ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT
ASSESSMENT AND
AUDIT
DR . SYLVI A MURUNGA
 Environmental management:-
➢Is a decision-making process which regulates the impact of
human on the environment in such a way that the capacity of
environment to sustain human development will not be hampered

Introductio ➢ A process which allocates resources (both natural and man-

n
made) so as to make optimum use of the environment in a
sustainable way.

➢ This management implies an element of conscious choice from a

variety of alternative proposals and furthermore that such a
choice involves purposeful commitment to recognized and desired
objectives.
 Environmental management tool
 Assist decision makers to improve the environmental outcomes of their management decisions
 Helps control human impact on and interactions with the environment
 Tools may include:
i. Environmental Impact Assessment
ii. Environmental monitoring and audit
iii. Life cycle Analysis
iv. Environmental economics
v. Cleaner Production (CP)
vi. Environmental Management Systems (EMS)
 By ensuring optimal use of natural recourses for sustainable development
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

A systematic analysis of
projects, policies, plans or
programmes to determine their
Environmental Impact potential environmental
Assessment can be defined as: - impacts, the significance of
such impacts and to propose
measures to mitigate the
negative ones
 General overview
Ø Natural resource base has become severely stressed due to unstainable use of the resources leading to scarcities of vital
environmental goods and services in many parts of the country.
Ø Need to harmonize environmental laws in Kenya under EMCA for the purpose of coordinating environmental
management.
Ø The National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) (GoK, 1994) and the National Policy on Environment emphasize the need
for environmental impact assessment (EIA) on development projects.
Ø The Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999) clearly makes EIA mandatory for all projects specified in
the Act.
Ø In the NEAP (GoK, 1994), the Government proposes to integrate environmental conservation in economic development
to provide sustainable development for posterity.
Ø This includes integration of environmental considerations in development planning at all levels; promotion of
environmentally sound use of both renewable and non-renewable resources in the process of national development;
establishment of an institutional framework for coordinating, monitoring, and enforcing environmental regulations and
standards; and finally providing human and financial resources to support an environment and development coordinating
agency and an EIA institution
 EIA Guidelines and
Administrative procedures
 Were developed in response to National Policy on Environment
policy framework and legal provisions.
 Purpose is to assist in the integration of environmental concerns
in economic development to foster sustainable development in
Kenya.
 EIA identifies potential environmental impacts of proposed
development activities as well as policies, plans and programmes
of the Government, including those undertaken jointly with bi-
lateral and multi-lateral institutions.
 In addition, EIA identifies measures to mitigate the negative
impacts, while maximizing on the positive ones.
 EIA is essentially a tool that facilitates informed decisions-
making on sustainable development in Kenya.
To ensure that environmental considerations are
explicitly addressed and incorporated into the
development decision making process;

To anticipate and avoid, minimize or offset the

adverse significant biophysical, social and other
relevant effects of development proposals;
Objectives
To protect the productivity and capacity of natural
systems and the ecological processes which
of EIA
maintain their functions; and

To promote development that is sustainable and

optimizes the use of resource and management
opportunities
Legal Framework and
Administration of EIA
 The projects to be subjected to EIA are specified
in the Second Schedule of the Environmental
Management and Coordination Act (1999).
 Environmental audit is also a legal requirement
under Sections 68 and 69 of the Act.
 Besides the schedule activities, the Act
empowers the Minister for the time being
responsible for environmental matters to
prescribe for EIA appraisal any other activity which
in his view may cause significant adverse
environmental impacts.
 Role of NEMA
 Responsible for issuing, varying or cancelling environmental impact
assessment licenses,
 Coordinates the EIA process.
 Responsible for coordinating powers over all public and private
sectors.
 Provides a framework for conflict resolution with respect to:
◦Disputes within and between Central Government departments
◦Disputes between Central Government and Local Authorities
◦Dispute involving the public sector, private enterprise and the public.
 Any complaint regarding compliance with EIA requirements which
NEMA may not resolve is subject to a review by the Environment
Tribunal, with the provisions to bring proceedings in a court of law
where necessary, for judicial review.
 EIA Process
f low
 The underlying key principles of EIA are that every person is
entitled to a clean and healthy environment and that every
person has a duty to enhance, safeguard the environment.
 EIA is both a planning and decision-making tool.
 As a planning tool, EIA presents methodologies and
techniques for identifying, predicting and evaluating
potential environmental impacts of projects, policies, plans
and programmes in the project cycle (planning,
implementation and decommissioning phases).
 The EIA process presents decision-makers with the
information necessary to determine whether or not a project
should be implemented.
 Other principles of EIA

