reasoning beneath them (Rae 2018).

Moral Reasoning 3. Determine what virtues / principles have a

bearing on the case
● refers to the logical process of determining
whether an action is right or wrong ● Applicable ethical values and principles relevant
to the case must be identified and briefly
Why is ethical decision making important in life?
explained in order to justify how such principles
An excerpt from the book of Making Ethical could be used in coming up with a decision
Decisions
concerning the moral dilemma later on.
1. Stop and Think
● These values, principles could come from: (1)
2. Clarify Goals established philosophical ethical principles; (2)
3. Determine Facts socio-cultural norms; (3) socio-political norms and
4. Develop Options laws; (4) religious traditions; and others.

5. Consider Consequences 4. List the alternatives

6. Choose ● Creatively determine possible courses of action

for your dilemma. Some will almost
7. Monitor and Modify
immediately be discarded but generally the more
SCOTT RAE’S 7-STEP MORAL REASONING you list the greater potential for coming up
MODEL
with a really good one. It will also help you come
● It is oriented towards virtues and principles with up with a broader selection of ideas (Rae
consideration of consequences as a
2018).
supporting role (Rae 2018).
5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues /
1. Gather the Facts principles

● The simplest way of clarifying an ethical ● The initial list of suggested courses of actions
dilemma is to make sure the facts are clear. must then be evaluated from the vantage point
of the identified ethical values and principles. 3. the positive gains that come from appreciating
reason’s limits.
6. Consider the consequences

● If principles have not yielded a clear decision In theology, reason, as distinguished from faith, is
consider the consequences of your alternatives. the human intelligence exercised upon religious
truth whether by way of discovery or by way of
Take the alternatives and work out the positive and explanation.
negative consequences of each.

7. Make a decision (including one’s justification for What is the will?

the decision) This means that what is morally binding is rooted in
reason as workable for the human person who
● After having analyzed the moral dilemma possesses the goodwill. A good will is also a force
situation (from steps 1 thru 6), one must now make to pursue what one possesses in mind also. Instead
a of looking at a man as he displays external
attributes, goodness is in the very interiority of
decision based on what has been previously
himself. The good that is relevant to the person who
discussed and must clearly justify the decision
through his/her reason knows what one ought to do.
that has been made. The good will implies the achievability of what is
known though reason. Generally, will is a faculty of
the mind that at the moment of decision is always
MODULE 13 present.
REASON AND WILL only one good which can be called good without
any qualification- the good motive or good will.
Reason, is the faculty or process of drawing logical
syllogism. Reasoning is the process of drawing out In a nutshell, Reason is the foundation of morality
conclusion from the previous knowledge. In other and the source of is the goodwill.
words, reason is associated with knowledge. MODULE 14 MORAL THEORIES
Knowledge is something that one acquires as he
studies, gets matured and professional. The term The words "moral" and "ethics" (and cognates) are
reason is also used in other context as a often used interchangeably.
disagreement to sensation, perception, feeling, and
However, it is useful to make the following
desire.
distinction:
Immanuel Kant, reason is the power of producing
into oneness, by means of understandable theories, ● Morality is the system through which we
the concepts that are provided by the intellect or the determine right and wrong conduct -- i.e.,
mind.
the guide to good or right conduct.
That reason which gives a priori principles Kant
calls “pure reason,” as distinguished from the ● Ethics is the philosophical study of Morality.
“practical reason,” which is especially concerned
with the performance of actions. The reason elects What, then, is a moral theory?
such and such as morally binding and thus act in
A theory is a structured set of statements used to
accordance with what he/she this is so.
explain (or predict) a set of facts or concepts. A
moral theory, then, explains why a certain action is
There are three points in Kant’ reason: wrong -- or why we ought to act in certain ways. In
1. the relation of reason to empirical truth; short, it is a theory of how we determine right and
2. reason’s role in scientific inquiry; and
wrong conduct. Also, moral theories provide the Main Point: Moral Subjectivism is where right or
framework upon which we think and discuss in a wrong are determined by what you
reasoned way, and so evaluate, specific moral
issues. -- the subject -- just happens to think (or 'feel') is
right or wrong. This is simply based
Seen in this light, it becomes clear that we cannot
draw a sharp divide between moral theory and on your personal assessment and judgment.
applied ethics (e.g., medical or business ethics). For In its common form, moral subjectivism amounts to
instance, in order to critically evaluate the moral the denial of moral principles of
issue of affirmative action, we must not attempt
any significant kind, and the possibility of moral
to evaluate what actions or policies are right (or criticism and argumentation. In
wrong) independent of what we take to determine
right and wrong conduct. You will see, as we nature, 'right' and 'wrong' lose their meaning
proceed, that we do not do ethics without at least because so long as someone thinks or
some moral theory. When evaluating the merits of
feels that some action is 'right', there are no grounds
some decision regarding a case, we will always (or
for criticism. If you are a moral
at least ought to always) find ourselves
subjectivist, you cannot object to anyone's behavior.
thinking about how right and wrong is determined
This shows the key flaw in moral subjectivism --
in general, and then apply that to the case at hand.
probably nearly everyone thinks that it is legitimate
Note, though, that sound moral thinking does not
to object, on moral grounds, to at least some
simply involve going one way -- from theory to
peoples' actions. That is, it is possible to disagree
applied issue. Sometimes a case may suggest that
about moral issues.
we need to change or adjust our thinking about
what moral theory we think is the best, or perhaps it 2. Cultural Relativism
might lead us to think that a preferred theory needs
modification. Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by the
particular set of principles or rules
Are moral theories descriptive or prescriptive?
the relevant culture just happens to hold at the time.
In presenting a moral theory, are we merely This is also based on the idea
describing how people, in their everyday
that different people have different cultures that are
'doings' and 'thinkings,' form a judgment about what why right or wrong is based on
is right and wrong, or are we prescribing how
people ought to make these judgments? how one’s culture dictates morality.

