AVS COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Attur Main Road, Near AVS College of Arts and Science,

Chinnagoundapuram, Salem- 636106

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

EC 8701 / Antennas and Microwave Engineering Notes

EC8701 ANTENNAS AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LTPC3003
OBJECTIVES:
• To enable the student to understand the basic principles in antenna and microwave system design
• To enhance the student knowledge in the area of various antenna designs.
• To enhance the student knowledge in the area of microwave components and antenna for practical
applications.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE SYSTEMS AND ANTENNAS 9
Microwave frequency bands, Physical concept of radiation, Near- and far-field regions, Fields and Power
Radiated by an Antenna, Antenna Pattern Characteristics, Antenna Gain and Efficiency, Aperture
Efficiency and Effective Area, Antenna Noise Temperature and G/T, Impedance matching, Friis
transmission equation, Link budget and link margin, Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver.
UNIT II RADIATION MECHANISMS AND DESIGN ASPECTS 9
Radiation Mechanisms of Linear Wire and Loop antennas, Aperture antennas, Reflector antennas,
Microstrip antennas and Frequency independent antennas, Design considerations and applications.
UNIT III ANTENNA ARRAYS AND APPLICATIONS 9
Two-element array, Array factor, Pattern multiplication, Uniformly spaced arrays with uniform and non-
uniform excitation amplitudes, Smart antennas.
UNIT IV PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES 9
Microwave Passive components: Directional Coupler, Power Divider, Magic Tee, attenuator, resonator,
Principles of Microwave Semiconductor Devices: Gunn Diodes, IMPATT diodes, Schottky Barrier diodes,
PIN diodes, Microwave tubes: Klystron, TWT, Magnetron.
UNIT V MICROWAVE DESIGN PRINCIPLES 9
Impedance transformation, Impedance Matching, Microwave Filter Design, RF and Microwave Amplifier
Design, Microwave Power amplifier Design, Low Noise Amplifier Design, Microwave Mixer Design,
Microwave Oscillator Design
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
The student should be able to:
• Apply the basic principles and evaluate antenna parameters and link power budgets
• Design and assess the performance of various antennas
• Design a microwave system given the application specifications
TEXTBOOKS:
1. John D Krauss, Ronald J Marhefka and Ahmad S. Khan, "Antennas and Wave Propagation: Fourth
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2006. (UNIT I, II, III)
[Link] M. Pozar, "Microwave Engineering", Fourth Edition, Wiley India, 2012.(UNIT I,IV,V)
REFERENCES:
[Link] [Link], ―Antenna Theory Analysis and Design‖, Third edition, John Wiley India Pvt Ltd.,
2005.
[Link], "Foundations for Microwave Engineering", Second edition, IEEE Press, 2001
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE SYSTEMS AND ANTENNAS
Electromagnetic spectrum:

Microwave Frequency Bands:

1
Physical Concept of Radiation ( Radiation Mechanism)
One of the first questions that may be asked concerning antennas would be “how is
radiation accomplished?”
In other words, how are the electromagnetic fields generated by the source, contained and
guided within the transmission line and antenna, and finally “detached” from the antenna
to form a free-space wave?
Let us first examine some basic sources of radiation.
Radiation from Single Wire
Conducting wires are material whose prominent characteristic is the motion of electric
charges and the creation of current flow.
Let us assume that an electric volume charge density, represented by qv (coulombs/m3), is
distributed uniformly in a circular wire of cross-sectional area A and volume V, as shown
in Figure.

The total charge Q with in volume V is moving in the z direction with a uniform velocity
vz (meters/sec). It can be shown that the current density Jz (amperes/m2) over the cross
section of the wire is given by

Jz = qvvz (1a)

If the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the current density Js (amperes/m) resides
on the surface of the wire and it is given by

Js = qsvz (1b)

where qs (coulombs/m2) is the surface charge density.

If the wire is very thin (ideally zero radius), then the current in the wire can be represented
by

Iz = qlvz (1c)

2
where ql (coulombs/m) is the charge per unit length. Instead of examining all three current
densities, we will primarily concentrate on the very thin wire. The conclusions apply to all
three.
If the current is time varying, then the derivative of the current of (1c) can be written as

dIz /dt = ql dvz /dt = qlaz (2)

where dvz/dt = az (meters/sec2) is the acceleration. If the wire is of length l, then (2) can
be written as

l dIz /dt = lql dvz /dt = lqlaz (3)

Equation (3) is the basic relation between current and charge, and it also serves as the
fundamental relation of electromagnetic radiation.
It simply states that to create radiation, there must be a time-varying current or an
acceleration (or deceleration) of charge. We usually refer to currents in time-harmonic
applications while charge is most often mentioned in transients. To create charge
acceleration (or deceleration) the wire must be curved, bent, discontinuous, or terminated.
Periodic charge acceleration (or deceleration) or time-varying current is also created when
charge is oscillating in a time-harmonic motion.
Important Conclusions:
(i)If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no radiation.
(ii)If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
(a)There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
(b)There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or
truncated, as shown in Figure
(iii)If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.

A qualitative understanding of the radiation mechanism may be obtained by

considering a pulse source attached to an open-ended conducting wire, which may be
connected to the ground through a discrete load at its open end, as shown in Figure (d).
When the wire is initially energized, the charges (free electrons) in the wire are set in
motion by the electrical lines of force created by the source. When charges are accelerated
in the source-end of the wire and decelerated (negative acceleration with respect to original
motion) during reflection from its end, it is suggested that radiated fields are produced at
each end and along the remaining part of the wire.
Stronger radiation with a more broad frequency spectrum occurs if the pulses are of
shorter or more compact duration while continuous time-harmonic oscillating charge
produces, ideally, radiation of single frequency determined by the frequency of oscillation.

3
 The acceleration of the charges is accomplished by the external source in which forces
set the charges in motion and produce the associated field radiated. The deceleration of the
charges at the end of the wire is accomplished by the internal (self) forces associated with
the induced field due to the build up of charge concentration at the ends of the wire. The
internal forces receive energy from the charge build up as its velocity is reduced to zero at
the ends of the wire. Therefore, charge acceleration due to an exciting electric field and
deceleration due to impedance discontinuities or smooth curves of the wire are
mechanisms responsible for electromagnetic radiation.

4
 Radiation from Two-Wires
Let us consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line which
is connected to an antenna. This is shown in Figure. Applying a voltage across the two-
conductor transmission line creates an electric field between the conductors. The electric
field has associated with it electric lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at
each point and their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity. The electric lines
of force have a tendency to act on the free electrons (easily detachable from the atoms)
associated with each conductor and force them to be displaced. The movement of the
charges creates a current that in turn creates a magnetic field intensity. Associated with the
magnetic field intensity are magnetic lines of force which are tangent to the magnetic field.
We have accepted that electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative
charges. They also can start on a positive charge and end at infinity, start at infinity and end
on a negative charge, or form closed loops neither starting or ending on any charge.
Magnetic field lines always form closed loops encircling current-carrying conductors
because physically there are no magnetic charges.

The electric field lines drawn between the two conductors help to exhibit the distribution
of charge. If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we expect the electric field
between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a period equal to that of the applied source.
The relative magnitude of the electric field intensity is indicated by the density (bunching) of

5
the lines of force with the arrows showing the relative direction (positive or negative). The
creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields between the conductors forms
electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission line, as shown in Figure (a).
The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated with them electric
charges and corresponding currents. If we remove part of the antenna structure, as shown in
Figure (b), free-space waves can be formed by “connecting” the open ends of the electric lines
(shown dashed).
The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant phase point P0 moves outwardly with
the speed of light and travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1) in the time of one-half of a period. It has
been shown that close to the antenna the constant phase point P0 moves faster than the speed
of light but approaches the speed of light at points far away from the antenna (analogous to
phase velocity inside a rectangular waveguide).
free-space waves and water waves -analogy
The question still unanswered is how the guided waves are detached from the antenna to
create the free-space waves that are indicated as closed loops. Before we attempt to explain
that, let us draw a parallel between the guided and free-space waves, and water waves created
by the dropping of a pebble in a calm body of water or initiated in some other manner.
Once the disturbance in the water has been initiated, water waves are created which begin
to travel outwardly. If the disturbance has been removed, the waves do not stop or extinguish
themselves but continue their course of travel. If the disturbance persists, new waves are
continuously created which lag in their travel behind the others. The same is true with the
electromagnetic waves created by an electric disturbance.
If the initial electric disturbance by the source is of a short duration, the created
electromagnetic waves travel inside the transmission line, then into the antenna, and finally are
radiated as free-space waves, even if the electric source has ceased to exist (as was with the
water waves and their generating disturbance). If the electric disturbance is of a continuous
nature, electromagnetic waves exist continuously and follow in their travel behind the
[Link] is shown in Figure for a biconical antenna. When the electromagnetic waves are
within the transmission line and antenna, their existence is associated with the presence of the
charges inside the conductors. However, when the waves are radiated, they form closed loops
and there are no charges to sustain their existence. This leads us to conclude that electric
charges are required to excite the fields but are not needed to sustain them and may exist in
their absence. This is in direct analogy the water waves.

6
Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns
An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal
radiation in all directions.” Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is often taken
as a reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas.
A directional antenna is one “having the property of radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than in others”. Example of antenna
with directional radiation patterns is shown in Figure.

It is seen that the pattern in Figure below is nondirectional in the azimuth plane [f (φ),
θ = π/2] and directional in the elevation plane [g(θ ), φ = constant]. This type of a pattern is
designated as omnidirectional, and it is defined as one “having an essentially nondirectional
pattern in a given plane (in this case in azimuth) and a directional pattern in any orthogonal
plane (in this case in elevation).” An omnidirectional pattern is then a special type of a
directional pattern.

7
Antenna near and far field(Field Regions of Antenna)
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions:
(a) reactive near-field,
(b) radiating near-field (Fresnel) and
(c) far-field (Fraunhofer) regions as shown in Figure .

These regions are so designated to identify the field structure in each. Although no abrupt
changes in the field configurations are noted as the boundaries are crossed, there are distinct
differences among them.
Reactive near-field region
Reactive near-field region is defined as “that portion of the near-field region
immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field predominates.” For most
antennas, the outer boundary of this region is commonly taken to exist at a distance 𝑅 <
3
0.62√𝐷 ⁄𝜆 from the antenna surface, where λ is the wavelength and D is the largest dimension
of the antenna. “For a very short dipole, or equivalent radiator, the outer boundary is commonly
taken to exist at a distance λ/2π from the antenna surface.”
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is defined as “that region of the field of an antenna
between the reactive near-field region and the far-field region wherein radiation fields
predominate and wherein the angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the
antenna.
If the antenna has a maximum dimension that is not large compared to the wavelength,
this region may not exist. For an antenna focused at infinity, the radiating near-field region is
sometimes referred to as the Fresnel region on the basis of analogy to optical terminology. If
the antenna has a maximum overall dimension which is very small compared to the wavelength,
3
this field region may not exist.” The inner boundary is taken to be the distance 𝑅 ≥ 0.62√𝐷 ⁄𝜆
and the outer boundary the distance R < 2D2/λ where D is the largest∗ dimension of the antenna.
This criterion is based ona maximum phase error of π/8. In this region the field pattern is, in
general, a function of the radial distance and the radial field component may be appreciable.

∗To be valid, D must also be large compared to the wavelength (D > λ)

8
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as “that region of the field of an antenna where
the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. If the
antenna has a maximum∗ overall dimension D, the far-field region is commonly taken to exist
at distances greater than 2D2/λ from the antenna, λ being the wavelength.
The far-field patterns of certain antennas, such as multibeam reflector antennas, are
sensitive to variations in phase over their apertures. For these antennas 2D2/λ may be
inadequate. In physical media, if the antenna has a maximum overall dimension, D, which is
large compared to π/|γ |, the far-field region can be taken to begin approximately at a distance
equal to |γ |D2/π from the antenna, γ being the propagation constant in the medium.
For an antenna focused at infinity, the far-field region is sometimes referred to as the
Fraunhofer region on the basis of analogy to optical terminology.” In this region, the field
components are essentially transverse and the angular distribution is independent of the radial
distance where the measurements are made. The inner boundary is taken to be the radial
distance R = 2D2/λ and the outer one at infinity.
The amplitude pattern of an antenna in different regions
The amplitude pattern of an antenna, as the observation distance is varied from the
reactive near field to the far field, changes in shape because of variations of the fields, both
magnitude and phase.
A typical progression of the shape of an antenna, with the largest dimension D, is shown
in Figure. It is apparent that in the reactive near field region the pattern is more spread out and
nearly uniform, with slight variations. As the observation is moved to the radiating near-field
region(Fresnel), the pattern begins to smooth and form lobes. In the far-field region
(Fraunhofer), the pattern is well formed, usually consisting of few minor lobes and one, or
more, major lobes.

Figure: Typical changes of antenna amplitude pattern shape from reactive near field
toward the far field

9
Antenna Parameters

(a)Radiation pattern.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the magnitude of the far-zone field
strength versus position around the antenna, at a fixed distance from the antenna.
Thus the radiation pattern can be plotted from the pattern function Fθ (θ,φ) or Fφ(θ,φ),
versus either the angle θ (for an elevation plane pattern) or the angle φ (for an azimuthal plane
pattern). The choice of plotting either Fθ or Fφ is dependent on the polarization of the antenna.

(b)main lobe, side lobe, minor lobe and back lobe with reference to antenna radiation
pattern.
Major Lobe: Major lobe is also called as main beam and is defined as “the radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation”. In some antennas, there may be more than
one major lobe.
Minor lobe: All the lobes except the major lobes are called minor lobe.
Side lobe: A side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe.
Back lobe: Normally refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction
opposite to that of the major(main) lobe .
• Minor lobes normally represents radiation in undesired directions and they should be
minimized.

(c) Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) of an antenna.

Half Power Beam Width is a measure of directivity of an antenna. It is an angular
width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern (main lobe) between points where the
radiated power has fallen to half its maximum value.

10
(d) beam solid angle
The beam area or beam solid angle  A for antenna is given by integral of the
normalized power pattern over a sphere.
2 
A =   P ( , ) d
0 0
n steradian

Pn ( ,  ) = Normalized power pattern

Beam solid angle is also given approximately by
 A =  HP  HP steradian
 HP = HPBW in E − plane or  plane
 HP = HPBW in H − plane or  plane
(e) Beam Width between First Null
Beam width between first null (BWFN) is the angular width in degrees, measured on
the radiation pattern between first null points on either side of the main lobe.