 Environmental concerns must be accounted for in all development activities

 Public participation in the development of projects, policies, plans and programmes important

 Recognition of social and cultural principles traditionally used in the management of the
environment and natural resources

 International cooperation in the use and wise management of shared resources

 Intra-generational and inter-generational equity

 Polluter-pays principle

 The precautionary principle

 The specific objectives are:
• To identify potential environmental impacts
of proposed projects, policies, plans and
programmes
• To assess the significance of these impacts
• To assess the relative importance of the
The overall objective of EIA is to impacts of alternative plans, designs and
ensure that environmental sites;
• To propose mitigation measures for the
concerns are integrated in all significant negative impacts of the project
development activities in order to on the environment;
contribute to contribute to • To generate baseline data for monitoring
sustainable development. and evaluation of how well the mitigation
measures are being implemented during the
project cycle;
• To present information on the impact of
alternatives;
• To present results of the EIA in such a way
that they can guide informed decision-
making.

Objectives of EIA
 The EIA process makes sure that environmental
issues are raised when a project or plan is first
discussed and that all concerns are addressed
as a project gains momentum through to
implementation

EIA process Recommendations made by the EIA may

necessitate the redesign of some project
components, require further studies, suggest
changes, which alter the economic viability of
the project or cause a delay in project
implementation
  To be effective once implementation has commenced, the
EIA should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate
monitoring is undertaken to realise environmental
management. An important output from the EIA process
EIA should be the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such
effective management
process…  To be of most benefit it is essential that an environmental
assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts
early in the project cycle so that recommendations can be
built into the design and cost-benefit analysis without
causing major delays or increased design costs
 EIA process comprises a series of steps, including: -

EIA
i. Screening
ii. Scoping

process… iii.
iv.
Prediction and mitigation
Management and monitoring
v. audit
 Screening
 Is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required
It often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is made on whether or not a full EIA is to
be carried out
This depends on the significance of the project’s environmental impacts (environmental sensitivity)
The significance itself depends on such factors as:
 the sensitivity of the area likely to be affected;
 public health and safety;
 the possibility of uncertain, unique or unknown risks;
 the possibility of having individually insignificant but cumulatively significant impacts;
 whether the proposed activity affects protected areas, endangered or threatened species and habitats;
 size, working methods, project activities including their duration and proposals for waste disposal etc
The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial Environmental Evaluation or
Examination (IEE)
Steps in Screening process
1. Project and site description 4. Evaluation of alternatives

2. Collection of baseline data 5. Consultation and public participation

2. Data analysis 6. Preparation of a project report

3. valuation of significance of 7. Review of project report and

environmental impacts
8. Approval process
Site and Project
Description

 Comprehensive site description includes the following

aspects:
Location of the project, Soils and geology, Water resources,
Drainage, Climate, Vegetation, Land use, Population
characteristics, Infrastructure, and Justification for selecting
the site

 Also, comprehensive information is required on:

Nature of the proposed project, Project activities, Materials
to be used in the project, Project outputs including waste
Collection of Baseline
Data
 Baseline data should be identified, collected and used
to describe the status of the project site before any
activity related to project implementation commences.
 The baseline data are used to assess potential impacts
on health, safety, the environment and the community.
 Environmental data collection programmes must be
kept within manageable proportions taking into
consideration the length of time available for the study.
 It is also advisable to infer, extrapolate, or predict
environmental conditions and responses from baseline
information or from other similar cases where actual data
is lacking
Data Analysis and
Evaluation of Alternatives
 In analyzing data, the following methods may
be used:
• checklist
• matrix
• threshold limit
• overlay
 In evaluating alternatives, emphasis should be
on the following: project, location, technology,
scale, etc.
Consultation and Public Participation
 It is important that all persons likely to be affected by the
project are consulted for their concerns.

 Information regarding all project activities within the project

cycle (planning implementation, decommissioning), materials
to be used, products, waste and waste disposal, economic and
social benefits should be provided.