Most take moral theories to be prescriptive. The Cultural Relativism is closely linked to Moral
descriptive accounts of what people do are left to Subjectivism. It implies that we cannot
sociologists and anthropologists. Philosophers,
criticize the actions of those in cultures other than
then, when they study morality, want to know what
our own. And again, it amounts to the denial of
is the proper way of determining right and wrong.
universal moral principles. Also, it implies that a
There
culture cannot be mistaken about what is right and
have been many different proposals. Here is a brief wrong (which seems not to be true), and so it denies
summary. the possibility of moral advancement (which also
seems not to be true).
Theories of Morality
3. Ethical Egoism
1. Moral Subjectivism
Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by what to mean that right and wrong come from the
is in your self-interest. Or, it is immoral to act commands of God (or the gods). This view of
contrary to your self-interest. Ethical Egoism is morality is known as Divine Command Theory.
usually based upon The upshot is that an action is right -- or obligatory
-- if God commands us to do it, wrong if God
Psychological Egoism -- that we, by nature, act commands we refrain from doing it, and morally
selfishly. permissible if God does not command that it not be
Ethical egoism does not imply hedonism or that we done.
ought to aim for at least some 'higher' goods (e.g., 5. Virtue Ethics
wisdom, political success), but rather that we will
(ideally) act so as to maximize our self-interest. Main Point: Right and wrong are characterized in
This may require that we forgo some immediate terms of acting in accordance with the traditional
virtues -- making a good person.
pleasures for the sake of achieving some long term
goals. Also, ethical egoism does not exclude This will be further discussed in the preceding
helping others. However, egoists will help others chapters.
only if this will further their own interests. An
ethical egoist will claim that the altruist helps others 6. Feminist Ethics
only because they want to (perhaps because they Main Point: Right and wrong are to be found in
derive pleasure out of helping others) or because women's responses to the relationship of caring.
they think there will be some personal advantage in
doing so. That is, they deny the possibility of Comes out of the criticism that all other moral
genuine altruism (because they think we are all by theories are 'masculine' -- display a male bias.
nature selfish). This leads us to the key Specifically, feminists are critical of the
implausibility of Ethical Egoism -- that the person 'individualistic' nature of other moral theories.
Rather, feminist ethics suggests that we need to
who helps others at the expense of their self-interest consider the self as at least partly constructed by
is actually acting immorally. social relations. So morality, according to some
Many think that the ethical egoist has feminist moral philosophers, must be ground in
misunderstood the concept of morality -- i.e., 'moral emotions' like love and sympathy,