(f)Radiation Intensity
Radiation Intensity 𝑈(𝜃, ∅) in given direction is defined as the power per unit solid
angle in that direction.
• The power radiated per unit area in any direction is given by pointing vector P.
• For distant field for which E and H are orthogonal in a plane normal to the radius
vector,
E2
The power flow per unit area is given by P = watts / sqm
v
• 2
There are r square meters of surface area per unit solid angle( or steradian).
𝑟 2𝐸2
• 𝑈(𝜃, ∅) = 𝑟 2 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝜂𝑣
The radiation intensity gives the variation in radiated power versus position around the
antenna. We can find the total power radiated by the antenna by integrating the Poynting vector
over the surface of a sphere that encloses the antenna. This is equivalent to integrating the
radiation intensity over a unit sphere.
2𝜋 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ∫ ∫ 𝑈(𝜃, ∅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅

∅=0 𝜃=0
(g) Directivity of an antenna
The directivity(D) of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the maximum value of the
power radiated per unit solid angle to the average power radiated per unit solid angle.
That is, directivity is ratio of the maximum radiation intensity in the main beam to the average
radiation intensity over all space.

11
 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷= = = 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄ 𝑈(𝜃, ∅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
4𝜋 ∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0
Thus, the directivity measures how intensely the antenna radiates in its preferred direction than
an isotropic radiator would when fed with the same total power.
Directivity is a dimensionless ratio of power, and is usually expressed in dB as D(dB) = 10
log(D)
directivity of isotropic radiator:
An isotropic radiator is a hypothetical loss less radiator having equal radiation in all
directions.
2𝜋 𝜋
U(θ,φ) = 1 for isotropic antenna. Applying the integral identity, ∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ = 4𝜋,
we have,

4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷= 2𝜋 𝜋 =1
∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝑈(𝜃, ∅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅

The directivity of an isotropic antenna is D = 1, or 0 dB.

Relationship between Directivity and beamwidth

Beamwidth and directivity are both measures of the focusing ability of an antenna: an antenna
pattern with a narrow main beam will have a high directivity, while a pattern with a wide beam
will have a lower directivity.
Approximate relation between beam width and directivity that apply with reasonable
accuracy for antennas with pencil beam patterns is the following:
32,000
𝐷≅ where θ1 and θ2 are the beam widths in two orthogonal planes of the main
𝜃1 𝜃2
beam, in degrees. This approximation does not work well for omnidirectional patterns because
there is a well-defined main beam in only one plane for such patterns.
(h) radiation efficiency of antenna
Radiation efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiated output power to the
supplied input power.
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = =1−
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛
where Prad is the power radiated by the antenna, Pin is the power supplied to the input of the
antenna, and Ploss is the power lost in the antenna(dissipative losses) due to metal conductivity
or dielectric loss with in the antenna.

(i)Gain of an antenna
The gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a measure that takes into
account the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional capabilities.
Antenna gain is defined as the product of directivity and efficiency:
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐺 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝐷.
Thus, gain is always less than or equal to directivity.
(j) Aperture efficiency
Aperture efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual directivity of an aperture antenna to the
maximum directivity of aperture antenna.

12
The maximum directivity that can be obtained from an electrically large aperture of area A is
4𝜋𝐴
given as, 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜆2
𝐷
𝜂𝑎𝑝 = 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑦 = 𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥

(k) Effective aperture area

Received power is proportional to the power density, or Poynting vector, of the incident wave.
Since the Poynting vector has dimensions of W/m2, and the received power, Pr, has dimensions
of W, the proportionality constant must have units of area.
We have, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝐴𝑒 × 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔
where Ae is defined as the effective aperture area of the receive antenna. The effective aperture
area has dimensions of m2, and can be interpreted as the “capture area” of a receive antenna,
intercepting part of the incident power density radiated toward the receive antenna.
relation between effective aperture area and Directivity(gain)
The maximum effective aperture area of an antenna is related to the directivity of the antenna
as,
𝐷𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 =
4𝜋
The maximum effective aperture area as defined above does not include the effect of losses in
the antenna, which can be accounted for by replacing D with G, the gain, of the antenna.
𝐺𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 = 4𝜋

(l)Antenna Brightness temperature

When the antenna beam width is broad enough that different parts of the antenna pattern see
different background temperatures, the effective brightness temperature seen by the antenna
can be found by weighting the spatial distribution of background temperature by the pattern
function of the antenna.
Mathematically we can write the brightness temperature Tb seen by the antenna as
2𝜋 𝜋
∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝑇𝐵 (𝜃, ∅)𝐷(𝜃, ∅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
𝑇𝑏 = 2𝜋 𝜋
∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝐷(𝜃, ∅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
Where 𝑇𝐵 (𝜃, ∅) is the distribution of the background temperature, and 𝐷(𝜃, ∅) is the
directivity (or the power pattern function) of the antenna. Antenna brightness temperature is
referenced at the terminals of the antenna. Observe that when TB is a constant, Tb = TB
(m) Antenna Noise Temperature
If a receiving antenna has dissipative loss, so that its radiation efficiency ηrad is less than
unity, the power available at the terminals of the antenna is reduced by the factor ηrad from that
intercepted by the antenna (the definition of radiation efficiency is the ratio of output to input
power).
This reduction applies to received noise power, as well as received signal power, so the
noise temperature of the antenna will be reduced from the brightness temperature by the factor
ηrad.
In addition, thermal noise will be generated internally by resistive losses in the antenna,
and this will increase the noise temperature of the antenna. We can find the resulting noise
temperature seen at the antenna terminals as,
TA = ηradTb + (1 − ηrad)Tp.

13
 The equivalent temperature TA is called the antenna noise temperature, and is a
combination of the external brightness temperature seen by the antenna and the thermal noise
generated by the antenna.
Note: This temperature is referenced at the output terminals of the antenna.
TA = Tb for a lossless antenna with ηrad = 1.
If the radiation efficiency is zero, meaning that the antenna appears as a matched load and does
not see any external background noise, then TA = Tp , due to the thermal noise generated by the
losses.
(n)G/T ratio
Useful figure of merit for receive antennas is the G/T ratio, defined as 10 log( G/ TA)
dB/K, where G is the gain of the antenna, and TA is the antenna noise temperature.
This quantity is important because, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the input to a
receiver is proportional to G/TA. The ratio G/T can often be maximized by increasing the gain
of the antenna, since this increases the numerator and usually minimizes reception of noise
from hot sources at low elevation angles. Of course, higher gain requires a larger and more
expensive antenna, and high gain may not be desirable for applications requiring
omnidirectional coverage (e.g., cellular telephones or mobile data networks), so often a
compromise must be made.
Note: that the dimensions given for 10 log(G/T ) are not actually decibels per degree kelvin,
but this is the nomenclature that is commonly used for this quantity.

14
Friis Transmission Formula
This formula gives the power received over a radio communication link.

Let the transmitter feed a power Pt to a transmitting antenna of effective aperture [Link] a
distance r a receiving antenna of effective aperture Aer, intercepts some of the power radiated
by the transmitting antenna and delivers it to the receiver.
Assuming that the transmitting antenna is isotropic, the power per unit area at the receiving
antenna is
𝑃
𝑆𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟𝑡 2 (W) ----- 1

If the transmitting antenna has gain Gt, the power per unit area at the receiving antenna will be
increased in proportion as given by,
𝑃𝐺
𝑡 𝑡
𝑆𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 (w) ------- 2

Now, the power collected by the receiving antenna of effective aperture Aer is,
𝐴𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐴𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑟 = (w) --------3
4𝜋𝑟 2

The gain of the transmitting antenna can be expressed as,

4𝜋𝐴𝑒𝑡
𝐺𝑡 = ----- 4a
𝜆2
4𝜋𝐴𝑒𝑟
𝐺𝑟 = ------ 4b
𝜆2

Substituting for gain in equation 3, we have,

𝐴𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝐴𝑒𝑡 4𝜋 𝐴𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝐴𝑒𝑡
𝑃𝑟 = = ------- 5a
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜆2 𝑟 2 𝜆2

In terms of antenna gain, received power can be expressed as,

𝐺 𝑃 𝐺 𝜆2
𝑟 𝑡 𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 = 4𝜋×4𝜋𝑟 2 = (4𝜋𝑟)2
-------- 5b

Equation 5 is Friis transmission formula

𝐺𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 =
(4𝜋𝑟)2
Pr = Received power ( antenna matched) in W
Pt = power in to transmitting antenna in W

1
Aet = Effective aperture of transmitting antenna, m2
Aer = Effective aperture of Receiving antenna, m2
r = distance between transmitting and receiving antenna, m
λ = wave length, m
EIRP and it’s significance
The product PtGt is defined as the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP).
EIRP = PtGt W
For a given frequency, range, and receiver antenna gain, the received power is proportional to
the EIRP of the transmitter and received power can only be increased by increasing the EIRP.
This can be done by increasing the transmit power, or the transmit antenna gain, or both.
Path Loss
Path loss is the quantity that account for the free-space reduction in signal strength with
distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Path loss = Transmitted power- Received power=Pt - Pr
Assuming unity gain antennas, path loss is given as( using Friis formula)
4𝜋𝑟
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝜆

Link Budget and Link Margin

The various terms in the Friis formula are often tabulated separately in a link budget, where
each of the factors can be individually considered in terms of its net effect on the received
power.
Additional loss factors, such as line losses or impedance mismatch at the antennas, atmospheric
attenuation, and polarization mismatch can also be added to the link budget.

One of the terms in a link budget is the path loss, accounting for the free-space reduction in
signal strength with distance between the transmitter and receiver.

Path loss= Transmitted power- Received power=Pt-Pr

Assuming unity gain antennas, path loss is given as( using Friis formula)
4𝜋𝑟
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝜆
We can write the budget as shown in the following link budget:

Transmit power Pt
Transmit antenna line loss (−)Lt
Transmit antenna gain Gt
Path loss (free-space) (−)L0
Atmospheric attenuation (−)LA
Receive antenna gain Gr
Receive antenna line loss (−)Lr

Receive power Pr

2
 We have also included loss terms for atmospheric attenuation and line attenuation.
Assuming that all of the above quantities are expressed in dB (or dBm, in the case of Pt), we
can write the receive power as
Pr(dBm) = Pt − Lt + Gt − L0 − LA + Gr − Lr

If the transmit and/or receive antenna is not impedance matched to the transmitter/
receiver (or to their connecting lines), impedance mismatch will reduce the received power by
the factor (1 − |Γ|2 ) where Γ is the appropriate reflection coefficient.

The resulting impedance mismatch loss,

Limp(dB) = −10 log(1 − | Γ |2) ≥ 0,
can be included in the link budget to account for the reduction in received power.
Another possible entry in the link budget relates to the polarization matching of the
transmit and receive antennas, as maximum power transmission between transmitter and
receiver requires both antennas to be polarized in the same manner.
If a transmit antenna is vertically polarized, for example, maximum power will only be
delivered to a vertically polarized receiving antenna, while zero power would be delivered to a
horizontally polarized receive antenna, and half the available power would be delivered to a
circularly polarized antenna.
Link Margin
In practical communications systems it is usually desired to have the received power
level greater than the threshold level required for the minimum acceptable quality of service
(usually expressed as the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR), or minimum SNR).
This design allowance for received power is referred to as the link margin, and can be
expressed as the difference between the design value of received power and the minimum
threshold value of receive power:

Link margin (dB) = LM = Pr − Pr(min) > 0, where all quantities are in dB.

Link margin should be a positive number; typical values may range from 3 to 20
[Link] a reasonable link margin provides a level of robustness to the system to account for
variables such as signal fading due to weather, movement of a mobile user, multipath
propagation problems, and other unpredictable effects that can degrade system performance.
Link margin for a given communication system can be improved by increasing the
received power (by increasing transmit power or antenna gains), or by reducing the minimum
threshold power (by improving the design of the receiver, changing the modulation method, or
by other means)
Fade margin.
Signal fading occur due to weather, movement of a mobile user, multipath propagation
problems, and other unpredictable effects that can degrade system performance and quality of
service. Link margin that is used to account for fading effects is sometimes referred to as fade
margin.

Noise Characterization of a Microwave Receiver

(i)NOISE FIGURE and EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPERATURE of a SYSTEM
(General concepts)

3
The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of desired signal power to undesired noise power, and so
is dependent on the signal power.
When noise and a desired signal are applied to the input of a noiseless network, both noise and
signal will be attenuated or amplified by the same factor, so that the signal-to-noise ratio will
be unchanged.
However, if the network is noisy, the output noise power will be increased more than the output
signal power, so that the output signal-to-noise ratio will be reduced.
The noise figure, F, is a measure of this reduction in signal-to-noise ratio, and is defined as,
𝑆𝑖
⁄𝑁
𝑖
𝐹= 𝑆𝑜 ≥1 --------------- (1)
⁄𝑁
𝑜

where Si, Ni are the input signal and noise powers, and So, No are the output signal and noise
powers. By definition, the input noise power is assumed to be the noise power resulting from
a matched resistor at T0 = 290 K; that is, Ni = kT0B.

Consider Figure shown above, which shows noise power Ni and signal power Si being fed into
a noisy two-port network.
The network is characterized by a gain, G, a bandwidth, B, and an equivalent noise temperature,
Te.
The input noise power is Ni = kT0B, and the output noise power is a sum of the amplified input
noise and the internally generated noise: No = kGB(T0 + Te).
The output signal power is So = GSi . Using these results in (1) gives the noise figure as,
𝑆 𝑘𝐺𝐵(𝑇𝑜 +𝑇𝑒 ) 𝑇
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇𝑖 𝐵 × = 1 + 𝑇𝑒 ≥ 1 -----------(2)
𝑜 𝐺𝑆𝑖 𝑜

𝑇𝑒 = (𝐹 − 1)𝑇𝑜 -----------(3)
It is important to keep in mind two things concerning the definition of noise figure: noise figure
is defined for a matched input source, and for a noise source equivalent to a matched load at
temperature T0 = 290 K. Noise figure and equivalent noise temperatures are interchangeable
characterizations of the noise properties of a component.

4
An important special case occurs in practice for a two-port network consisting of a passive,
lossy component, such as an attenuator or lossy transmission line, held at a physical
temperature T . Consider such a network with a matched source resistor that is also at
temperature T , as shown in Figure.

The power gain, G, of a lossy network is less than unity; the loss factor, L, can be defined as L
= 1/G > 1. Because the entire system is in thermal equilibrium at the temperature T, and has a
driving point impedance of R, the output noise power must be No = kTB. However, we can
also think of this power as coming from the source resistor (attenuated by the lossy line), and
from the noise generated by the line itself. Thus we also have that
No = kTB = GkTB + G Nadded ----------(4)
Where Nadded is the noise generated by the line, as if it appeared at the input terminals of the
line. Solving (4) for this power gives
(1−𝐺)
𝑁𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵 = (𝐿 − 1)𝑘𝑇𝐵 ---------- (5)
𝐺

Then (5) shows that the lossy line has an equivalent noise temperature (referred to the input)
given by,
𝑇𝑒 = (𝐿 − 1)𝑇 ----------- (6)
Noise figure is,
(𝐿−1)𝑇
𝐹 =1+ ≥ 1 -------(7)
𝑇𝑜

Noise Figure of a Cascaded System

In a typical microwave system the input signal travels through a cascade of many different
components, each of which may degrade the signal-to-noise ratio to some degree. If we know
the noise figure (or noise temperature) of the individual stages, we can determine the noise
figure (or noise temperature) of the cascade connection of stages.
We will see that the noise performance of the first stage is usually the most critical, an
interesting result that is very important in practice.
Consider the cascade of two components, having gains G1, G2, noise figures F1, F2, and
equivalent noise temperatures Te1, Te2, as shown in Figure.