 The views of the public on all these activities should be

incorporated in the project report.
Preparation of the Project Report
 An Environmental Impact Assessment
Expert should prepare the project report.
 The EIA expert should familiarize
himself/herself with the Environmental
(Impact Assessment and Audit) Regulations
2002.
 Contents of the Project Report
 A project report should include the following details: - Materials to be used, products and by-products,
including waste to be generated by the project and the
- Name of the proponent, PIN number, address and method(s) of their disposal
contact person - Potential environmental impacts of the project;
- Title of the project - Mitigation measures to be taken during and after
implementation of the project;
- Objectives and scope of the project
- An action plan for the prevention and management of
- Nature of the project; foreseeable accidents during the project cycle;
- Location of the proposed project, including the - A plan to ensure the health and safety of the workers,
and neighboring communities;
physical area that may be affected by the project’s
- Economic and social benefits to the local community
activities; and the nation in general
- Types of activities that will be undertaken during the - Project budget;
project construction, operation and decommissioning - Views of the public about the project, indicating
phases; representativeness of the potentially affected people;
and
- Design(s) of the project; - An environmental management plan (EMP) for the
entire project cycle.
Submission of the
Project Report

ON COMPLETI ON, THE PROPONENT SHALL

SUBMI T THE PROJECT REPORT TO THE
AUTHORI TY FOR REVI EW.
  The aim of the review exercise is to ensure the that
following major aspects have been adequately
addressed in the report:
Impact identification
The Review Impact assessment
Adequacy of proposed mitigation measures
Process Adequate consideration of project alternatives
Evidence and adequacy of consultation and public
participation
Implementation process and procedures
Comprehensiveness of the environmental
management plan
 Where the Authority is satisfied that the project will
not have significant environmental impacts or that
the proposed mitigation measures are adequate to
address the identified impacts, the Authority may
issue the EIA License with conditions of approval, if
any.
Decision-
Making

If the project will have significant environmental
impacts and the project report does not disclose
adequate mitigation measures, the Authority shall
require the proponent to undertake an
environmental impact assessment study, which will
assist in determining whether an EIA License can be
issued.
  Is the process used to determine the range of issues to be
addressed in the EIA study;
 It is also the process of identifying the significant issues, which are
related to the proposed project thus will involve community
participation to some degree.
 Its main objective is to focus the EIA on the key issues, while
Scoping ensuring that indirect and secondary effects are not overlooked and
eliminating irrelevant impacts. Thus, scoping identifies the key
concerns, evaluates them, organizes and presents them to aid
decision-making.
 Like in screening, scoping hinges on the issue of significance thus
occurs early in the project cycle at the same time as outline planning
and pre-feasibility studies
 It is during scoping that the Terms of Reference (TOR) for an EIA
Study are formulated.
  Scoping is important for two reasons: -
So that problems can be pinpointed early allowing mitigating
design changes to be made before expensive detailed work is
carried out to ensure that detailed prediction work is only
carried out for important issues

 At this stage the option exists for canceling or drastically

Cont. revising the project should major environmental problems be

identified

 Equally it may be the end of the EIA process should the impacts
be found to be insignificant

 Once this stage has passed, the opportunity for major changes to
the project is restricted
  One of the major activities of scoping is to identify key interest
groups, both governmental and non-governmental, and to
establish good lines of communication
 People who are affected by the project need to hear about it as
soon as possible. Their knowledge and perspectives may have a
major bearing on the focus of the EIA

Cont.  Rapid rural appraisal techniques provide a means of assessing

the needs and views of the affected population
 Impacts are predicted from the scoping exercise using one
or several techniques e.g. ad-hoc methods, baseline studies
checklists, matrices, network diagrams, overlays, cost-
benefit analysis, etc.
 These techniques collect and present knowledge and
information in a straightforward way so that logical decisions can
be made about, which impacts are most significant
Objectives of Scoping
 Identify key issues of concern
 Ensure focus on key issues during the EIA study
 Facilitate focused specialist studies
 Determine the assessment methods to be used.
 Identify all affected persons.
 Provide an opportunity for consultation and public participation.
 Facilitate identification of alternatives.
 Facilitate early agreement on contentious issues.
 Save time and money.
 Steps to be considered in scoping
 Scoping must ensure continuous consultation between the proponent, the
experts, the public (especially potentially affected person) and the Authority.
 The following steps are involved:
i. Develop a communication plan (decide who to talk to and when)
ii. Assemble information that will be the starting point of discussion
iii. Make the information available to those whose views are to obtained
iv. Find out what issues people are concerned about. Make a long list
v. Look at the issues from a technical perspective in preparation for further
study
vi. Organize the information according to issues (grouping, combining and
setting priorities)
vii. Develop a strategy for addressing and resolving each key issue, including
information requirements and terms of reference for further studies
Information should be collected on the nature
of the project, including the list of potential
environmental impacts and practical
alternatives accompanied by maps, drawings