morality is the system of practical reasoning leading to relationships of caring. This allows
through which we are guided to constrain our self- legitimate biases towards those with
interest, not further it. Also, that genuine altruism is whom we have close social relationships.
indeed possible, and relatively commonly exhibited.
7. Utilitarianism
4. Divine Command Theory
Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by the
Main Point: Right and wrong come from the overall goodness (utility) of the
commands of God (or the gods)
consequences of the action.
Many claim that there is a necessary connection
between morality and religion, such that, without Utilitarianism is a Consequentialist moral theory.
religion (in particular, without God or gods) there is
Basic ideas:
no morality, i.e., no right and wrong behaviour.
Although there are related claims that religion is All action leads to some end. But there is a
summum bonum -- the highest good/end.
necessary to motivate and guide people to behave in
a morally good way, most take the claim of the This is pleasure or happiness. Also, there is a First
necessary connection between morality and religion Principle of Morals -- 'Principle of
Utility', alternatively called 'The Greatest Happiness hypothetical contract forming procedure.
Principle' (GHP), usually characterized as the ideal
of working towards the greatest happiness of the
greatest number. The GHP implies that we ought to MODULE 15 ARISTOTLE AND ST. THOMAS
act so as to maximize human welfare. We do this in
a particular instance by choosing the action that Aristotle
maximizes pleasure/happiness and minimizing
The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote his
suffering.
Nicomachean Ethics with these questions in mind.
This will be further discussed in the preceding For him, the ultimate purpose cannot be understood
chapters. without understanding the place of reason in
ordering one’s life. Aristotle considers that morality
8. Kantian Theory is not merely a matter of knowing the good, just
Main Point: Right and wrong are determined by like Plato’s proposition, but actually doing the good
rationality, giving universal duties. habitually. We become what we are not what we
know but what we do.
Basic ideas:
According to him, self-realization is the highest
That there is "the supreme principle of morality". good attainable by man. Selfrealization is termed as
Good and Evil are defined in terms of Law / Duty / Eudaemonia or well-being or happiness.
Obligation. Rationality and Freedom are also
central. Kant thought that acting morally was quite This happiness is not the same as possession of
simple. That is: wealth or pleasure; while pleasure is good, it is not
the ultimate good. Happiness is the natural outcome
1. you ought to do your duty (simply because it is of the active exercise of functions. The full
your duty). realization of functions refers to fulfilling, realizing,

2. Reason guides you to this conclusion. actualizing, and developing one’s nature with all its
potentials.
3. Good Will (i.e., having the right intentions) is the
only thing that is good without Eudaemonia is sought for its own sake. All other
ends, such as wealth, health, power, are sought
qualification. So, actions are truly moral only if because they are perceived to be instrumental in
they have the right intention, i.e., based on Good one’s flourishing.
Will.
It is, as the proper end of man, not some kind of
This will be further discussed in the preceding inactive state but actually something that one does.
chapters. for Aristotle, our chief good is not something we
9. Contractarianism merely possess in mind but something that we
continually actualize in practice. According to him,
Main Point: The principles of right and wrong (or
Justice) are those which everyone Eudaemonia is an activity of the soul in accordance
with virtue.
in society would agree upon in forming a social
contract. Threefold Nature of Man

Various forms of Contractarianism have been Each of these must be fulfilled as the realization of
suggested. In general, the idea is that each is accompanied by a state of pleasure and
happiness.
the principles or rules that determine right and
wrong in society are determined by a 1. Vegetative- it refers to the physical body which
is cultivated by wholesome food
and proper exercise. The body needs food, drink, and evil must be avoided. The voice of reason is
work, and rest in order to survive and to keep also called the conscience, in so far the conscience
oneself physically fit. refers to the immediate judgment of practical reason
applying the general principle of morality.
2. Sentient- Man as full of senses has sentient
nature. Man’s sensual feelings and emotions must What is good for St. Thomas?
be fully developed through appropriate sex activity
within the limit of his social conventions. One St. Thomas asserts that what is human good is
needs to make his feelings and emotions fine to which is suitable for and proper to human nature.
satisfy his senses. Thus, whenever an act is suitable to human nature
as such, then it is good and it must be done;
3. Rational- Human bearings are rational animals. whenever it is not proper to human nature,
the full realization of their vegetative and sentient however, then it is evil and it must be avoided. So,
nature keeps them longing for more lasting human nature is the proximate norm of morality.
satisfaction. food and shelter cannot satisfy their
thirst for self-realization. one develops his rational In St. Thomas View, the good is built into human
nature, to which we are directed by our natural
nature in the pursuit of scientific knowledge. inclinations: self-preservation, just dealings with
philosophical truth, political activity, religious others and the propagation of the species.
commitment, and creative, artistic endeavor.
Three Natural Inclinations of Man
Therefore, for Aristotle, upon the realization of
man’s highest nature, there is good, happiness. 1. Self-preservation. We are inclined to preserve
our life. Self- destruction, first of all, is unnatural as
Determinant of Morality far as St. Thomas is concerned. This urges us to
care for our health, not to kill ourselves or put
The doctrine of the golden mean is central in the ourselves in danger.
self- realization ethics of Aristotle, especially in the
full exercise of functions regarding the 2. Just dealings with others. Reason by nature leads
development of man’s vegetative and sentient us to treat others with the same dignity and respect
nature. reason seeks the balanced course between that we accord ourselves. This is the basis of justice
too much and too little. Extremes and excesses are which arises out of human relations. Thus, any act
always evil, hence, to be avoided. of injustice is against human nature.