5
We wish to find the overall noise figure and equivalent noise temperature of the cascade, as if
it were a single component. The overall gain of the cascade is G1G2.
Using noise temperatures, we can write the noise power at the output of the first stage as
N1 = G1kT0B + G1kTe1B --------------- (8)
since Ni = kT0B for noise figure calculations. The noise power at the output of the second stage
is
No = G2N1 + G2kTe2B
𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 k𝑇𝑜 B + 𝐺1 𝐺2 k𝑇𝑒1 B + 𝐺2 k𝑇𝑒2 B
𝑇𝑒2
𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝐵 (𝑇𝑜 + 𝑇𝑒1 + ) ------- (9)
𝐺1

For the equivalent system we have,

𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝐵(𝑇𝑜 + 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) ------ (10)
Where,
𝑇𝑒2
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒1 + --------- (11)
𝐺1

Using (3) to convert the temperatures in (11) to noise figures yields the noise figure of the
cascade system as,
(𝐹2 −1)
𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝐹1 + -------- (12)
𝐺1

Equations (11) and (12) show that the noise characteristics of a cascaded system are dominated
by the characteristics of the first stage since the effect of the second stage is reduced by the
gain of the first (assuming G1 > 1).
Thus, for the best overall system noise performance, the first stage should have a low noise
figure and at least moderate gain. Expense and effort should be devoted primarily to the first
stage, as opposed to later stages, since later stages have a diminished impact on the overall
noise performance.
Equations (11) and (12) can be generalized to an arbitrary number of stages, as

6
 𝑇𝑒2 𝑇
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒1 + + 𝐺 𝑒3𝐺 + … … --------(13)
𝐺1 1 2

(𝐹2 −1) (𝐹3 −1)

𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝐹1 + + + … … --------(14)
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2

(ii) Noise Characterization of Receiver

We can now analyze the noise characteristics of a complete antenna–transmission line–
receiver front end, as shown in Figure. In this system the total noise power at the output of the
receiver, No, will be due to contributions from the antenna pattern, the loss in the antenna, the
loss in the transmission line, and the receiver components.
This noise power will determine the minimum detectable signal level for the receiver and, for
a given transmitter power, the maximum range of the communication link.

The receiver components in Figure consist of an RF amplifier with gain GRF and noise
temperature TRF, a mixer with an RF-to-IF conversion loss factor LM and noise temperature TM
, and an IF amplifier with gain GIF and noise temperature TIF.
The noise effects of later stages can usually be ignored since the overall noise figure is
dominated by the characteristics of the first few stages.
The component noise temperatures can be related to noise figures as T = (F − 1)T0.
The equivalent noise temperature of the receiver can be found as
𝑇 𝑇𝐼𝐹 𝐿𝑀
𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 𝑇𝑅𝐹 + 𝐺 𝑀 + -------------- (1)
𝑅𝐹 𝐺𝑅𝐹

The transmission line connecting the antenna to the receiver has a loss LT , and is at a physical
temperature Tp. So, its equivalent noise temperature is
𝑇𝑇𝐿 = (𝐿𝑇 − 1)𝑇𝑝 --------- (2)

We can find that the noise temperature of the transmission line (TL) and receiver (REC)
cascade is
𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇𝐿 + 𝐿𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 = (𝐿𝑇 − 1)𝑇𝑝 + 𝐿𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 --------- (3)

7
This noise temperature is defined at the antenna terminals (the input to the transmission line).
The entire antenna pattern can collect noise power. If the antenna has a reasonably high gain
with relatively low sidelobes, we can assume that all noise power comes via the main beam, so
that the noise temperature of the antenna is given by,
𝑇𝐴 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + (1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝑇𝑝 -------- (4)

where ηrad is the efficiency of the antenna, Tp is its physical temperature, and Tb is the
equivalent brightness temperature of the background seen by the main beam.
The noise power at the antenna terminals, which is also the noise power delivered to the
transmission line, is
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵[𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + (1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝑇𝑝 ] -----------(5)

where B is the system bandwidth. If Si is the received power at the antenna terminals, then the
input SNR at the antenna terminals is Si /Ni .
The output signal power is,
𝑆𝑖 𝐺𝑅𝐹 𝐺𝐼𝐹
𝑆𝑜 = = 𝑆𝑖 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆 ------ (6)
𝐿𝑇 𝐿𝑀

where GSYS has been defined as a system power gain.

The output noise power is,
𝑁𝑜 = (𝑁𝑖 + 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 )𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆
𝑁𝑜 = (𝑘𝐵𝑇𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 )𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆
𝑁𝑜 = 𝑘𝐵(𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 )𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆 ----------- (7)
where TSYS has been defined as the overall system noise temperature.
The output SNR is,
𝑆𝑜 𝑆
= 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑖 --------- (8)
𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑌𝑆

𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑖
= 𝑘𝐵[𝜂
𝑁𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 +(1−𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝑇𝑝 +(𝐿𝑇 −1)𝑇𝑝 +𝐿𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 ]

It may be possible to improve this output SNR by various signal processing techniques.

8
 UNIT II
RADIATION MECHANISMS AND DESIGN ASPECTS
▪ RADIATION MECHANISMS OF LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS
➢ Alternating Current Element (Oscillating Dipole/ Hertzian dipole)
➢ Half-wave Dipole Antenna∗
▪ LOOP ANTENNAS∗
▪ APERTURE ANTENNAS
➢ Wire Antennas Vs Aperture Antennas
➢ Field Equivalence Principle⋕
➢ Horn Antennas∗
• Design Principle
• Rectangular Horn Antennas and Solved Problem
• Conical Horn Antennas
• Ridge Horns
• Septum Horns
• Corrugated Horns
• Aperture-Matched Horn
➢ Slot Antennas
• Methods of Feeding∗
1. Coaxial feed
2. Offset feed
3. Boxed-in Slot Antenna
4. Waveguide-fed Slot
5. Broadside Array of Slots in a Waveguide
• Babinet’s Principle⋕
• Booker’s Extension of Babinet’s Principle⋕
• Impedance of Slot Antenna and Solved Problem⋕
▪ REFLECTOR ANTENNAS
➢ Reflectors of various shapes
➢ Parabolic Reflector∗
• f/d ratio
• Feed systems for Parabolic Reflectors
1. Axial/Front Feed
2. Offset Feed
3. Cassegrain Feed
4. Gregorian Feed

Page 1 of 20
 ▪ MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS
➢ Basic Characteristics of Microstrip antennas∗
➢ Feeding Methods∗
• Microstrip Line Feed
• Coaxial Probe Feed
• Aperture Coupled Feed
• Proximity Coupled Feed
➢ Methods of Analysis
• Transmission-Line Model
• Cavity Model
▪ FREQUENCY INDEPENDENT ANTENNAS
➢ Rumsey’s principle⋕
➢ Frequency-Independent Planar Log Spiral Antenna∗
➢ Frequency Independent Conical Spiral Antenna
➢ Log-Periodic Antenna∗
• Basic concept
• Regions of LPDA
• Radiation pattern
• Log-periodic behaviour
• Design equations for LPDA
• Solved Problem

⋕ Sections requiring additional attention in the perspective of Part-A.

∗ Sections requiring additional attention in the perspective of Part-B.

Page 2 of 20
Page 3 of 20
Page 4 of 20
Page 5 of 20
Far-field due to an Alternating Current Element (Oscillating Dipole/ Hertzian dipole)
Consider that a time varying current I is flowing in a very short and very thin wire of length dl
in the z-direction. This current is given by 𝐼𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔𝑡. Since the current is in the z-direction,
the current density J will have only a z-component.
𝐽 = 𝑎𝑧 𝐽𝑧 (1)
The vector magnetic potential A will also have only a z-component.
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑧 𝐴𝑧 (2)

Configuration of filamentary current carrying conductor

For a line charge density,
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
𝐴𝑧 = ∫ = (3)
4𝜋𝑅 4𝜋𝑟
We know that 𝐴𝑥 = 0, 𝐴𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑧 ≠ 0. Since the three-dimensional radiation problem
needs to be tackled in a spherical co-ordinate system, 𝐴𝑧 needs to be transformed into the
spherical co-ordinate system.
𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑥
[ 𝐴𝜃 ] = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃] [𝐴𝑦 ]
𝐴𝜙 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 0 𝐴𝑧

𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0

[ 𝐴𝜃 ] = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] [ 0 ]
𝐴𝜙 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 0 𝐴𝑧

𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ; 𝐴𝜃 = −𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 𝐴𝜙 = 0 (4)

𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)

𝐴𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (5)
4𝜋𝑟
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)
𝐴𝜃 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (6)
4𝜋𝑟

Page 6 of 20
Further from the relation 𝐵 = ∇ × 𝐴, the components of ∇ × 𝐴 are obtained as below.
𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐵 = ∇×𝐴 = 2 || |
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙 |
𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴𝜙
𝜕
We know that 𝐴𝜙 = 0 and 𝐴𝑟 & 𝐴𝜃 are independent of 𝜙. So 𝜕𝜙 = 0.

𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕
𝐵 =∇×𝐴= 2 | 0 |
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴𝜃 0
1 𝜕(𝑟𝐴𝜃 ) 𝜕𝐴𝑟
𝐵 = ∇×𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑟 (0) − 𝑟𝑎 𝜃 (0) + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎 𝜙 ( − )]
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
(∇ × 𝐴)𝑟 = 𝐵𝑟 = 𝜇𝐻𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝐻𝑟 = 0 (7)
(∇ × 𝐴)𝜃 = 𝐵𝜃 = 𝜇𝐻𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝐻𝜃 = 0 (8)
1 𝜕(𝑟𝐴𝜃 ) 𝜕𝐴𝑟
(∇ × 𝐴)𝜙 = 𝐵𝜙 = 𝜇𝐻𝜙 = {𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ( − )}
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝟏 𝝏(𝒓𝑨𝜽 ) 𝝏𝑨𝒓
⇒ 𝑯𝝓 = [ − ] (𝟗)
𝝁𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝜽

To find 𝑯𝝓

Using eq(6),
𝜕(𝑟𝐴𝜃 ) 𝜕 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕
= (−𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = − [cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)]
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋 𝜕𝑟
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝜔
=− ( ) [−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )]
4𝜋 𝑣
𝜕(𝑟𝐴𝜃 ) 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔
=− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) (10)
𝜕𝑟 4𝜋 𝑣
Using eq(5)
𝜕𝐴𝑟 𝜕 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) 𝜕
= ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝐴𝑟 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (11)
𝜕𝜃 4𝜋𝑟
Using eq(10) and eq(11) in eq(9),
𝟏 𝝏(𝒓𝑨𝜽 ) 𝝏𝑨𝒓
𝑯𝝓 = [ − ]
𝝁𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝜽

Page 7 of 20
 1 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
𝐻𝜙 = [(− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) ) − (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)]
𝜇𝑟 4𝜋 𝑣 4𝜋𝑟

1 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)

𝐻𝜙 = [− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]
𝜇𝑟 4𝜋 𝑣 4𝜋𝑟

𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜇 𝜔 𝜇 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )

𝐻𝜙 = [− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + ]
4𝜋 𝜇𝑟 𝑣 𝜇𝑟 2

𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎(𝒕 − 𝒓⁄𝒗)

𝑯𝝓 = [− ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎(𝒕 − 𝒓⁄𝒗) + ] (𝟏𝟐)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝒗 𝒓𝟐

Now our objective is to find the electric field components from the magnetic field strength
relations.
From Maxwell’s Equation,
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⁄𝜕𝑡 = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 𝜕𝐸 ⁄𝜕𝑡
The observation point P lies at a distance r away from the antenna. Moreover, the medium
surrounding the antenna element is air. Hence 𝜎 = 0.
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜀 𝜕𝐸 ⁄𝜕𝑡
1
⇒𝐸= ∫(∇ × 𝐻) 𝑑𝑡
𝜀
𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐻 = 2 || |
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙 |
𝐻𝑟 𝑟𝐻𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙

Using eq(7), eq(8) and eq(9), 𝐻𝑟 = 0, 𝐻𝜃 = 0 & 𝐻𝜙 ≠ 0

𝜕𝐻𝜙
From eq(12), we can observe that 𝐻𝜙 is independent of 𝜙 ⇒ =0
𝜕𝜙

𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐻 = 2 | 0 |
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
0 0 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐻 = [𝑎 𝑟 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 ) − 𝑟𝑎 𝜃 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 )]
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕
(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 = [ (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 )] (13)
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃
1 𝜕 −1 𝜕
(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 = [−𝑟 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 )] = [ (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 )] (14)
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟
(∇ × 𝐻)𝜙 = 0 ⇒ 𝑬𝝓 = 𝟎 (𝟏𝟓)

Now we have to find 𝐸𝑟 and 𝐸𝜃

Page 8 of 20
To find 𝑬𝒓
1
𝐸𝑟 = ∫(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝜀
1 𝜕
(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 = [ (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 )]
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃
Using eq(12),
1 𝜕 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 = [ {𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ( − ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟 ⁄𝑣 ) + )} ]
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2

1 𝑟 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) 𝜕

= ( − ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + )[ (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) ]
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃

1 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )

= ( − ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + ) [2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2

1 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )

(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 = ( − ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + ) (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2

2 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)

(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 = ( − ( 2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + )
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑣 𝑟3

Using above equation,

1
𝐸𝑟 = ∫(∇ × 𝐻)𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝜀
2 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
𝐸𝑟 = ∫ [− ( 2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + ] 𝑑𝑡
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑣 𝑟3
2 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜔 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) sin 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)
= [− ( 2 ) + ]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑣 𝜔 𝜔𝑟 3

𝟐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎(𝒕 − 𝒓⁄𝒗) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎(𝒕 − 𝒓⁄𝒗)

𝑬𝒓 = [ 𝟐
+ ] (𝟏𝟔)
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓 𝒗 𝝎𝒓𝟑

To find 𝑬𝜽
1
𝐸𝜃 = ∫(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝜀
−1 𝜕
(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 = [ (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐻𝜙 )]
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟

Using eq(12),
−1 𝜕 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)
(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 = { 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + ]}
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2

Page 9 of 20
 −1 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕 𝑟𝜔 𝑟 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) + ]
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4𝜋 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2

−𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕 𝜔 cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)

= [− ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) + ]
4𝜋𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑣 𝑟
−𝜔
−𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 2 −𝑟 ( 𝑣 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) − cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)
= [( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) + ]
4𝜋𝑟 𝑣 𝑟2

𝑟𝜔
−𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 2 ( 𝑣 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
= [( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) + − ]
4𝜋𝑟 𝑣 𝑟2 𝑟2

−𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)

(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 = [ + − ]
4𝜋𝑟 𝑣2 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2
1
𝐸𝜃 = ∫(∇ × 𝐻)𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝜀
1 −𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )
𝐸𝜃 = ∫ [ + − ] 𝑑𝑡
𝜀 4𝜋𝑟 𝑣2 𝑟𝑣 𝑟2

−𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) sin 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)

= [ − − ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑣 2𝜔 𝑟𝑣𝜔 𝜔𝑟 2
−𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) sin 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣)
= [ − − ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑣2 𝑟𝑣 𝜔𝑟 2

𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣) sin 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣 )

𝐸𝜃 = [− + + ]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑣 2 𝑟 2𝑣 𝜔𝑟 3

Putting 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣,
𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕′ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕′
𝑬𝜽 = [− + + ] (𝟏𝟕)
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝒗𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒗 𝝎𝒓𝟑

Putting 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣, eq(16) becomes

𝟐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕′
𝑬𝒓 = [ + ] (𝟏𝟖)
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐 𝒗 𝝎𝒓𝟑

Putting 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑣, eq(12) becomes

𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝎 ′
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕′
𝑯𝝓 = [− ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + ] (𝟏𝟗)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝒗 𝒓𝟐

Page 10 of 20
Inference
The expressions of 𝐸𝑟 , 𝐸𝜃 and 𝐻𝜙 involve three types of terms:

1. The terms inversely proportional to 𝑟 3 represent electrostatic field.

2. The terms inversely proportional to 𝑟 2 represent induction or near-field.
3. The terms which are inversely proportional to r represent radiation field (distant or
far-field)
It can be noted the magnitudes of the two bracketed terms in eq(19) will become equal if the
following relation is satisfied:
𝜔 1 𝑣 𝑓𝜆 𝜆 𝝀
= 2 ⇒ 𝑟= = = ⟹ 𝒓≈
𝑟𝑣 𝑟 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 𝟔
Far-field Region or Radiation Zone
When the distance between the antenna and observation point (r) is very large, the terms
1⁄ and 1⁄ in eq(17), eq(18) and eq(19) can be neglected in favour of terms of 1⁄ .
𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟
𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕′
𝑬𝜽 ≈ [− ] (𝟐𝟎)
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝒗𝟐

𝑬𝒓 ≈ 𝟎 (𝟐𝟏)
𝑰 𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝎
𝑯𝝓 ≈ [− ( ) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕′ ] (𝟐𝟐)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝒗
The amplitudes in the far-field will be
𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔
|𝐸𝜃 | = ( 2) (23)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑣
𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝜋𝑓 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑓 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
|𝐻𝜙 | = ( )= ( )= ( )= (24)
4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 4𝜋 𝑟𝑣 2𝑟 𝑣 2𝜆𝑟
Using above two equations,
𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔
|𝐸𝜃 | 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟𝑣 2 ) 1
= =
|𝐻𝜙 | 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜔 𝑣𝜀
(𝑟𝑣)
4𝜋
We know that velocity of a wave in a medium is given by
1
𝑣=
√𝜇𝜀
|𝐸𝜃 | 1 1 √𝜇𝜀 𝜇
= = = = √ = 𝜂 = 120𝜋 (𝑜𝑟) 377Ω (25)
|𝐻𝜙 | 𝑣𝜀 ( 1 ) 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
√𝜇𝜀
Where 𝜂 is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.

Page 11 of 20
Power Radiated and Radiation Resistance
It can be noted that E has no 𝜙 component and H contains only a 𝜙 component.
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐸𝜃 𝑎𝜃
𝐻 = 𝐻𝜙 𝑎𝜙

The power flow can be given by the poynting vector

1 1 1
𝑆= 𝑅𝑒 (𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ ) = 𝑅𝑒 {(𝐸𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐸𝜃 𝑎𝜃 ) × 𝑎𝜙 𝐻𝜙∗ } = 𝑅𝑒 {−𝑎𝜃 𝐸𝑟 𝐻𝜙∗ + 𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝜃 𝐻𝜙∗ }
2 2 2
The total radiated power is given by
𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯ 𝑊. 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ ∫ 𝑆. (𝑎𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝜙=0 𝜃=0

𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫ ∫ 𝑅𝑒 {−𝑎𝜃 𝐸𝑟 𝐻𝜙∗ + 𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝜃 𝐻𝜙∗ }. (𝑎𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙)
𝜙=0 𝜃=0 2
𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
1 ∗ 1 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
=∫ ∫ 2
𝑅𝑒 {𝐸𝜃 𝐻𝜙 } 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ ∫ |𝐸𝜃 ||𝐻𝜙∗ | 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝜙=0 𝜃=0 2 2 𝜙=0 𝜃=0

|𝐸𝜃 |
Since ⁄ = 𝜂 ⟹ |𝐸𝜃 | = 𝜂|𝐻𝜙 |
|𝐻𝜙 |

1 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫ ∫ 𝜂 |𝐻𝜙 | |𝐻𝜙∗ | 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 𝜙=0 𝜃=0

1 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
= ∫ ∫ 𝜂 |𝐻𝜙 | 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 𝜙=0 𝜃=0

1 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 𝐼 𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 2

= ∫ ∫ 𝜂 ( ) 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 2𝜆𝑟

1 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 2

= ∫ ∫ 𝜂 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 4𝜆2 𝑟 2

𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 3
= ∫ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
2 4𝜆2 𝜙=0 𝜃=0

𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
= ( ) ∫ 𝑑𝜙 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 4 𝜆 𝜙=0 𝜃=0

𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝜃=𝜋
= ( ) (2𝜋) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 4 𝜆 𝜃=0

Page 12 of 20
 𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝜃=𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ( ) (2𝜋) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 4 𝜆 𝜃=0

Using the following identity, above equation can be re-written as

3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 =
4
𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝜃=𝜋 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ( ) (2𝜋) ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜃
2 4 𝜆 𝜃=0
4

𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 (2𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 𝜋
= ( ) [−3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ]
2 4 𝜆 4 3 0

𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 (2𝜋) 1 1
= ( ) [3 − + 3 − ]
2 4 𝜆 4 3 3
𝜂 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙 2 (2𝜋) 16
= ( ) [ ]
2 4 𝜆 4 3
𝝅 𝟐 𝒅𝒍 𝟐
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜼 𝑰 ( )
𝟑 𝝀
Assuming the antenna is lossless, the power radiated by the dipole will be equal to the power
delivered to the dipole.
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝜋 𝑑𝑙 2
𝜂 𝐼 2 ( ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
𝑅𝑟
3 𝜆
We know that
𝐼
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝜋 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝐼 2
𝜂 𝐼 ( ) = ( ) 𝑅𝑟
3 𝜆 √2
𝜋 2 𝑑𝑙 2 𝐼 2
120𝜋 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅
3 𝜆 2 𝑟
𝒅𝒍 𝟐
𝟐
𝒅𝒍 𝟐
𝑹𝒓 = 𝟖𝟎 𝝅 ( ) = 𝟕𝟗𝟎 ( )
𝝀 𝝀

Page 13 of 20
Directivity
4𝜋
𝐷=
∫ ∫ 𝑃𝑛 (𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω
4𝜋
𝐷= 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫𝜙=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝑃𝑛 (𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

4𝜋
𝐷= 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫𝜙=0 ∫𝜃=0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

4𝜋
= 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫𝜙=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

4𝜋
= 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫𝜙=0 𝑑𝜙 ∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

4𝜋
= 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫𝜙=0 𝑑𝜙 ∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

4𝜋
= 𝜃=𝜋
(2𝜋) ∫𝜃=0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝟒𝝅 𝟑
𝑫 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟒 𝟐
(𝟐𝝅) ( )
𝟑

Page 14 of 20
Page 15 of 20
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Page 17 of 20
Page 18 of 20
Page 19 of 20
Page 20 of 20
 𝑟 ′ = 𝐾𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙) (2)

The new and old surfaces are identical; that is, not only are they similar but they are
also congruent (if both surfaces are infinite). Congruence can be established only by
rotation in𝜙. Translation is not allowed because the terminals of both surfaces are at
the origin. Rotation in 𝜃 is prohibited because both terminals are symmetrically
disposed along the 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋-axes.

For the second antenna to achieve congruence with the first, it must be rotated by an
angle C so that

𝐾𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙 + 𝐶) (3)

The angle of rotation C depends on K but neither depends on 𝜃 or 𝜙. Physical

congruence implies that the original antenna electrically would behave the same at
both frequencies. However, the radiation pattern will be rotated azimuthally through
an angle C. For unrestricted values of K(0 ≤ 𝐾 ≤ ∞), the pattern will rotate by C in 𝜙
with frequency, because C depends on K but its shape will be unaltered. Thus, the
impedance and pattern will be frequency independent.

To obtain the functional representation of 𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙), both sides of (3) are differentiated
with respect to C to yield

𝑑 𝑑
[𝐾𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙)] = [𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙 + 𝐶)] (4)
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝐶

𝑑𝐾 𝜕
𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙) = [𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙 + 𝐶)] (5)
𝑑𝐶 𝜕(𝜙 + 𝐶)

Differentiate (3) relative to 𝜙, we get

𝜕 𝜕
[𝐾𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙)] = [𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙 + 𝐶)] (6)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙

P a g e 2 | 15
 𝜕 𝜕
𝐾 [𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙)] = [𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙 + 𝐶)] (7)
𝜕𝜙 𝜕(𝜙 + 𝐶)

Comparing (5) and (7), we get

𝑑𝐾 𝜕𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝐾 (8)
𝑑𝐶 𝜕𝜙

By substituting 𝑟 = 𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙),

𝑑𝐾 𝜕𝑟
𝑟 = 𝐾 (9)
𝑑𝐶 𝜕𝜙

1 𝑑𝐾 1 𝜕𝑟
= (10)
𝐾 𝑑𝐶 𝑟 𝜕𝜙

LHS of above equation is independent of 𝜃 and 𝜙, therefore the general solution is

given as

𝑟 = 𝐹(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑒 𝑎𝜙 𝑓(𝜃) (11)

1 𝑑𝐾
where 𝑎 = and 𝑓(𝜃) is completely arbitrary function
𝐾 𝑑𝐶

Thus, for any antenna to have frequency independent characteristics, its surface must
be described by (11).

FREQUENCY-INDEPENDENT PLANAR LOG SPIRAL ANTENNA

The equation for a logarithmic or log spiral is given by

𝑟 = 𝑎𝜃 (12)

ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑎𝜃 = 𝜃 ln 𝑎 (13)

where,
𝑟 = radial distance to point P on spiral
P a g e 3 | 15
𝜃= angle with respect to x-axis
a=constant

Logarithmic spiral or log spiral

From (12), the rate of change of radius with angle is

𝑑𝑟
= 𝑎𝜃 ln 𝑎 = 𝑟 ln 𝑎 (14)
𝑑𝜃

The constant a in (14) is related to the angle 𝛽 between the spiral and a radial line
from the origin as given by

𝑑𝑟 1
ln 𝑎 = = (15)
𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

Thus, from (14) and (15),

ln 𝑟
𝜃= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 ln 𝑟 (16)
ln 𝑎

The log spiral was constructed so as to make 𝑟 = 1 at 𝜃 = 0 and 𝑟 = 2 at 𝜃 = 𝜋.

These conditions determine the value of the constants a and 𝛽. Thus, from (15) and
(16),

P a g e 4 | 15
 𝜃 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = ⇒ 𝛽 = tan−1 [ ] (17)
ln 𝑟 ln 𝑟

For 𝑟 = 2 at 𝜃 = 𝜋,

𝜋
𝛽 = tan−1 [ ] = 77.60
ln 2

1 1
ln 𝑎 = ⇒ 𝑎 = exp { } = 1.247
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛77.60

Thus, the shape of the spiral is determined by the angle 𝛽 which is same for all points
on the spiral.

Let a second log spiral, identical in form to the one in figure shown below, be
generated by an angular rotation of the spiral by a factor 𝛿 so that (12) becomes

𝑟2 = 𝑎𝜃−𝛿 (18)

and a third spiral and fourth spiral given by

𝑟3 = 𝑎𝜃−𝜋 (19)

and

𝑟4 = 𝑎𝜃−𝜋−𝛿 (20)

𝜋
Then, for a rotation 𝛿 = , we have 4 spirals at 900 angles. Metalizing the areas
2

between the spirals 1 & 4 and 2 & 3, with the other areas open, self-complementary
and congruence conditions are satisfied. Connecting a generator or receiver across the
inner terminals, we obtain Dyson’s frequency independent planar spiral antenna.

▪ Polarization: RHCP radiation from the page and LHCP radiation into the page
▪ High frequency limit of operation is determined by the spacing d of the input
terminal and the low frequency limit by overall diameter D. The ratio D/d for
the antenna is about 25 to 1.

P a g e 5 | 15
 𝜆 𝜆
▪ If we take 𝑑 = at the high frequency limit and 𝐷 = at the low frequency
10 2

limit, the antenna bandwidth is 5 to 1.

Frequency Independent Planar Spiral Antenna

▪ Spiral slot antenna: Spiral-shaped slots are cut from a large ground plane and
the antenna is fed with a co-axial cable bonded to one of the spiral arms. A
dummy cable may be bonded to the other arm of symmetry.
▪ Radiation Pattern for spiral antenna: Bi-directional broadside to the plane of
the spiral. The patterns in both directions have a single broad lobe so that the
gain is only a few dBi.
▪ Input Impedance depends on 𝛿 and a and terminal separation (≃ 50 𝑡𝑜 100 Ω)
▪ Ratio K of the radii across any arm, such as between spiral 2 and 3 is given by
𝑟3 𝑎𝜃−𝜋
𝐾 = = 𝜃−𝛿 = 𝑎−𝜋+𝛿
𝑟2 𝑎

P a g e 6 | 15
 𝜋
For 𝛿 =
2
𝑟3 −
𝜋
−
𝜋 1
𝐾 = = 𝑎 = (1.247) 2 = 0.707 =
2
𝑟2 √2

FREQUENCY INDEPENDENT CONICAL SPIRAL ANTENNA

▪ A tapered helix is a conical spiral antenna in which pitch angle is constant with
diameter and turn spacing variable.