Assembling
and other aids for further understanding of the
proposed project.

The information will help in formulating

Relevant
appropriate mitigation measures and will form
the basis for further discussion.
Existing
Information


Affected persons should be consulted, involved
and made to understand all the issues of
concern relating to the project, which should
be compiled into a comprehensive list.





Identifying and Prioritizing Issues of
Environmental Concern

Once the issues have been identified If certain issues of technical nature remain
and grouped, their scientific validity unresolved, a specialist discussion panel or
needs to be carefully evaluated and workshop can be organized at an
appropriate venue to resolve the issues.
their significance analyzed.
 Consultation and Public Participation (CPP)

 Consultation and public participation is an important tool for conducting a scoping

exercise.

 It should be planned to focus on the affected persons.

 Methods for involving affected persons and for collecting information include:
i. Securing written submissions from Lead Agencies and the public
ii. Public opinion
iii. Holding community meetings and public hearings
iv. Conducting preliminary field study/site visits
v. Conducting workshops/seminars.
vi. Establishing inter-sector task forces
  The Terms of Reference for an EIAS shall be contained in a
scoping report that will be submitted to the Authority for
approval.
Contents of  TOR prepared during a scoping exercise should provide
the specific guidelines for undertaking the EIA study.

Scoping  The scoping results will include, but will not limited to,
the following aspects: Introduction, Project Background,

Report
Project Objectives, Existing Environmental Conditions,

Proposed Project Activities, Identification of Environmental
Impacts, Social Analysis of the Project Alternatives,
Consultation and Public Participation, Social Analysis,
Possible Analysis Information Gaps, Proposed Mitigation
Measures, Conclusions and Recommendations
 Prediction and
mitigation
This stage forms the central part of an EIA

 Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out
in parallel with feasibility studies

 Several major options are likely to have been proposed either at the scoping
stage or before and each option may require separate prediction studies

 Realistic and affordable mitigating measures cannot be proposed without

first estimating the scope of the impacts, which should be in monetary terms
wherever possible

 It then becomes important to quantify the impact of the suggested

improvements by further prediction work. Clearly, options need to be
discarded as soon as their unsuitability can be proved or alternatives shown to
be superior in environmental or economic terms, or both.

 It is also important to test the "without project" scenario

  An important outcome of this stage will be recommendations for
mitigating measures. This would be contained in the
Environmental Impact Statement

Prediction  Clearly the aim will be to introduce measures, which minimize

any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive impacts.

and  Similarly, feasibility studies may indicate that some options are
technically or economically unacceptable and thus environmental

mitigation prediction work for these options will not be required

 Many mitigating measures do not define physical changes but

… require management or institutional changes or additional

investment, such as for health services
 Mitigating measures may also be procedural changes, for
example, the introduction of, or increase in, irrigation service fees
to promote efficiency and water conservation
 Prediction and mitigation…
 By the time prediction and mitigation are undertaken, the project preparation will be advanced,
and a decision will most likely have been made to proceed with the project
 Considerable expenditure may have already been made and budgets allocated for the
implementation of the project
 Major changes could be disruptive to project processing and only accepted if prediction shows
that impacts will be considerably worse than originally identified at the scoping stage
 This phase of an EIA will require good management of a wide range of technical specialists
with particular emphasis on: -
prediction methods;
interpretation of predictions, with and without mitigating measures;
assessment of comparisons
 It is important to assess the required level of accuracy of predictions. Mathematical modelling
is a valuable technique, but care must be taken to choose models that suit the available data
  The main output report (from prediction and mitigation) is
called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a
detailed plan for managing and monitoring environmental
impacts both during and after implementation