St. Thomas Aquinas 3. Propagation of the species. We are naturally

inclined to perpetuate our species which is viewed
St. Thomas’ philosophy began with the standpoint as a natural good. We are obligated not to pervert
of faith. He is known to be one who Christianized this natural inclination. the reproductive organs are
the philosophy based on his theories and ways. His by nature designed to reproduce and to perpetuate
perspective presupposes the existence of God who the human species. And any intervention against
is the author (source) and the goal (end) of all such nature must be evil.
realities. According to him, there exists a natural
law which is the interpretation of man from the Determinant of Morality
Eternal Law. In his view, the source of the moral
law is reason itself. in its operation, reason 1. Object- the Act itself
recognizes the basic principle “Do good and avoid 2. Circumstances-are conditions which, when
evil”. He used the term synderesis to describe this superadded to the nature of the moral act, will
inherent capacity of an individual to perceive what affect its morality. It answers the question of who,
is good or bad. In short, the moral law is the what, where, by what means, why, how and when?
dictates of the voice of reason, and this dictate is
expressed in the principle that good must be done
3. End of the agent- The end here is taken in the Kant says no because making promises then
sense of end or purpose of the agent or the doer. becomes, in essence, contradictory. The thinking is
that a promise is, by definition, something you

keep. The above maxim would lead to a

MODULE 16 KANTIAN THEORY contradiction of will, i.e., "I'll make a promise
Kantian Theory (Continuation of Module 15) (something I keep), but I'll break it if I choose". The
Main Idea: Right and wrong is determined by more general way to understand the Principle of
rationality, giving universal duties. Universalizability is to think that we must always
ask the following questions: What if everyone did
Kantianism is a Non-consequentialist moral theory the action you are proposing? Or, what if I were in

Basic ideas: That there is "the supreme principle of the other person's position? This leads to the basic
morality". Good and Evil are defined in terms of idea behind the Golden Rule.
Law / Duty / Obligation. Rationality and Freedom
are also central. Kant had another way of formulating the
Categorical Imperative that is worth noting.
Kant thought that acting morally was quite simple.
That is: Never treat anyone merely as a means to an end.
Rather, treat everyone as an end in themselves.
a. you ought to do your duty (simply because it is
your duty). We can understand this by noting an example, i.e.,
the slave society. What is wrong with the slave
b. Reason guides you to this conclusion. society, following the above principle, is that a
slave is treated as a means to the slave owner's
c. Good Will (i.e., having the right intentions) is the
ends, i.e., as an instrument or tool, not as a person.
only thing that is good without qualification. So,
The
actions are truly moral only if they have the right
intention, i.e., based on Good Will. upshot is that no person's interests (or rights) can be
overridden by another's, or the majority.
What establishes Good Will?
Many think that this way of formulating the
- only can be a law of "universal conformity" -- "I
Categorical Imperative shows that Kantianism is
should never act except in such a way that I can
clearly anti-Utilitarian.
also will that my maxim should become a universal
law". Some things to ask about Kantianism:

This is called the Categorical Imperative = ● Is it true that having good intentions is the only
Principle of Universalizability (something thing that counts morally?

like The Golden Rule). The basic idea is that we ● Must we always ignore good consequences?
should adopt as action-guiding rules (i.e., maxims)
only those that can be universally accepted. ● Is it always wrong to treat people merely as a
Consider someone wondering if they could break a means to an end? (Can we do otherwise?)
promise if keeping it became inconvenient. We Rights-based Theories of Kant
might formulate the following maxim governing
promises: Main Point: We are to act in accordance with a set
of moral rights, which we possess
“I can break promises when keeping them becomes
inconvenient.” simply by being human.

Can this be universalized?