Tapered Helix or Conical Spiral (Forward-fire)

▪ Two arms of the conical spiral are fed at the center point or apex from a co-axial
cable bonded to one of the arms, the spiral acting as a balun.
▪ For symmetry, a dummy cable may be bonded to the other arm.
▪ According to Dyson, input impedance is between 100 to 150 Ω for pitch angle
𝛼 = 170 and full cone angles of 200 and 600 . Smaller cone angles (less than
300 ) have high F/B ratio.
▪ Radiation Pattern: Uni-directional with maxima towards the apex.
𝜆
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (∼ 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
▪ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ∝ 2
𝜆
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (∼ 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
4

P a g e 7 | 15
 Dyson 2-arm balanced conical
spiral (backward-fire antenna).
Polarization is RCP. Inner
conductor of coax connects to
dummy at apex.

LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA

▪ Log-Periodic antenna operates over broadband and its size varies with the operating
frequency or wavelength. Although, LPDA is not specified in terms of angles yet its
geometry is adjusted such that all the electrical properties of the antenna are repeated
periodically with the logarithm of the frequency.
▪ Dwight Isbell demonstrated first LPDA (1960).
▪ Basic concept: A gradually expanding periodic structure array radiates more
effectively when the array elements(dipoles) are near resonance so that with change in
frequency, the active region moves along the array.
▪ LPDA– a number of dipole antennas of different lengths are arranged at different
spacings, used in array form.
▪ Dipole lengths increase along the antenna so that the included angle 𝛼 is constant, and
the lengths (𝑙) and spacing(𝑆) of the adjacent elements are scaled so that
𝑙𝑛+1 𝑆𝑛+1 1
= =𝑘= (21)
𝑙𝑛 𝑆𝑛 𝜏
where
𝑘 = constant (𝑘 > 1)
𝜏 = scale factor or design ratio or geometric ratio or periodicity factor (𝜏 > 1)
P a g e 8 | 15
 ▪ Antenna is fed through a balanced twin line in zig-zag form which means the alternate
dipole arms are fed through common line.
▪ The apex angle is formed by the two imaginary straight lines passing through the
edges of the dipole arms located on either side.
▪ Moreover, the spacing between the dipoles near to the apex is smaller as compared to
the spacing at the base.
▪ There are three important regions of LPDA namely
i. Inactive region (Transmission line)
ii. Active region
iii. Inactive region (Stop)

Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)

𝝀
i. Transmission line region (𝑳 ≤ ): At the middle of the operating range, the antenna
𝟐

elements are short with the resonant length, therefore the elements offer large
capacitive reactance to the line. Hence, currents in these elements (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) are
small and radiation is small.
𝝀
ii. Active region (𝑳 = ): At a wavelength near the middle of the operating range,
𝟐

radiation occurs primarily from the central region of the antenna. This region offers

P a g e 9 | 15
 resistive impedance. Currents in this region have large values and maximum radiation
takes place from this region. The current and input RF voltage is in phase. The spacing
between the elements are now sufficiently large, causing the phase in the particular
element to lead approximately by 900 . For example, by the time the field radiated
from the element 𝑙𝑛+1 reaches 𝑙𝑛 , the phase of the element 𝑙𝑛 advances by 900 and the
field from element 𝑙𝑛 add to the field of 𝑙𝑛+1 element , in phase producing a large
resultant field towards left. Hence, there is a strong radiation towards right.
𝝀
iii. Stop region (𝑳 ≤ ): Elements 9,10&11 are almost one wavelength long and carry
𝟐

only small currents (they present a large inductive reactance to the line). Small
currents in 9,10 & 11 mean that the antenna is effectively truncated at the right of the
active region. Any fields (smaller magnitude) from elements 9,10&11 tend to cancel in
both forward and backward directions. However, some radiation may occur broadside
since the currents are approximately in phase.

Radiation pattern: Thus, at a wavelength(𝜆), the radiation occurs from the middle
𝝀
portion where the dipole elements are long. When the wavelength is increased, the
𝟐

radiation zone moves towards the right and when the wavelength is decreased, it moves
to the left with maximum radiation toward the apex or feed point of the array.

Log-periodic behaviour:

▪ If the input impedance of a LPDA is plotted as a function of frequency, it will be

repetitive.
▪ However, if the input impedance is plotted as a function of logarithm of frequency,
it will be periodic with each cycle being exactly identical to the preceding one.
Hence the name log-periodic, because the variations are periodic with respect to
the logarithm of frequency.
▪ Other parameters that undergo the similar variations are the pattern, directivity,
beamwidth and sidelobe level.
▪ The relationship between two consecutive maxima frequencies and logarithmic
frequency period is
P a g e 10 | 15
 𝑓2 1 𝑓2 1
log = log ⇒ = ⇒ 𝑓1 = 𝜏𝑓2
𝑓1 𝜏 𝑓1 𝜏
Because 𝜏 > 1, 𝑓1 < 𝑓2 .

Input impedance of LPDA as function of logarithm of frequency

Design equations for LPDA

LPDA geometry or determining the relation of parameters

From the above figure,

𝑙𝑛+1 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛+1 𝑙
[ ] [1 − 𝑛 ]
2 2 𝑙𝑛+1
tan 𝛼 = = (22)
𝑆 𝑆

𝑙𝑛+1 1
[1 − ]
tan 𝛼 = 2 𝑘 (23)
𝑆
P a g e 11 | 15
where 𝛼 =apex angle

𝑘 = scale-factor

𝝀
For 𝑙𝑛+1 = (when active)
𝟐

1
[1 − ]
tan 𝛼 = 𝑘 (24)
𝑆
4( )
𝜆

1
[1 − ]
tan 𝛼 = 𝑘 (25)
4𝑆𝜆

From (24),
1
[1 − ]
tan 𝛼 = 𝑘 =1−𝜏 (26)
𝑆 4𝜎
4( )
𝜆

Where

1
𝜏=
𝑘
𝑆
𝜎 = ( ) = spacing factor
𝜆

Hence from (26),

1−𝜏
𝛼 = tan−1 [ ] (27)
4𝜎
𝑙𝑛+1 1
▪ Bandwidth of LPDA (frequency ratio) is 𝐹 = = 𝑘𝑛 = . The length 𝑙 and
𝑙1 𝜏𝑛

spacing 𝑆 for element 𝑛 + 1 is 𝑘 𝑛 greater than for element 1.

P a g e 12 | 15
Example:

Design a log periodic dipole array operating from 50 MHz to 200 MHz which has 𝜏 = 0.822
and 𝜎 = 0.149. Find out the number of dipoles required to cover this bandwidth.

Solution:

Given: 𝜏 = 0.822; 𝜎 = 0.149; 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 50 MHz; 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200 MHz

The apex angle (𝛼) is defined as

1−𝜏 1 − 0.822
𝛼 = tan−1 [ ] = tan−1 [ ] = 16.62°
4𝜎 4 × 0.149

The lowest and highest wavelength can be obtained as

𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆𝐿 = = = 1.5 m
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 200 × 106

𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆𝐻 = = =6m
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 50 × 106

The maximum and minimum lengths required for dipole antennas are defined as follows:

𝜆𝐻 6
𝐿𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =3m
2 2

𝜆𝐿 1.5
𝐿𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.75 m
2 2

The dipole lengths to cover 50 MHz to 200 MHz can be obtained using the following
relation:

𝐿𝑛 = 𝜏𝐿𝑛+1

𝐿𝑛
𝐿𝑛+1 =
𝜏
P a g e 13 | 15
Now, let us start from the highest frequency of operation, i.e., 200 MHz for which the
𝜆𝐿 1.5
minimum size of dipole is 𝐿𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 0.75 m.
2 2

Therefore, to start with minimum size, we have

𝐿1 = 𝐿𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.75 m

The other dipole lengths are

𝐿1 0.75
𝐿2 = = = 0.912 m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿2 0.912
𝐿3 = = = 1.109 m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿3 1.109
𝐿4 = = = 1.350 m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿4 1.350
𝐿5 = = = 1.642 m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿5 1.642
𝐿6 = = =2m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿6 2
𝐿7 = = = 2.433 m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿7 2.433
𝐿8 = = = 2.96 m
𝜏 0.822

𝐿8 2.96
𝐿9 = = = 3.6 m
𝜏 0.822

It should be noted that the highest length of the dipole should be greater than or equal to the
𝜆𝐻 6
maximum half wavelength, i.e., 𝐿𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =3m
2 2

The spacing between 𝑛th and (𝑛 + 1)th dipole can be derived from the following
relationship:

𝑆𝑛 = 2𝜎𝐿𝑛

P a g e 14 | 15
Therefore, the spacing between all sections is given as:

𝑆1 = 2𝜎𝐿1 = 2 × 0.149 × 0.75 = 0.224

𝑆2 = 2𝜎𝐿2 = 2 × 0.149 × 0.912 = 0.272

𝑆3 = 2𝜎𝐿3 = 2 × 0.149 × 1.109 = 0.33

𝑆4 = 2𝜎𝐿4 = 2 × 0.149 × 1.350 = 0.402

𝑆5 = 2𝜎𝐿5 = 2 × 0.149 × 1.642 = 0.489

𝑆6 = 2𝜎𝐿6 = 2 × 0.149 × 2 = 0.596

𝑆7 = 2𝜎𝐿7 = 2 × 0.149 × 2.433 = 0.725

𝑆8 = 2𝜎𝐿8 = 2 × 0.149 × 2.96 = 0.882

To cover the entire frequency range, nine dipoles are required.

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation Department of ECE UNIT 3

UNIT-III
ANTENNA ARRAYS

 Antenna array is system of a similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater directivity
in a desired direction.
 Antenna array is a radiating system consisting of several spaced and properly phased
(current phase) radiators.

Linear Array:
 An antenna array is said to be linear if the individual antennas of the array are equally
spaced along a straight line.
 Individual elements of the array are termed as Elements.

Uniform Linear Array:

 Uniform linear array is one in which the elements are fed with a current of equal
amplitude(magnitude) with uniform progressive phase shift along the line.

 Elements in a multi-element array is generally a dipole antenna.
2

Factors that shape the radiation pattern of antenna array:

 The geometrical configuration of the array
 The spacing between the elements
 The excitation amplitude of the individual elements
 The excitation phase of the individual elements
 The radiation pattern of the individual elements

Two element array:

 Simplest array is an array of two isotropic point sources separated by a distance d.
 Two isotropic point sources symmetrically situated w.r.t the origin in the Cartesian co-
ordinate system is shown in figure

 Consider that the two isotropic point sources are fed with current of equal amplitude and
phase
 The fields at a greater distant point at distant R from the origin O can be calculated as
follows:
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 Origin is taken as reference point for phase calculation. The waves from source1 reaches
the point P at a later time than the waves from source 2 because of path difference
between the two waves.
Path difference between the two waves is, d cos 
2 2
  phase angle   path difference  d cos 
 
  d cos  radians

j
2
Field component due to source1 ( field lags) = E1e

j
Field component due to source2( field leads) = E 2 e 2
Two isotropic point sources are fed with current of equal amplitude and phase.
E1  E2  E0
Total electric field at point P = E  E1  E2
 
j j    d cos  
E  E1e 2
 E2 e 2
 2 E0 cos   2 E0 cos 
2  2 

E max  2 E 0
E
E nor 
2 E0
  d cos  
E nor  cos 
 2 


For the case d  ,
2
 2  
  cos  
E nor  cos  2   cos  cos  
 2  2 
 
 

Calculation of maximum, minimum and half power direction of the field pattern:
Maxima directions
 
Normalized total field is maximum when cos cos    1
2 
 
 cos  max   n where n  0,1,2......
2 
 
 cos  max   0 when n  0
2 
 max  90 and 270 0
0

The field is maximum in the directions where   90 0 and 270 0

Minima directions
 
Normalized total field is minimum when cos cos    0
2 
  
 cos  min   (2n  1) where n  0,1,2......
2  2

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  
 cos  min    when n  0
2  2
cos  min   1
 min  0 0 and 180 0
The field is minimum in the directions where   0 0 and 180 0
Half Power Directions:
1
At half power points, power is half the maximum and voltage or current is times the
2
maximum.
  1
Normalized total field is cos cos    
2  2
  
 cos  HPPD   (2n  1) where n  0,1,2......
2  4
  
 cos  HPPD    when n  0
2  4

cos  HPPD    1
2
 HPPD  60 and 120 0
0

1
The field is times the maximum in the directions where   60 0 and 120 0
2

 The radiation pattern is perpendicular to the array axis. This array is referred to as
Broadside array.
Note: Broadside array is defined as an array in which the principal direction is perpendicular
to the array axis

Array of two point source with equal amplitude and opposite phase:

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation Department of ECE UNIT 3

 Consider that the two isotropic point sources are fed with current of equal amplitude and
opposite phase
 The fields at a greater distant point at distant R from the origin O can be calculated as
follows:
 Origin is taken as reference point for phase calculation. The waves from source1 reaches
the point P at a later time than the waves from source 2 because of path difference
between the two waves.
Path difference between the two waves is, d cos 
2 2
  phase angle   path difference  d cos 
 
  d cos  radians

j
2
Field component due to source1 ( field lags) = - E1e

j
Field component due to source2( field leads) = E 2 e 2
Two isotropic point sources are fed with current of equal amplitude
E1  E2  E0
Total electric field at point P
 
j j    d cos  
= E   E1e 2  E 2 e 2  2 j E0 sin   2 jE 0 sin 
2  2 

E max  2 jE 0
E
E nor 
2 jE 0
  d cos  
E nor  sin  
 2 


For the case d  ,
2
 2  
  cos  
E nor  sin   2   sin   cos  
 2  2 
 
 

Calculation of maximum, minimum and half power direction of the field pattern:

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation Department of ECE UNIT 3
Maxima directions
 
Normalized total field is maximum when sin cos    1
2 
  (2n  1)
 cos  max    where n  0,1,2......
2  2
  
 cos  max    when n  0
2  2
 max  0 0 and 180 0
The field is maximum in the directions where   0 0 and 180 0
Minima directions
 
Normalized total field is minimum when sin cos    0
2 
 
 cos  min   n where n  0,1,2......
2 
 
 cos  min   0 when n  0
2 
cos  min   0
 min  90 0 and 270 0
The field is minimum in the directions where   90 0 and 270 0
Half Power Directions:
1
At half power points, power is half the maximum and voltage or current is times the
2
maximum.
  1
Normalized total field is sin cos    
2  2
  
 cos  HPPD   (2n  1) where n  0,1,2......
2  4
  
 cos  HPPD    when n  0
2  4

cos  HPPD    1
2
 HPPD  60 and 120 0
0

1
The field is times the maximum in the directions where   60 0 and 120 0
2

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 Maximum radiation is along the axis of the array. This array is referred to as END FIRE
array.

Arrays of point sources with unequal amplitude and any phase

 Let  be the phase difference between the currents.