Manageme  The part of the EIS covering monitoring and management is

often referred to as the Environmental Action Plan (EAP) or
nt and Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

monitoring  The EAP or EMP sets out: -

The mitigation measures needed for environmental management
(Short-term and long term)
The institutional requirements for implementation
  The term 'institutional' is used here in its broadest context to
encompass relationships: -
Established by law between individuals and government;
Between individuals and groups involved in economic
Manageme transactions;
Developed to articulate legal, financial and administrative links
nt and among public agencies;
Motivated by socio-psychological stimuli among groups and
monitoring individuals

…  One of the more straightforward and effective changes is to set-

up a monitoring programme with clear definition as to which
agencies are responsible for data collection, collation,
interpretation and implementation of management measures
 The purpose of monitoring is to compare predicted and actual
impacts, particularly if the impacts are either very important or
the scale of the impact cannot be very accurately predicted
 Management and monitoring…
 The results of monitoring can be used to manage the environment, particularly to highlight
problems early so that action can be taken

 The range of parameters requiring monitoring may be broad or narrow and will be dictated by the
'prediction and mitigation' stage of the EIA

 Typical areas of concern where monitoring is weak are:

water quality, both inflow and outflow;
stress in sensitive ecosystems;
soil fertility, particularly salinization problems;
water related health hazards;
equity of water distributions;
groundwater levels
Manageme  Monitoring should not be seen as an open-ended
commitment to collect data. If the need for monitoring
nt and ceases, data collection should cease

monitoring  Conversely, monitoring may reveal the need for more

intensive study and the institutional infrastructure must be
… sufficiently flexible to adapt to changing demands
  An audit of the EIA process is carried out some time after
implementation. The audit serves a useful feedback and
Auditing learning function
PUBLIC
PARTICIPATION
IN EIA
DR , SYLVI A MURUNGA
 Introduction: What is public involvement?


 Nearly all EIA systems make provision for some type of public involvement.

 This term includes public consultation (or dialogue) and public participation, which is a more interactive and
intensive process of stakeholder engagement.

 Most EIA processes are undertaken through consultation rather than participation.

 At a minimum, public involvement must provide an opportunity for those directly affected by a proposal to
express their views regarding the proposal and its environmental and social impacts.

The purpose of public involvement is to:

1. Inform the stakeholders about the proposal and its likely effects;

2. Canvass their inputs, views and concerns;

3. Take account of the information and views of the public in the EIA and decision making.
  Projects or programmes do have significant impacts on the local population
 Whilst the aim is to improve the well-being of the population, a lack of
understanding of the people and their society may result in development that
has considerable negative consequences
 More significantly, there may be divergence between national economic
interests and those of the local population
Public  For example, the need to increase local rice production to satisfy increasing
consumption in the urban area may differ from the needs as perceived by the

participati local farmers. To allow for this, public participation in the planning process is
essential

on
 The EIA provides an ideal forum for checking that the affected public have
been adequately consulted and their views taken into account in project
preparation The level of consultation will vary depending on the type of plan or
project
 New projects involving resettlement or displacement will require the most
extensive public participation
 As stated before, the purpose of an EIA is to improve projects and this, to
some extent, can only be achieved by involving those people directly or
indirectly affected
Public consultation will reveal new information,
improve understanding and enable better choices
to be made. Without consultation, legitimate issues
may not be heard, leading to conflict and
unsustainability

There are no clear rules about how to involve the

Public
public and it is important that the process remains
innovative and flexible
participation
…
In practice, the views of people affected by the
plan are likely to be heard through some form of
representation rather than directly
Public

Participation
Spectrum.


Public
involvement
in the EIA
process and
decision
making
Benef its of public
participation
 The main aim of public participation is to encourage the public to
have meaningful input into the decision-making process.

 Public participation thus provides the opportunity for

communication between agencies making decisions and the public.

 This communication can be an early warning system for public

concerns, a means through which accurate and timely information
can be disseminated and can contribute to sustainable decision-
making.

 These benefits apply when public participation is a two-way

process—where both the agency and the public can learn and gain
benefit.