Rights-based views are connected to Kantianism 4. Asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of
and are Non-consequentialist. The basic idea is that quantification (and hence 'measure').
if someone has a right, then others have a
corresponding duty to provide what the right In measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham
requires. introduces the following criteria:

Most distinguish between positive and negative INTENSITY, DURATION, CERTAINTY (or
rights. A positive right is one in which UNCERTAINTY), and its NEARNESS (or
FARNESS). He also includes its "fecundity" (will
the corresponding duty requires positive action, more of the same follow?) and its "purity" (its
e.g., giving a charitable donation in order to sustain pleasure won't be followed by pain & vice versa).
someone's right to life, shelter, education, etc. A In considering actions that affect numbers of
negative right is one in which the corresponding people, we must also account for its EXTENT.
duty merely requires refraining from doing
something that will harm someone. For instance, John Stuart Mill
the right to life does not require that we give what He adjusted the more hedonistic tendencies in
is needed to sustain life, rather merely that we Bentham's philosophy by emphasizing:
refrain from taking any action that would take life. 1. It is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality
Some things to ask about Rights-based theories: of happiness that is central to utilitarianism,
● Where do rights come from? From nature (we 2. the calculus is unreasonable -- qualities cannot be
have them simply by being human)? quantified (there is a distinction between 'higher'
From principles of Justice? Or, from Utilitarian and 'lower' pleasures), and
procedures? 3. utilitarianism refers to "the Greatest Happiness
● How do we decide between competing rights? Principle" -- it seeks to promote the capability of
achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the most
amount of people (this is its "extent").

MODULE 17 UTILITARIANISM Act and Rule Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism We can apply the principle of utility to either

PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL
Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that
places the locus of right and wrong solely on the RULES. The former is called "act-utilitarianism"
outcomes (consequences) of choosing one and the latter is called "ruleutilitarianism."
action/policy over other actions/policies. As such, it
moves beyond the scope of one's own interests and Act-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is
applied directly to each alternative act in
takes into account the interests of others.
a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as
Jeremy Bentham’ Principle of Utility the one which brings about the best results (or the
least amount of bad results). Criticisms of this
1. Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and viewpoint to the difficulty of attaining full
pleasure in human life, knowledge and certainty of the consequences of our
2. Approves or disapproves of action on the basis of actions.
the amount of pain or pleasure brought about i.e, It is possible to justify immoral acts using AU:
consequences, Suppose you could end a regional war by torturing
3. Equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, children whose fathers are enemy soldiers, thus
and revealing the hideouts of the fathers.
Rule-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is used 3. It makes it virtually impossible for regulators in
to determine the validity of rules of conduct (moral one country to foresee the worldwide implications
principles). A rule like promise-keeping is of their actions.
established by looking at the consequences of a
world in which people broke promises at will and a 4. It acts to increase world oil prices.
world in which promises were binding. 5. It transfers consumption of limited oil supply
Right and wrong are then defined as following or from developed countries to developing countries.
breaking those rules. Some criticisms of this 6. It transfers jobs from developed countries to less
position point out that if the Rules take into account developed countries.
more and more exceptions, RU collapses into AU.
More general criticisms of this view argue that it is 7. It transfers investment spending from developed
countries to less developed
possible to generate "unjust rules" according to the
principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece countries.
might be right if it led to an overall achievement of
8. With the dollar as the world’s reserve currency,
cultivated happiness at the expense of some
globalization leads to a huge US
mistreated individuals.
balance of trade deficits and other imbalances.

9. It tends to move taxation away from

MODULE 18 GLOBALIZATION AND ITS
corporations, and onto individual citizens.
ETHICAL CHALLENGES
10. It sets up a currency “race to the bottom” with
What is Globalization?
each country trying to get an
Globalization has become the trend of unity among
export advantage by dropping the value of its
countries as this concept made scattered states one
currency.
interact with each other. Globalization is defined
through the following: 11. It encourages dependence on other countries for
essential goods and services.
a. the world-wide integration of government
policies, cultures, social movements, and financial 12. It ties countries together, so that if one country
markets through trade and the exchange of ideas; collapses, the collapse is likely to
b. intensification of worldwide relationships which ripple through the system, pulling many other
link distant localities in such a way that local countries with it.
happenings are shaped by events occurring many
miles away and vice versa. Some Ethical Challenges of Globalization

c. It is the stress on trans-nationalization of the It cannot be denied that globalization has an

connections taking place in the world today. emerging challenge to address. They

Some Problems with Globalization can be deduced from the following:

1. It uses up finite resources more quickly. Once 1. Wealth concentration for the few and leaving
one country opens up their product to the world behind the majority.
wherein all countries can avail, there is a big
2. Laissez-faire capitalism deepens the inequalities
possibility of depleting the supply.
within and between nations for
2. Increases world carbon dioxide.
consequentialist and deontological standpoints.