 The total phase difference between radiations of two sources at a distant point P is given
by
2
 d cos   

2
d cos   phase difference due to path difference



E  E1e j 0  E 2 e j  E1 1  Ke j 
E2
K
E1
| E | E1 1  K cos    K sin  
2 2

 K sin  
phase angle  tan 1  
 1  K cos   
Linear Array with n isotropic point sources of equal amplitude
and spacing

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 The point sources are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having an uniform
progressive phase shift along the line
 Field at a distant point P is given by,
Et  E0 e j 0  E0 e j  E0 e j 2   E0 e j 3  .........  E0 e j ( n1) 
Et  E0 {e j 0  e j  e j 2   e j 3  .........  e j ( n1)  }        1
2
 d cos   

2
d cos   phase difference due to path difference

between two po int sources
  phase shift between two po int sources

Et  E0 e j 0  E0 e j  E0 e j 2   E0 e j 3  .........  E0 e j ( n1) 
Et  E0 {e j 0  e j  e j 2   e j 3  .........  e j ( n1)  }        1

Et e j  E0 {e j  e j 2  e j 3  .........  e jn }        2
1 2 gives
Et (1  e j )  E0 {1  e jn }

Et  E0
1  e  jn

(1  e j )
 j n2 j
n

n e  e 2 
j  
  
2
e
Et  E0 
j  j2 j 

e 2 e  e 2 
 
 

 n 
( n 1)  sin  
Et  E 0 e
j
2  2 

sin  
2

 n 
sin  
 2  (n  1)
E t  E 0 e j where  
 2
sin  
2

In this derivation, point source 1 is taken as reference point. In case the reference point is
(n  1)
shifted to the center of the array,   is automatically eliminated .
2

 n 
sin  
Et  E 0  2 

sin  
2

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation Department of ECE UNIT 3

 n  n  n 
sin   cos 
Et max  lt E0  2 
 lt E0
2  2   nE
 
0
 0  0 1
sin   cos 
2 2 2

Radiation pattern of two nondirectional radiators fed with equal currents at

the phasings shown.

Radiation pattern of four nondirectional radiators

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation Department of ECE UNIT 3

Principle of pattern multiplication

The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of the
pattern of the individual source and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources having the
same locations, relative amplitudes, and phase as the non- isotropic sources.
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of
individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the
phase center of the individual source and having the same relative amplitude and phase, while the
total phase pattern is the sum of the phase patterns of the individual source and the array of
isotropic point sources.
E  f  ,  F  ,   f p  ,   F p  ,  
f  ,  F  ,    field pattern of array
 f  ,  F  ,   phase pattern of array
p p

f  ,    field pattern of individual source

f p  ,    phase pattern of individual source
F  ,    field pattern of array of isotropic sources
F p  ,    phase pattern of array of isotropic sources
Multiplication of Patterns
 Simple method of obtaining radiation pattern.
 Makes it possible to sketch rapidly, almost by inspection, the patterns of
complicated arrays.
 Useful tool in the design of arrays
Example:
Determination of radiation pattern of a four element array in which the spacing between units is

and the currents are in phase (   0 )
2

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Determination of radiation pattern by multiplication of patterns is illustrated below:

(a) -- unit pattern

(b) -- Group pattern
(c) – resultant pattern

 This procedure provides a means for rapidly determining the radiation pattern of a
complicated array without making length calculations.
 The width of the principle lobe (between nulls) is the same as the width of the
corresponding lobe of the group pattern.

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EC6602 Antenna and Wave Propagation Department of ECE UNIT 3
 The number of secondary lobes can be determined from the number of nulls in the
resultant pattern, which is just the sum of the nulls in the unit and group
pattern(assuming none of the nulls are coincident).
 Point by point multiplication of patterns yields the exact pattern .

Example 2

Linear Array with uniform spacing, non uniform amplitude:

(i) Binomial array
(ii) Dolph-Tschebysheff array ( also referred to as Chebyshev array or
Tschbyscheff array)
Binomial array:
 Current distribution follows the binomial series.
 The current amplitudes are proportional to the coefficients of the
successive terms of the Binomial series.

 Binomial array possess the smallest side lobes. If the spacing is or less
2

than , Binomial array has no side lobes.
2
 Binomial series :

1  x m1  1  m  1x  m  1m  2 x 2  m  1m  2m  3 x 3  ............

2! 3!
 For m =3
1  x 31  1  3  1x  3  13  2 x 2  3  13  23  3 x 3  ............
2! 3!
 1  2x  x 2

Current distribution for 3 element binomial array is 1:2:1

 Current distribution for 4 element binomial array is 1:3:3:1
So on…..
 Current distribution can be determined easily from Pascal’ s Triangle
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 Principle of pattern multiplication can be used to determine the resultant radiation

pattern.
 For 3 element Binomial array, the resultant pattern is shown below:

 Here antenna 2 and 3 coincide , and so they would be replaced by with a

single antenna carrying double the current.
 Four element Binomial array is shown in figure below:

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Note:
 No side lobes in the radiation pattern of Binomial array
 Half Power Beam width is more

Disadvantages of Binomial array:

(i) HPBW increases and hence the directivity decreases
(ii) For design of large array, larger amplitude ratio of sources required.
Adaptive array (smart antennas)
 Smart antennas (also known as adaptive array antennas, digital antenna arrays)
are antenna arrays with smart signal processing algorithms used to identify spatial signal
signatures such as the direction of arrival (DOA) of the signal, and use them to
calculate beamforming vectors which are used to track and locate the antenna beam on the
mobile/target.
 Smart antenna techniques are used notably in acoustic signal processing, track and
scan radar, radio astronomy and radio telescopes, and mostly in cellular systems like W-
CDMA, UMTS, and LTE.
 Smart antennas have many functions: DOA(Direction of Arrival) estimation,
beamforming, interference nulling, and constant modulus preservation.
Beam forming
 Beamforming is the method used to create the radiation pattern of the antenna array by
adding constructively the phases of the signals in the direction of the targets/mobiles
desired, and nulling the pattern of the targets/mobiles that are undesired/interfering
targets.
 This can be done with a simple Finite Impulse Response (FIR) tapped delay line filter.
The weights of the FIR filter may also be changed adaptively, and used to provide optimal
beamforming, in the sense that it reduces the Minimum Mean Square Error between the
desired and actual beam pattern formed.
 Typical algorithms are the steepest descent, and Least Mean Squares algorithms. In digital
antenna arrays with multi channels use the digital beamforming, usually by DFT or FFT.
Types of Smart antennas
Two main types of smart antennas:
(i) Switched beam smart antennas
(ii) Adaptive array smart antennas
 Switched beam systems have several available fixed beam patterns. A decision is made as
to which beam to access, at any given point in time, based upon the requirements of the
system.

Switched beam smart antennas

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 Adaptive arrays allow the antenna to steer the beam to any direction of interest while
simultaneously nulling interfering signals.

Adaptive array smart antenna

[Link]’ s College of Engineering/ [Link]’ s Institute of Technology 14

 N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE
• Of the three distributions (uniform, binomial, and Tschebyscheff), a uniform amplitude
array yields the smallest half-power beamwidth. It is followed, in order, by the Dolph-
Tschebyscheff and binomial arrays.
• In contrast, binomial arrays usually possess the smallest side lobes followed, in order,
by the Dolph-Tschebyscheff and uniform arrays.
• Binomial arrays with element spacing equal or less than λ/2 have no side lobes.
• It is apparent that the designer must compromise between side lobe level and
beamwidth.
• A criterion that can be used to judge the relative beamwidth and side lobe level of one
design to another is the amplitude distribution (tapering) along the source.
• It has been shown analytically that for a given side lobe level the Dolph-Tschebyscheff
array produces the smallest beamwidth between the first nulls. Conversely, for a given
beamwidth between the first nulls, the Dolph-Tschebyscheff design leads to the
smallest possible side lobe level.
Array Factor of non uniform array
• An array of an even number of isotropic elements 2M (where M is an integer) is
positioned symmetrically along the z-axis, as shown in Figure (a). The separation
between the elements is d, and M elements are placed on each side of the origin.
• If the total number of isotropic elements of the array is odd 2M + 1 (where M is an
integer), the arrangement is as shown in Figure (b)

An array of an even number of isotropic elements 2M (where M is an integer) is

positioned symmetrically along the z-axis, as shown in Figure (a). The separation between the

1
elements is d, and M elements are placed on each side of the origin. Assuming that the
amplitude excitation is symmetrical about the origin, the array factor for a nonuniform
amplitude broadside array can be written as,
1 3 (2𝑀−1)
+𝑗( )𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀 = 𝑎1 𝑒 +𝑗(2 )𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑎2 𝑒 +𝑗(2 )𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑀 𝑒 2

1 3 (2𝑀−1)
+𝑎1 𝑒 −𝑗(2 )𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑎2 𝑒 −𝑗(2 )𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑀 𝑒 −𝑗( )𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2

(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀 (𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos [(2𝑛 − 1)𝑢]

𝑛=1
𝜋𝑑
Where 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜆

𝑎𝑛 is excitation coefficient
If the total number of isotropic elements of the array is odd 2M + 1 (where M is an integer),
as shown in Figure (b), the array factor can be written as
(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀+1 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑒 +𝑗𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑀+1 𝑒 +𝑗(𝑀)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

+ 𝑎2 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑀+1 𝑒 −𝑗(𝑀)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑀+1

(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀+1 (𝑜𝑑𝑑) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos [2(𝑛 − 1)𝑢]

𝑛=1
𝜋𝑑
Where 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜆

𝑎𝑛 is excitation coefficient

I. Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array: Broadside

• Array, with many practical applications, is the Dolph-Tschebyscheff array.
• The method was originally introduced by Dolph. It is primarily a compromise between
uniform and binomial arrays.
• Its excitation coefficients are related to Tschebyscheff polynomials.
• A Dolph-Tschebyscheff array with no side lobes (or side lobes of −∞ dB) reduces to
the binomial design. The excitation coefficients for this case, as obtained by both
methods, would be identical.
Array Factor( for odd and even number of elements)
𝑀

(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀 (𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos [(2𝑛 − 1)𝑢]

𝑛=1

2
 𝑀+1

(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀+1 (𝑜𝑑𝑑) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos [2(𝑛 − 1)𝑢]

𝑛=1
𝜋𝑑
Where 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜆

𝑎𝑛 is excitation coefficient
• The array factor of an array of even or odd number of elements with symmetric
amplitude excitation is nothing more than a summation of M or M + 1 cosine terms.
• The largest harmonic of the cosine terms is one less than the total number of elements
of the array. Each cosine term, whose argument is an integer times a fundamental
frequency, can be rewritten as a series of cosine functions with the fundamental
frequency as the argument.
That is,
m=0 cos(mu) =1
m=1 cos(mu) = cosu
m=2 cos(mu) = cos(2u) = 2 cos2u-1
m=3 cos(mu) = cos(3u) = 4cos3u-3cosu
m=4 cos(mu) = cos(4u) = 8cos4u-8cos2u+1
m=5 cos(mu) = cos(5u) = 16cos5u-20cos3u+5cosu
m=6 cos(mu) = cos(6u) = 32cos6u-48cos4u+18cos2u-1
m=7 cos(mu) = cos(7u) = 64cos7u-112cos5u+56cos3u-7cosu
m=8 cos(mu) = cos(8u) = 128cos8u-256cos6u+160cos4u-32cos2u+1
m=9 cos(mu) = cos(9u) = 256cos9u-576cos7u+432cos5u-120cos3u+9cosu
The above equations are obtained using Euler’s formula:
𝑚
[𝑒 𝑗𝑢 ] = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢)𝑚 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑚𝑢 = cos(mu)+jsin(mu)

And sin2u=1-cos2u
If we let z = cosu
The above equations can be written as
m=0 cos(mu) =1=T0(z)
m=1 cos(mu) = cosu = z = T1(z)
m=2 cos(mu) = cos(2u) = 2z2-1 = T2(z)
m=3 cos(mu) = cos(3u) = 4z3-3z = T3(z)
m=4 cos(mu) = cos(4u) = 8z4-8z2+1= T4(z)

3
m=5 cos(mu) = cos(5u) = 16z5-20z3+5z= T5(z)
m=6 cos(mu) = cos(6u) = 32z6-48z4+18z2-1= T6(z)
m=7 cos(mu) = cos(7u) = 64z7-112z5+56z3-7z= T7(z)
m=8 cos(mu) = cos(8u) = 128z8-256z6+160z4-32z2+1 = T8(z)
m=9 cos(mu) = cos(9u) = 256z9-576z7+432z5-120z3+9z= T9(z)
and each is related to a Tschebyscheff (Chebyshev) polynomial Tm(z). These relations between
the cosine functions and the Tschebyscheff polynomials are valid only in the −1 ≤ z ≤ +1 range.
• Because | cos(mu)| ≤ 1, each Tschebyscheff polynomial is|Tm(z)| ≤ 1 for −1 ≤ z ≤ +1.
For |z| > 1, the Tschebyscheff polynomials are related to the hyperbolic cosine
functions.
• The recursion formula for Tschebyscheff polynomials is
𝑇𝑚 (𝑧) = 2𝑧𝑇𝑚−1 (𝑧) − 𝑇𝑚−2 (𝑧)
• Each polynomial can also be computed using
Tm(z) = cos[m cos−1(z)] − 1 ≤ z ≤ +1
Tm(z) = cosh[m cosh−1(z)] z < −1,z > +1
In Figure below, the first six Tschebyscheff polynomials have been plotted.

The following properties of the polynomials are of interest:

1. All polynomials, of any order, pass through the point (1, 1).
2. Within the range −1 ≤ z ≤ 1, the polynomials have values within −1 to +1.
3. All roots occur within −1 ≤ z ≤ 1, and all maxima and minima have values of +1 and −1,
respectively.

4
 Since the array factor of an even or odd number of elements is a summation of cosine
terms whose form is the same as the Tschebyscheff polynomials, the unknown coefficients of
the array factor can be determined by equating the series representing the cosine terms of the
array factor to the appropriate Tschebyscheff polynomial. The order of the polynomial should
be one less than the total number of elements of the array.