 Effective public participation allows the public’s values to be

identified and incorporated into decisions that ultimately affect them
 A well-organized public participation leads to:
i. Improved understanding of client expectations and user group
needs
ii. Improved agency understanding of conservation issues
iii. Improved agency understanding of the role and contribution of
the community

Cont. iv. Greater continuity in knowledge

v. Ability to build community support for a project and to improve
stakeholder relationships
vi. Improved public understanding of the agency’s responsibilities
vii. Improved staff and community technical knowledge
viii. Improved agency credibility within the community
 ix. Improved quality of decision-making by agencies
x. Enhancement of social capital and flow-on social and
economic benefits
xi. Enhanced and informed political process
xii. Greater compliance through increased ownership of a

Cont. solution
xiii. Greater community advocacy for biodiversity protection

xiv. Greater access to community skills and knowledge

xv. Improved community understanding of conservation

issues and responsibility for conservation outcomes
 Principles for public participation
 The public should have a say in decisions about actions that could affect its members’ lives

 Public participation includes the promise that the public’s contribution will influence the decision

 Public participation promotes sustainable decisions by recognising and communicating the needs
and interests of all participants, including decision making agencies

 Public participation seeks out and facilitates the involvement of those potentially affected by or
interested in a decision

 Public participation seeks input from participants in designing how they participate

 Public participation provides participants with the information they need to participate in a
meaningful way

 Public participation communicates to participants how their input affected the decision
Disadvantages of
public participation
 Public participation can be time-consuming and
sometimes expensive.
 To do it effectively, organisations have to build capacity and train staff.

 If done poorly, public participation processes can

result in, for example, loss of faith in the agency.

 A negative experience of the process may lead

participants to have negative perceptions of the
outcome, and they may be less likely to participate in
future processes.
Evaluation
criteria for
public
participatio
n
EIA as part of
the decision-
making process
Information from an
EIA is only one of the
inputs taken into
consideration.
EIA process and
parallel studies
EIA and
Project
circle
(summary)
 An EIA involves prediction and thus uncertainty is an
integral part
Managing There are two types of uncertainty associated with

uncertaint environmental impact assessments:

◦that associated with the process and,
y ◦whether the most important impacts have been identified or whether
recommendations will be acted upon or ignored
◦that associated with predictions
◦the uncertainty is in the accuracy of the findings
 Uncertainties:

 Uncertainty of prediction: this is important at the data

collection stage and the final certainty will only be resolved once
implementation commences. Research can reduce the
Managing uncertainty;

uncertainty  Uncertainty of values: this reflects the approach taken in the

EIA process. Final certainty will be determined at the time
… decisions are made. Improved communications and extensive
negotiations should reduce this uncertainty;

 Uncertainty of related decision: this affects the decision

making element of the EIA process and final certainty will be
determined by post evaluation. Improved coordination will
reduce uncertainty
 WHO IS INVOLVED IN THE EIA PROCESS?
Five principal groups of stakeholders should be involved. These include:

a) Project proponents who are responsible for commissioning and paying for the EIA process. Proponents usually
include government ministries and departments, private sector companies and development agencies

b) EIA practitioners or service providers who undertake or provide inputs to the EIA process. They include individuals;
organisations; research and academic institutes; NGOs; and both local and international consulting companies. ·

c) Reviewers who are responsible for 'quality control'. They are responsible for determining the level of environmental
assessment required (screening) and ensuring that the EIA process proceeds according to agreed, clear and
comprehensive terms of reference. They also review the EIA process and communicate their f in dings to decision-
makers and other stakeholders. Depending on the complexity and scope of the project, an independent review panel
may be formed for a specific project. Such panel members may be recruited from government ministries, universities
and colleges, and environmental NGOs, together with local and international experts. The public should be notified of
the EIS and requested to present their views and comments and these would be collated by the EIA Agency for
consideration.
 Cont.
d) Decision-makers who are responsible for making decisions on project development once an environmental impact
statement (EIS) has been submitted. They may include central government, local authorities and development
agencies.

e) The public who are the most important stakeholders. The public can contribute ideas and information that can
help to avoid unforeseen problems, improve project design and contribute to monitoring. Experience also shows
that development projects imposed on local communities often fail or under-perform because they lack a sense of
local ownership and public support. They can also result in conflict. EIA provides a mechanism for public
involvement in decision-making. The public also includes interest groups. These are groups that might not be
directly affected by a development proposal, but which have interests in particular aspects of the environment,
such as conservation organisations, NGOs and CBOs. Many of these groups can make valuable contributions to
EIAs.