3. States are losing their own sovereignty.

4. Problem of handling the global environment in I. Millennials and Filinials Millennials are the
order to prevent a global ecological demographic cohort directly following the
Generation X. It is also known as ‘Generation Y’ or
collapse. the ‘Net Generation’. The Center for Generational
5. Explosive population growth which threatens to Kinetics mentions five generations that presently
surpass the earth’s carrying make up our society and specifies birth years for
each generation as follows:
capacity and bust the biosphere.
Millenials are generally the children of baby
Some Emerging Issues of Globalization and boomers and older Gen Xers. In Filipino terms,
Business Ethics Millennials are called Filinials as adapted from
Filipino.
As globalization is largely an economic concept and
system, it is reasonable to enumerate the different Filinials are commonly characterized by an
concerns in Business Ethics. Business ethics is increased use and familiarity with communications,
defined as a form of an applied ethics that examines media, and digital technologies. They are also
moral principles concerning business environment known to be an advanced generation in terms of
involving issues about: technology utilization. Even in terms of work
ethics,
● corporate policies;
they are known to be non-linear individuals which
● corporate practices;
the traditionalists sometimes misunderstand. They
● business behaviors; and are also marked by an increase in a liberal approach
to politics, economics, and morality, although this
● the conducts and relationships of individuals in claim is disputed.
the organization.
Seven Basic Traits of Millennials
1. duplication/ imitation of products;
1. special- They are the most educated generation
2. child labor; on record.
3. money laundering; 2. sheltered- Since birth, they are known to be from
many forms of protection. They are the most
4. environmental issues;
protected generation since their birth.
5. and other business malpractices and crimes
3. confident- They are known to be less religious,
● cyber crimes less serve the military yet as the most educated
generation.
● seuxal harrasments
4. team-oriented (disputed trait)- They like to band
● intellectual property together to socialize in groups. In schools, they
● patent thefts prefer working with groups rather than individuals.

5. conventional- They take pride in their improving

behavior. Their taste to arts and music is less
MODULE 20 MILLENIALS AND FILINIALS: extreme than the previous generations.
ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND
6. pressured- They wish to be ahead of many things,
RESPONSES successful and take advantage of opportunities but
avoiding taking risks.
7. achieving- They are known to be of many III. Work Ethics
achievements as youngsters. These can be
associated with their being proactive in life. What do Millennials believed in to be ethical in the
Workplace:

1. using social networking to find out about the

II. Ethical Outlook and Cultural Identity company’s competitors= 37%

In 2013, 2014 researches resulted the following: 2. “Friending” a client or customer on social
media= 36%
1. millennials were more open minded than their
parents on some controversial 3. uploading personal photos on a company
network= 26%
matters. 84% of millennials favored legalizing this
marijuana. 4. keeping copies of confidential documents= 22%

2. in adulthood, they are detached from institutions 5. working less to compensate for cuts in benefits or
and networked with friends. pay= 18%

3. found to be a pragmatic idealist in approach to 6. buying personal items using a company credit
social change. card= 15%

❖ They are also called Boomerang Generation or 7. blogging or tweeting negatively about a
Peter Pan because of their perceived tendencies for company= 14%
delaying some rites of passage in adulthood for
longer periods than most generations before them 8. taking a copy of work software home for
and for living with their parents for longer periods personal use= 13%
than previous generations. The widespread use of social media appears to pose
❖ Generation Y are very cheerful and enthusiast challenges, as substantial numbers of Millenials
and more open to change than older generations. post questionable information on their personal
social media accounts including the following:
❖ Most millennials of every religion, race, and
ethnicity support access to affordable contraception. 1. feeling about their jobs= 40%
some connotes that choosing an abortion is the most 2. bad joke told by the boos= 26%
responsible decision that a woman can make.
3. work on a project= 26%
Some other findings are:
4. picture of a co worker drinking= 22%
a. Some Millennials say that marriage is old
fashioned and out of date while most of them 5. annoying habit of a coworker= 20%
disagree.
6. information about the company’s competitors=
b. Millennials belong to four-way split: 19%

● pro-life 7. opinion about coworkers’s politics= 16%

● pro-choice

● no both pro life and choice

● equal by pro choice and life.

c. few of them are either lesbian, gay, bisexual, or

transgender.