Outline of the design procedure

Assumptions:
Number of elements, spacing between the elements, and ratio of major-to-minor lobe intensity
(R0) are known. The requirements will be to determine the excitation coefficients and the array
factor of a Dolph-Tschebyscheff array.
Problem Statement
Design a broadside Dolph-Tschebyscheff array of 2M or 2M + 1 elements with spacing d
between the elements. The side lobes are R0 dB below the maximum of the major lobe. Find
the excitation coefficients and form the array factor.
Procedure
a. Select the appropriate array factor ( for odd or even number of array elements).
b. Expand the array factor. Replace each cos(mu) function (m = 0, 1, 2, 3,…) by its appropriate
series expansion.
c. Determine the point z = z0 such that Tm(z0) = R0 (voltage ratio). The order m of the
Tschebyscheff polynomial is always one less than the total number of elements. The design
procedure requires that the Tschebyscheff polynomial in the −1 ≤ z ≤ z1, where z1 is the null
nearest to z = +1, be used to represent the minor lobes of the array. The major lobe of the
pattern is formed from the remaining part of the polynomial up to point z0(z1 < z ≤ z0).
d. Substitute cos(u) = z /z0 in the array factor of step b. The cos(u) is replaced by z∕z0, and not
by z, so that the equation, cos(u) = z /z0 would be valid for |z| ≤ |z0|.At |z| = |z0|, the equation,
cos(u)=z /z0 attains its maximum value of unity.
e. Equate the array factor from step b, after substitution of cos(u) = z /z0, to a Tm(z). The Tm(z)
chosen should be of order m where m is an integer equal to one less than the total number of
elements of the designed array. This will allow the determination of the excitation coefficients
an’s.
f. Write the array factor using the coefficients found in step e.
Example problem
Design a broadside Dolph-Tschebyscheff array of 10 elements with spacing d between the
elements and with a major-to-minor lobe ratio of 26 dB. Find the excitation coefficients
and form the array factor.
Solution:
[Link] array factor is given by
𝑀

(𝐴𝐹)2𝑀 (𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos [(2𝑛 − 1)𝑢]

𝑛=1
𝜋𝑑
Where, 𝑢= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑎𝑛 is excitation coefficient
𝜆

5
2. When expanded, the array factor can be written as
(AF) 10= a1 cos(u) + a2 cos(3u) + a3 cos(5u) + a4 cos(7u) + a5 cos(9u)
Replace cos(u), cos(3u), cos(5u), cos(7u), and cos(9u) by their series expansions
cosu = z
cos(3u) = 4z3-3z
cos(5u) = 16z5-20z3+5z
cos(7u) = 64z7-112z5+56z3-7z
cos(9u) = 256z9-576z7+432z5-120z3+9z
(AF) 10= a1 [z] + a2 [4z3-3z ] + a3 [16z5-20z3+5z] + a4 [64z7-112z5+56z3-7z]
+ a5 [256z9-576z7+432z5-120z3+9z ]
(AF)10 = z[(a1 − 3a2 + 5a3 − 7a4 + 9a5)] + z3[(4a2 − 20a3 + 56a4 − 120a5)]
+ z5[(16a3 − 112a4 + 432a5)] + z7[(64a4 − 576a5)] + z9[(256a5)]

3. R0 (dB) = 26 = 20 log10(R0) or R0 (voltage ratio) = 20.

Determine z0 by equating R0 to T9(z0).
Thus R0 = 20 = T9(z0) = cosh[9 cosh−1(z0)]
or z0 = cosh[ (1 /9) cosh−1(20)] = 1.0851

Note:Another equation which can, in general, be used to find z0 and does not require hyperbolic
functions is
1 1
𝑃 𝑃
1
𝑧0 = 2 [(𝑅0 + √𝑅0 2 − 1 ) + (𝑅0 − √𝑅0 2 − 1 ) ]

where P is an integer equal to one less than the number of array elements (in this case P=9)

[Link] cos(u) = z/z0 = z /1.0851 in the array factor found in step 2.

[Link] the array factor of step 2, after the substitution from step 4, to T9(z).
(AF)10 = z[(a1 − 3a2 + 5a3 − 7a4 + 9a5)/z0]
+ z3[(4a2 − 20a3 + 56a4 − 120a5)/z03] + z5[(16a3 − 112a4 + 432a5)/z05]
+ z7[(64a4 − 576a5)/z07] + z9[(256a5)/z09] = 256z9-576z7+432z5-120z3+9z = T9(z)
Matching similar terms allows the determination of the an’s.
That is,
(256a5)/z09 = 256 → a5 = 2.0856
(64a4 − 576a5)/z07 = -576 → a4 = 2.8308
(16a3 − 112a4 + 432a5)/z05 = 432 → a3 = 4.1184
(4a2 − 20a3 + 56a4 − 120a5)/z03 = -120 → a2 = 5.2073
(a1 − 3a2 + 5a3 − 7a4 + 9a5)/z0 = 9 → a1 = 5.8377
In normalized form, the an coefficients can be written as
a5 = 1 , a4 = 1.357, a3 = 1.974, a2 = 2.496 ,a1 = 2.798 normalized with respect to the amplitude
of the elements at the edge.
(The values can also be normalized with respect to the amplitude of the center element)

6. Using the set of normalized coefficients, the array factor can be written as
(AF)10 = 2.798 cos(u) + 2.496 cos(3u) + 1.974 cos(5u) + 1.357 cos(7u) + cos(9u)
where u = [(𝜋d∕λ) cos 𝜃].

6
Binomial array:
• Current distribution follows the binomial series.
• The current amplitudes are proportional to the coefficients of the
successive terms of the Binomial series.

• Binomial array possess the smallest side lobes. If the spacing is or
2

less than , Binomial array has no side lobes.
2
• Binomial series :

(1 + x )m−1 = 1 + (m − 1)x + (m − 1)(m − 2) x 2 + (m − 1)(m − 2)(m − 3) x 3 + ............

2! 3!
• For m =3
(1 + x )3−1 = 1 + (3 − 1)x + (3 − 1)(3 − 2) x 2 + (3 − 1)(3 − 2)(3 − 3) x 3 + ............
2! 3!
= 1 + 2x + x 2

Current distribution for 3 element binomial array is 1:2:1

• Current distribution for 4 element binomial array is 1:3:3:1
So on…..
• Current distribution can be determined easily from Pascal’s Triangle

• Principle of pattern multiplication can be used to determine the resultant

radiation pattern.
• For 3 element Binomial array, the resultant pattern is shown below:

7
 • Here antenna 2 and 3 coincide , and so they would be replaced by with
a single antenna carrying double the current.
• Four element Binomial array is shown in figure below:

Comparison of Uniform array and Binomial array

Note:
• No side lobes in the radiation pattern of Binomial array
• Half Power Beam width is more
Disadvantages of Binomial array:
(i) HPBW increases and hence the directivity decreases
(ii) For design of large array, larger amplitude ratio of sources required.

8
 Smart antennas
Smart antenna systems combine:
(i)Antenna arrays with
(ii)Digital signal processing algorithms to make the antenna systems smart.

• Smart antennas integrate antenna array technology and Digital Signal Processing(DSP)
Techniques to enhance communication system performance including
(a) Capacity improvement
(b) Range increase
(c) Link quality improvement
(d) Mitigation of fading
• These are accomplished by
(1)Beam steering
Placing Beam maxima toward Signals of Interest (SOI)
(2)Null Steering
Placing Beam minima, ideally nulls, toward Interfering signals; Signals Not of Interest
(SNOI)
(3) Spatially separate signals
Allowing different users to share the same spectral resources(SDMA)

1
Beam forming in Smart antenna systems
By means of an internal feed back control, smart antenna can generate a customized radiation
pattern to each remote user. In general, they form a main lobe toward a desired signal and
rejects interference outside the main lobe.
There are two types of smart antenna system
(i) Switched – beam systems
(ii) Adaptive antenna systems

(a)Switched Beam Systems

• They use a number of fixed beams at the base station. The base station selects one of
the pre- determined fixed beam that provides the greatest output power for the desired
user.

Figure: Concept of Switched Beam systems

• This concept is obviously an extension of cell sectoring as each sector is subdivided
into smaller sectors. As the mobile unit moves throughout the cell, the switched-beam
system detects the signal strength, chooses the appropriate predefined beam pattern.
Advantages over Adaptive antenna systems:
Low cost
Less complex and easier to retrofit to existing wireless technologies
Dis advantages over Adaptive antenna systems:
Beam Resolution is lower

(b) Adaptive array systems

Adaptive array systems, provide more degrees of freedom since they have the ability to
adapt in real time the radiation pattern to the RF signal environment. In other words, they can
direct the main beam toward the pilot signal or SOI while suppressing the antenna pattern in

2
the direction of the interferers or SNOIs. To put it simply, adaptive array systems can customize
an appropriate radiation pattern for each individual user.
Adaptive array systems can locate and track signals (users and interferers) and
dynamically adjust the antenna pattern to enhance reception while minimizing interference
using signal-processing algorithms. A functional block diagram of such a system is shown in
[Link] figure shows that after the system down converts the received signals to baseband
and digitizes them, it locates the SOI using the direction-of-arrival (DOA) algorithm, and it
continuously tracks the SOI and SNOIs by dynamically changing the weights (amplitudes and
phases of the signals).
Basically, the DOA computes the direction of arrival of all signals by computing the
time delays between the antenna elements, and afterward the adaptive algorithm, using a cost
function, computes the appropriate weights that result in an optimum radiation pattern.

Figure Functional block diagram of an adaptive array system

Optimal Beam forming techniques

In optimal beamforming techniques, a weight vector that minimizes a cost function is
determined. Typically, this cost function, related with a performance measure, is inversely
associated with the quality of the signal at the array output, so that when the cost function is
minimized, the quality of the signal is maximized at the array output.

3
 The most commonly used optimally beamforming techniques or performance measures
are the Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE), Maximum Signal-to-Noise Ratio (MSNR), and
Minimum (noise) Variance (MV).
Adaptive algorithm
In practice, the signal environment is dynamic or time varying, and therefore, the
weights need to be computed with adaptive methods. One of the simplest algorithms that is
commonly used to adapt the weights is the Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm. The LMS
algorithm is a low complexity algorithm that requires no direct matrix inversion and no
memory.

Comparison of switched-beam scheme and adaptive array scheme

(i)Minimizing Interference
Adaptive array systems can customize an appropriate radiation pattern for each
individual user. This is far superior to the performance of a switched-beam system, as shown
in Figure. This figure shows that not only the switched-beam system may not able to place the
desired signal at the maximum of the main lobe but also it exhibits the inability to fully reject
the interferers.

Figure Comparison of (a) switched-beam scheme, and (b) adaptive array scheme.
(ii)Coverage area comparison
Figure shows a comparison, in terms of relative coverage area, of conventional
sectorized, switched-beam and adaptive arrays. In the presence of a low-level interference, both
types of smart antennas provide significant gains over the conventional sectored systems.
However, when a high-level interference is present, the interference rejection capability of the

4
adaptive systems provides significantly more coverage than either the conventional or
switched-beam system.

Figure: Relative coverage area comparison among sectorized systems, switched-

beam systems, and adaptive array systems in (a) low interference environment,
and (b) high interference environment

SMART ANTENNAS’ BENEFITS

(i) capacity increase
In densely populated areas, mobile systems are usually interference-limited, meaning
that the interference from other users is the main source of noise in the system. This means that
the signal-to interference ratio (SIR) is much smaller than the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
In general, smart antennas will, by simultaneously increasing the useful received signal
level and lowering the interference level, increase the SIR. (there by increase capacity)

(ii) range increase

Another benefit that smart-antenna systems provide is range increase. Because smart
antennas are more directional than omnidirectional and sectorized antennas, a range increase
potential is available.
In other words, smart antennas are able to focus their energy toward the intended users,
instead of directing it in other unnecessary directions (wasting) like omnidirectional antennas
do. This means that base stations can be placed further apart, leading to a more cost-efficient
development.
Therefore, in rural and sparsely populated areas, where radio coverage rather than
capacity is more important, smart-antenna systems are well suited.

5
(iii) Provide security
Another added advantage of smart-antenna systems is security. Smart antennas make
it more difficult to tap a connection, because the intruder must be positioned in the same
direction as the user as seen from the base station to successfully tap a connection.

(iv) Helps in location finding

Because of the spatial detection nature of smart-antenna systems, they can be used to
locate humans in emergencies or for any other location-specific service.

SMART ANTENNAS’ DRAWBACKS

While smart antennas provide many benefits, they do suffer from certain drawbacks.

• Their transceivers are much more complex than traditional base station transceivers.
The antenna needs separate transceiver chains for each array antenna element and
accurate real-time calibration for each of them.

• The antenna beamforming is computationally intensive, which means that smart-

antenna base stations must be equipped with very powerful digital signal processors.
This tends to increase the system costs in the short term, but since the benefits outweigh
the costs, it will be less expensive in the long run.

• For a smart antenna to have pattern-adaptive capabilities and reasonable gain, an array
of antenna elements is necessary.

6
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BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXERS
Mixers are commonly used to multiply signals of different frequencies in an effort to achieve frequency
translation. The motivation for this translation stems from the fact that filtering out a particular RF signal
channel centered among many densely populated, narrowly spaced neighboring channels would require
extremely high Q-filters. This task , however, becomes much more manageable if the Rf signal carrier
frequency can be reduced or down-converted within the communication system. Perhaps one of the best
known systems is the down-conversion in a heterodyne receiver, schematically depicted in the following
figure.

Heterodyne receiver system incorporating a mixer

Here the received RF signal is, after preamplification in a low-noise amplifier (LNA), supplied to a mixer
whose task is to multiply the input signal of center frequency fRF with a local oscillator (LO) frequency fLO.
The signal obtained after the mixer contains the frequencies fRF ± fLO , of which after low-pass(LP) filtering,
the low frequency component fRF − fLO, known as the intermediate frequency (IF), is selected for further
processing. The two key ingredients constituting a mixer are the combiner and detector. The combiner can
be implemented through the use of 900 or 1800 directional coupler. The detector may employ non-linear
devices like diode or BJT or MESFET.

