1.

Classification of Gas Sensors

Typical
Materials used Applications
Gas sensor Definition (what it sensor Fabrication /
(active + & gases
classification means) types / processing methods
auxiliary) detected
examples
CO, H₂,
Thick-film NH₃, NO₂,
Sensors in which gas SnO₂, ZnO, Screen printing, sol–
MOS, thin- CH₄, LPG,
adsorption on a WO₃, TiO₂, gel spin/dip coating,
Metal Oxide film MOS, ethanol,
semiconducting metal In₂O₃, Fe₂O₃; sputtering, PLD,
Semiconduct nanowire/n acetone,
oxide changes its dopants: Pt, Pd, spray pyrolysis, CVD
or (MOS) / anorod VOCs (ppm–
electrical resistance due Au; (nanowires),
Chemiresisti sensors, ppb); air-
to surface redox heterostructures annealing; MEMS
ve sensors MEMS- quality
reactions and charge (SnO₂/ZnO, micro-hotplate
MOS monitoring,
carrier modulation ZnO/WO₃) integration
sensors industrial
safety
Flammable
Catalytic gases at
Sensors that detect
bead Pt or Pd catalyst Catalyst %LEL:
Catalytic combustible gases by
sensors, on Al₂O₃ or impregnation, methane,
combustion measuring temperature
matched ceramic bead; ceramic sintering, propane,
(Pellistor) rise caused by catalytic
active/refer platinum wire winding, bridge butane,
sensors oxidation on a heated
ence heating coil circuit assembly hydrogen;
element
pellistors explosion
prevention
Toxic gases:
Sensors where gas
Amperomet Electrodes: Pt, CO, H₂S,
undergoes
ric CO Au, carbon; Screen printing of NO₂, SO₂,
electrochemical
Electrochemi sensors, electrolytes: electrodes, electrolyte NH₃ (ppb–
oxidation or reduction
cal gas H₂S aqueous acid, filling, membrane ppm);
at electrodes,
sensors sensors, polymer gel, lamination, cell confined-
generating a current or
NO₂ ionic liquids; sealing space and
potential proportional
sensors membranes portable
to concentration
detectors
Solid Sensors using solid O₂ sensing in
Zirconia
electrolyte ionic conductors where YSZ, CGO Ceramic pressing, automotive
oxygen
(potentiomet gas concentration electrolytes; Pt high-temperature exhaust,
sensors
ric / creates a measurable porous sintering, sputtered combustion
(lambda
amperometri electrochemical electrodes thin films control,
sensors)
c) sensors potential or current furnaces
CO₂, CH₄,
Sensors that measure IR source,
CO,
gas concentration based NDIR CO₂ optical filter, MEMS IR emitter
Optical – hydrocarbons
on selective absorption sensors, gas cell, fabrication, optical
NDIR ; HVAC,
of infrared radiation at CH₄ NDIR thermopile or filter deposition, gas
sensors indoor air
characteristic modules pyroelectric cell assembly
quality,
wavelengths detector
biogas
Ultra-trace
TDLAS,
Sensors using tunable Laser diodes detection of
Optical – photoacoust Photonic integration,
lasers and spectroscopic (DFB, VCSEL), NH₃, CH₄,
laser ic fiber coupling,
techniques to detect mirrors, CO, CO₂,
spectroscopic (QEPAS), micro-optics,
gases via absorption or microphones, H₂S (ppb);
sensors cavity ring- precision electronics
acoustic response optical fibers process
down
monitoring
Photoionizati Sensors that ionize gas Handheld UV lamp UV lamp integration, VOCs:
on detectors molecules using high- PID VOC (Xe/Kr), electrode assembly, benzene,
(PID) energy UV photons and detectors ionization calibration toluene,
measure resulting ion chamber xylene,
 solvents
(ppb–ppm);
current electrodes environmenta
l & industrial
hygiene
NH₃, NO₂,
Sensors where gas- Polyaniline,
Polymer Spin coating, drop amines,
Conducting induced polypyrrole,
chemiresist casting, VOCs;
polymer gas doping/dedoping alters PEDOT:PSS,
ors, flexible electropolymerization flexible and
sensors the conductivity of polymer
sensors , inkjet printing wearable
conjugated polymers composites
sensors
CNTs, NH₃, NO₂,
Sensors exploiting high CNT
Carbon graphene, rGO, H₂, VOCs
surface-to-volume ratio sensors,
nanomaterial MoS₂, WS₂, CVD growth, (sub-ppm);
and charge sensitivity graphene
& 2D MXenes; metal transfer, lithography, low-power,
of carbon FETs,
material NP solution deposition room-
nanostructures and 2D MoS₂
sensors functionalizatio temperature
semiconductors sensors
n sensing
Si, organic NO₂, NH₃,
Field-effect Sensors in which gas ChemFET, CMOS processing,
semiconductors, VOCs; sensor
transistor interaction with gate or ISFET, thin-film deposition,
graphene; arrays, lab-
(FET-based) channel modulates graphene surface
functionalized on-chip
sensors channel conductivity FET functionalization
gate dielectrics systems
VOCs,
Quartz,
Acoustic Sensors that detect gas- humidity,
QCM, LiNbO₃, Lithography for
wave / mass- induced mass loading chemical
SAW LiTaO₃ with electrodes, thin-film
sensitive or viscoelastic changes vapors;
sensors polymer/MOF coating deposition
sensors via frequency shifts environmenta
coatings
l monitoring
Sensors using changes H₂, VOCs,
FBG, LPG, Silica fiber with
in light transmission, corrosive
Optical fiber evanescent- Pd, metal Fiber coating, grating
reflection, or gases; harsh
gas sensors wave oxides, sol–gel inscription, tapering
wavelength in coated and remote
sensors films
optical fibers environments
Sensors that measure
Hot-wire,
Thermal changes in heat H₂, He, gas
MEMS Pt heaters, SiN MEMS micro-
conductivity dissipation caused by purity
thermal membranes hotplate fabrication
sensors different gas thermal analysis
sensors
conductivities
Sensors where gas- Magnetoelastic
Magnetic / Magnetostri Specialty
induced stress or mass alloys with Thin-film deposition,
magnetoelast ctive ribbon chemical
change alters magnetic receptor magnetic biasing
ic sensors sensors vapor sensing
or elastic properties coatings
Sensors using metal- MOF- CO₂, VOCs,
MOF-based Solvothermal
organic frameworks as QCM, ZIF-8, HKUST- H₂S, CH₄;
selective synthesis, layer-by-
highly selective gas MOF-MOS 1, UiO-66 selectivity
sensors layer growth
adsorption layers hybrids enhancement
VOC
Systems combining
Electronic MOS + Mixed materials profiling,
multiple partially Hybrid fabrication +
nose (sensor polymer + from multiple food quality,
selective sensors with signal processing
arrays) CNT arrays classes breath
pattern recognition
analysis
Typical
Materials used Applications
Gas sensor Definition (what it sensor Fabrication /
(active + & gases
classification means) types / processing methods
auxiliary) detected
examples
Metal Oxide Sensors in which gas Thick-film SnO₂, ZnO, Screen printing, sol– CO, H₂,
Semiconduct adsorption on a MOS, thin- WO₃, TiO₂, gel spin/dip coating, NH₃, NO₂,
or (MOS) / semiconducting metal film MOS, In₂O₃, Fe₂O₃; sputtering, PLD, CH₄, LPG,
 ethanol,
nanowire/n acetone,
oxide changes its dopants: Pt, Pd, spray pyrolysis, CVD
anorod VOCs (ppm–
electrical resistance due Au; (nanowires),
Chemiresisti sensors, ppb); air-
to surface redox heterostructures annealing; MEMS
ve sensors MEMS- quality
reactions and charge (SnO₂/ZnO, micro-hotplate
MOS monitoring,
carrier modulation ZnO/WO₃) integration
sensors industrial
safety
Flammable
Catalytic gases at
Sensors that detect
bead Pt or Pd catalyst Catalyst %LEL:
Catalytic combustible gases by
sensors, on Al₂O₃ or impregnation, methane,
combustion measuring temperature
matched ceramic bead; ceramic sintering, propane,
(Pellistor) rise caused by catalytic
active/refer platinum wire winding, bridge butane,
sensors oxidation on a heated
ence heating coil circuit assembly hydrogen;
element
pellistors explosion
prevention
Toxic gases:
Sensors where gas
Amperomet Electrodes: Pt, CO, H₂S,
undergoes
ric CO Au, carbon; Screen printing of NO₂, SO₂,
electrochemical
Electrochemi sensors, electrolytes: electrodes, electrolyte NH₃ (ppb–
oxidation or reduction
cal gas H₂S aqueous acid, filling, membrane ppm);
at electrodes,
sensors sensors, polymer gel, lamination, cell confined-
generating a current or
NO₂ ionic liquids; sealing space and
potential proportional
sensors membranes portable
to concentration
detectors
Solid Sensors using solid O₂ sensing in
Zirconia
electrolyte ionic conductors where YSZ, CGO Ceramic pressing, automotive
oxygen
(potentiomet gas concentration electrolytes; Pt high-temperature exhaust,
sensors
ric / creates a measurable porous sintering, sputtered combustion
(lambda
amperometri electrochemical electrodes thin films control,
sensors)
c) sensors potential or current furnaces
CO₂, CH₄,
Sensors that measure IR source,
CO,
gas concentration based NDIR CO₂ optical filter, MEMS IR emitter
Optical – hydrocarbons
on selective absorption sensors, gas cell, fabrication, optical
NDIR ; HVAC,
of infrared radiation at CH₄ NDIR thermopile or filter deposition, gas
sensors indoor air
characteristic modules pyroelectric cell assembly
quality,
wavelengths detector
biogas
Ultra-trace
TDLAS,
Sensors using tunable Laser diodes detection of
Optical – photoacoust Photonic integration,
lasers and spectroscopic (DFB, VCSEL), NH₃, CH₄,
laser ic fiber coupling,
techniques to detect mirrors, CO, CO₂,
spectroscopic (QEPAS), micro-optics,
gases via absorption or microphones, H₂S (ppb);
sensors cavity ring- precision electronics
acoustic response optical fibers process
down
monitoring
VOCs:
benzene,
Sensors that ionize gas UV lamp toluene,
Photoionizati molecules using high- Handheld (Xe/Kr), UV lamp integration, xylene,
on detectors energy UV photons and PID VOC ionization electrode assembly, solvents
(PID) measure resulting ion detectors chamber calibration (ppb–ppm);
current electrodes environmenta
l & industrial
hygiene
Conducting Sensors where gas- Polymer Polyaniline, Spin coating, drop NH₃, NO₂,
polymer gas induced chemiresist polypyrrole, casting, amines,
sensors doping/dedoping alters ors, flexible PEDOT:PSS, electropolymerization VOCs;
the conductivity of sensors polymer , inkjet printing flexible and
conjugated polymers composites wearable
 sensors
CNTs, NH₃, NO₂,
Sensors exploiting high CNT
Carbon graphene, rGO, H₂, VOCs
surface-to-volume ratio sensors,
nanomaterial MoS₂, WS₂, CVD growth, (sub-ppm);
and charge sensitivity graphene
& 2D MXenes; metal transfer, lithography, low-power,
of carbon FETs,
material NP solution deposition room-
nanostructures and 2D MoS₂
sensors functionalizatio temperature
semiconductors sensors
n sensing
Si, organic NO₂, NH₃,
Field-effect Sensors in which gas ChemFET, CMOS processing,
semiconductors, VOCs; sensor
transistor interaction with gate or ISFET, thin-film deposition,
graphene; arrays, lab-
(FET-based) channel modulates graphene surface
functionalized on-chip
sensors channel conductivity FET functionalization
gate dielectrics systems
VOCs,
Quartz,
Acoustic Sensors that detect gas- humidity,
QCM, LiNbO₃, Lithography for
wave / mass- induced mass loading chemical
SAW LiTaO₃ with electrodes, thin-film
sensitive or viscoelastic changes vapors;
sensors polymer/MOF coating deposition
sensors via frequency shifts environmenta
coatings
l monitoring
Sensors using changes H₂, VOCs,
FBG, LPG, Silica fiber with
in light transmission, corrosive
Optical fiber evanescent- Pd, metal Fiber coating, grating
reflection, or gases; harsh
gas sensors wave oxides, sol–gel inscription, tapering
wavelength in coated and remote
sensors films
optical fibers environments
Sensors that measure
Hot-wire,
Thermal changes in heat H₂, He, gas
MEMS Pt heaters, SiN MEMS micro-
conductivity dissipation caused by purity
thermal membranes hotplate fabrication
sensors different gas thermal analysis
sensors
conductivities
Sensors where gas- Magnetoelastic
Magnetic / Magnetostri Specialty
induced stress or mass alloys with Thin-film deposition,
magnetoelast ctive ribbon chemical
change alters magnetic receptor magnetic biasing
ic sensors sensors vapor sensing
or elastic properties coatings
Sensors using metal- MOF- CO₂, VOCs,
MOF-based Solvothermal
organic frameworks as QCM, ZIF-8, HKUST- H₂S, CH₄;
selective synthesis, layer-by-
highly selective gas MOF-MOS 1, UiO-66 selectivity
sensors layer growth
adsorption layers hybrids enhancement
VOC
Systems combining
Electronic MOS + Mixed materials profiling,
multiple partially Hybrid fabrication +
nose (sensor polymer + from multiple food quality,
selective sensors with signal processing
arrays) CNT arrays classes breath
pattern recognition
analysis