Basic mixer concept: two input frequencies are used to create new frequencies at the output of the system
Above figure depicts the basic system arrangement of a mixer connected to an RF signal, V RF(t), and local
oscillator signal, VLO(t), which is also known as the pump signal. It is seen that the RF input voltage signal is
combined with the LO signal and supplied to a semiconductor device with a nonlinear characteristic at its
output side driving a current into the load.
Both diode and BJT have an exponential transfer characteristic, as expressed for instance by the Shockley’s
diode equation as follows:
𝑉⁄
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1)

Alternatively, for a MESFET we have approximately a square behavior:

2
𝐼(𝑉) = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 (1 − 𝑉⁄𝑉 )
𝑇0

where the subscripts denoting drain current and gate-source voltage are omitted for simplicity. The input
voltage is represented as sum of RF signal 𝑣𝑅𝐹 = 𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos (𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) and the LO signal 𝑣𝐿𝑂 = 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos (𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)
and a bias VQ; that is
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑄 + 𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos(𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) + 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos (𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)

This voltage is applied to the nonlinear device whose current output characteristic can be found via a Taylor
series expansion around the Q-point:
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯
1! 2! 3!
𝑑𝐼 1 𝑑2𝐼
𝐼(𝑉) = 𝐼𝑄 + 𝑉 ( )| + 𝑉 2 ( 2 )| + ⋯ = 𝐼𝑄 + 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉 2 𝐵 + ⋯
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑄 2 𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑄

𝑑𝐼 𝑑2 𝐼
Where the constants A and B refer to (𝑑𝑉)| and (𝑑𝑉 2 )| , respectively. Neglecting the constant bias VQ
𝑉𝑄 𝑉𝑄
and IQ,

𝐼(𝑉) = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉 2 𝐵 + ⋯
𝐼(𝑉) = 𝐴 {𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos(𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) + 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos(𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)} + 𝐵 {𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos(𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) + 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos (𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)}2 + ⋯

𝐼(𝑉) = 𝐴 {𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos(𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) + 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos(𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)}

2 2
+ 𝐵 {𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos2 (𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) + 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos 2 (𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡) + 2 𝑉𝑅𝐹 cos(𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos(𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)}
The key lies in the last term
𝐼(𝑉) = ⋯ + 2𝐵 𝑉𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝐿𝑂 cos(𝜔𝑅𝐹 𝑡) cos(𝜔𝐿𝑂 𝑡)
𝐼(𝑉) = ⋯ + 𝐵 𝑉𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝐿𝑂 {cos[(𝜔𝑅𝐹 +𝜔𝐿𝑂 )𝑡] + cos[(𝜔𝑅𝐹 −𝜔𝐿𝑂 )𝑡]}
This expression makes clear that the non-linear action of the diode or transistor can generate new frequency
components of the form 𝜔𝑅𝐹 ± 𝜔𝐿𝑂 . It is also noted that the amplitudes are multiplied by 𝑉𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝐿𝑂 , and B is
a device dependent factor.
Spectral representation of mixing process

Problem of image frequency mapping

TYPES OF MIXERS
Single-Ended Mixer
▪ RF and LO sources are supplied to an appropriately biased diode followed by a resonator circuited
tuned to the desired IF.

▪ Since LO and RF signals are not electrically isolated. There is a potential danger that the LO signal can
interfere with the RF reception, possibly even reradiating portions of the LO energy through the
receiving antenna.
▪ Following figure shows an improved design involving a FET, which, unlike the diode, is able to provide
gain to the incoming RF and LO signals.

▪ FET realization allows not only allows for LO and RF isolation but also provides a signal gain and thus
minimizes conversion loss
▪ Conversion Loss (CL) of a mixer is generally defined in dB as the ratio of supplied input power PRF
over the obtained IF power PIF. When dealing with BJTs and FETs, it is preferable to specify a
conversion gain (CG) defined as the inverse of the power ratio.
𝑃𝑅𝐹
CL = 10log ( )
𝑃𝐼𝐹
▪ Noise Figure(F) of a mixer is defined as
𝑃𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐹=
𝐶𝐺 𝑃𝑛 𝑖𝑛

Where CG being the conversion gain and 𝑃𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝑃𝑛 𝑖𝑛 the noise power at the output due to the RF
signal input (at RF) and the total noise power at the output (at IF).
▪ FET generally has a lower noise figure than a BJT, and because of a nearly quadratic transfer
characteristic, the influence of higher-order nonlinear terms is minimized.
 ▪ BJT finds application when high conversion gain and low voltage bias conditions are needed.
Single-Balanced Mixer
▪ Single-ended mixers are rather easy to construct circuits and the main disadvantage of these designs
is the difficulty associated with providing LO energy while maintaining separation between LO, RF,
and IF signals for broadband applications
▪ Balanced dual-diode or dual transistor mixer in conjunction with a hybrid coupler offers the ability to
conduct such broadband operations. Moreover, it provides further advantages related to noise
suppression and spurious mode rejection
▪ Spurs arise in oscillators and amplifiers due to parasitic resonances and non-linearities and are only
suppressed by the front-end. Thermal noise can critically raise the noise floor in the receiver.
▪ Following figure shows the basic mixer design featuring a quadratic coupler and a dual-diode detector
followed by a capacitor acting as summation point.

▪ This design provides excellent VSWR and is capable of suppressing a considerable amount of noise
because the opposite diode arrangement in conjunction with the 900 phase shift provides a good
degree of noise cancellation.
MICROWAVE NETWORKS
A microwave network is formed when several microwave devices and components such as sources,
attenuators, resonators, filters, amplifiers, etc., are coupled by transmission lines or waveguides for the
desired transmission of a microwave signal. The point of interconnection of two or more devices is called a
junction.
For a low-frequency network, a port is a pair of terminals whereas for a microwave network, a port is a
reference plane transverse to the length of the microwave transmission line or waveguide. At low
frequencies, the physical length of the network is much smaller than the wavelength of the signal
transmitted. Therefore, the measurable input and output variables are voltage and current which can be
related in terms of the impedance Z-parameters, or admittance Y-parameters, or hybrid h-parameters, or
ABCD parameters. For a two-port network as shown schematically in following figure, these relationships
are given by
 Basic voltage and current definitions for a two-port network

At microwave frequencies, the physical length of the component or line is comparable to or much larger
than the wavelength. Furthermore, the voltage and current cannot be uniquely defined at a given point in a
single conductor waveguide.

Besides this constraint, measurement of Z, Y, h and ABCD parameters is difficult at microwave frequencies
due to the following reasons:
1. Non-availability of terminal voltage and current measuring equipment even in the cases of TEM lines
(coaxial, strip and microstrip lines) where voltage and current can be uniquely defined.
2. Short-circuit and open-circuit conditions are not easily achieved over a wide range of frequencies.
3. Presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable or open and short-circuit.

Therefore, microwave circuits are analysed using Scattering or S-parameters which linearly relate the
amplitudes of scattered (reflected or transmitted) waves with those of incident waves. However, many of
the circuit-analysis techniques and circuit properties that are valid at low frequencies are also valid for
microwave circuits.
Meaning of S-parameters
S11 represents Input Reflection Coefficient; S21 indicates Forward Voltage Gain; S12 represents Reverse
Voltage Gain; S22 indicates Output Reflection Coefficient
SIGNAL FLOW CHART MODELING
The analysis of RF networks and their overall interconnection is greatly facilitated through signal flow charts
as commonly used in system and control theory. Even complicated networks are easily reduced to input
output relations in which the reflection and transmission coefficients play integral parts.

Terminated transmission line segment with incident and reflected power wave description. (a)
Conventional form, and (b) Signal flow form

Generic source node (a), receiver node (b), and the associated branch connection (c).

Terminated transmission line with source. (a) conventional form, (b) signal flow form, and (c) simplified
signal flow form
A self-loop that collapses to a single branch

Table: Signal Flowgraph Building Blocks

AMPLIFIER POWER RELATIONS
RF SOURCE

Generic amplifier system

Let us examine the above figure in terms of its power flow relations under the assumptions that the two
matching networks are included in the source and load impedances. This simplifies our system to the
configuration shown below:

Source and load connected to a single-stage amplifier network

The starting point of our power analysis is the RF source connected to the amplifier network. The source
voltage is written as
𝑏𝑆 = 𝑏1′ (1 − Γ𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 ) (1)
The incident power wave associated with 𝑏1′ is given as
|𝑏1′ |2 1 |𝑏𝑆 |2
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 = = (2)
2 2 |1 − Γ𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 |2
which is the power launched toward the amplifier. The actual input power 𝑃𝑖𝑛 observed at the input
terminal of the amplifier is composed of the incident and reflected power waves. With the aid of the input
reflection coefficient Γ𝑖𝑛 we can therefore write:
1 |𝑏𝑆 |2
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 (1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 ) = (1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 ) (3)
2 |1 − Γ𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 |2
The maximum power transfer from source to the amplifier is achieved if the input impedance is complex
conjugate matched 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑆∗ or in terms of the reflection coefficients , if Γ𝑖𝑛 = Γ𝑆∗ . Under maximum power
transfer condition, we define available power 𝑃𝐴 as

1 |𝑏𝑆 |2 1 |𝑏𝑆 |2
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 |Γ𝑖𝑛=Γ∗𝑆 = (1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 ) | = (4)
2 |1 − Γ𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 |2 Γ ∗ 2 1 − |Γ𝑆 |2
𝑖𝑛 =Γ𝑆

Transducer Power Gain

The Transducer Power Gain quantifies the gain of the amplifier placed between source and load.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝐿
𝐺𝑇 = =
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝐴
1
Or with 𝑃𝐿 = 2 |𝑏2 |2 (1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) we obtain

𝑃𝐿 |𝑏2 |2
𝐺𝑇 = = (1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 ) (5)
𝑃𝐴 |𝑏𝑆 |2
In this expression, the ratio 𝑏2 ⁄𝑏𝑆 has to be determined. With the help of our signal flow graph discussion
in above section and based on the following figure, we establish
𝑆21 𝑎1
𝑏2 = (6𝑎)
1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿
𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿
𝑏𝑆 = [1 − (𝑆11 + )Γ ] 𝑎 (6𝑏)
1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 𝑆 1
The required ratio is therefore given by
𝑏2 𝑆21
= (7)
𝑏𝑆 (1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 )(1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 ) − 𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿 Γ𝑆
 𝒃𝟐
Step-by-step simplification to determine the ratio 𝒃𝑺
Inserting equation (7) into equation (5) results in

(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )

𝐺𝑇 = (8)
|(1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 )(1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 ) − 𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿 Γ𝑆 |2
Which can be rearranged by defining the input and output reflection coefficients
𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿
Γ𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆11 + (9𝑎)
1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿
𝑆12 𝑆21 Γ𝑆
Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆22 + (9𝑏)
1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆
With these two definitions, two more transducer power gain expressions can be derived. First, by incorporating
equation (9a) into equation (8), it is seen that

(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )

𝐺𝑇 = (10)
|1 − Γ𝑆 Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 |1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 |2
Second, using equation(9b) into equation (8), it is seen that

(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )

𝐺𝑇 = (11)
|1 − Γ𝐿 Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |2 |1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 |2
An often employed approximation for the transducer power gain is the so-called unilateral power gain, 𝐺𝑇𝑈 , which
neglects the feedback effect of the amplifier(𝑆21 = 0). This simplifies equation (11) to
(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )
𝐺𝑇𝑈 = (12)
|1 − Γ𝐿 𝑆22 |2 |1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 |2

Additional Power Relations

Available power gain for load side matching is defined as

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝐺𝐴 = 𝐺𝑇 |Γ𝐿 =Γ∗𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
With the aid of equation (11),

|𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )
𝐺𝐴 = (13)
(1 − |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |2 ) |1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 |2
Power gain (operating power gain) is defined as
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴
𝐺= = = . = 𝐺𝑇 .
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Using equations (3), (4) and (10)

(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2
𝐺= (14)
(1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 ) |1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 |2
Example: Power relations or an RF amplifier

An RF Amplifier has the following S-parameters:

𝑆11 = 0.3∠−700 , 𝑆12 = 0.2∠−100 , 𝑆21 = 3.5∠850 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆22 = 0.4∠−450 . Furthermore, the input side of
the amplifier is connected to a voltage source with 𝑉𝑆 = 5𝑉∠00 and source impedance 𝑍𝑆 = 40Ω. The
output is utilized to drive an antenna which has an impedance of 𝑍𝐿 = 73Ω. Assuming that the S-parameters
of the amplifier are measured with reference to a 𝑍0 = 50Ω characteristic impedance, find the following
quantities:
(a) Transducer gain 𝐺𝑇 , Unilateral transducer gain 𝐺𝑇𝑈 , available gain 𝐺𝐴 , operating power gain G and
(b) Power delivered to the load 𝑃𝐿 , available power 𝑃𝐴 and incident power to the amplifier 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐

Solution:
𝑍𝑆 − 𝑍0
Γ𝑆 = = −0.111
𝑍𝑆 + 𝑍0
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ𝐿 = = 0.187
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿
Γ𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆11 + = 0.146 − 𝑗0.151
1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿
𝑆12 𝑆21 Γ𝑆
Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆22 + = 0.265 − 𝑗0.358
1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆
(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )
𝐺𝑇 = = 12.56 𝑜𝑟 10.99𝑑𝐵
|1 − Γ𝐿 Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |2 |1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 |2
(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )
𝐺𝑇𝑈 = = 12.67 𝑜𝑟 11.03𝑑𝐵
|1 − Γ𝐿 𝑆22 |2 |1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 |2
|𝑆21 |2 (1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 )
𝐺𝐴 = = 14.74 𝑜𝑟 11.68 𝑑𝐵
(1 − |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |2 ) |1 − 𝑆11 Γ𝑆 |2
(1 − |Γ𝐿 |2 ) |𝑆21 |2
𝐺= = 13.74 𝑜𝑟 11.38 𝑑𝐵
(1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 ) |1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 |2
1 |𝑏𝑆 |2 1 𝑍0 |𝑉𝑆 |2
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 = = = 74.7 𝑚𝑊
2 |1 − Γ𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 |2 2 (𝑍𝑆 + 𝑍0 )2 |1 − Γ𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 |2

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 10 log [ ] = 18.73 𝑑𝐵𝑚
1𝑚𝑊
1 |𝑏𝑆 |2 1 𝑍0 |𝑉𝑆 |2
𝑃𝐴 = = = 78.1 𝑚𝑊 𝑜𝑟 18.93 𝑑𝐵𝑚
2 1 − |Γ𝑆 |2 2 (𝑍𝑆 + 𝑍0 )2 1 − |Γ𝑆 |2

𝑃𝐿 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝑃𝐴 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) + 𝐺𝑇 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 29.92 𝑑𝐵𝑚

STABILITY of Amplifier

A single-stage microwave transistor amplifier can be modelled by the circuit shown in

Figure, where matching networks are used on both sides of the transistor to transform the input
and output impedance Z0 to the source and load impedances ZS and ZL .
In the circuit shown in Figure, oscillation is possible if either the input or output port
impedance has a negative real part; this would then imply that |Γ𝑖𝑛 | > 1 or |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | > 1. Because
Γ𝑖𝑛 and Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 depend on the source and load matching networks, the stability of the amplifier
depends on Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 as presented by the matching networks.

Two types of stability:

(i)Unconditional stability:
The network is unconditionally stable if |Γ𝑖𝑛 | < 1 and |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | < 1 for all passive source and load
impedances (i.e., |Γ𝑆 | < 1 or |Γ𝐿 | < 1 ).
(ii)Conditional stability:
The network is conditionally stable if |Γ𝑖𝑛 | < 1 and |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | < 1 only for a certain range of
passive source and load impedances. This case is also referred to as potentially unstable.

Note that the stability condition of an amplifier circuit is usually frequency dependent
since the input and output matching networks generally depend on frequency. It is therefore
possible for an amplifier to be stable at its design frequency but unstable at other frequencies.
Careful amplifier design should consider this possibility.

Requirements for unconditional stability

The following conditions must be satisfied by Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 ,if the amplifier is to be unconditionally
stable:

𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿
|Γ𝑖𝑛 | = |𝑆11 + |< 1 ------ (1)
1−𝑆22 Γ𝐿
𝑆12 𝑆21 Γ𝑆
|Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | = |𝑆22 + |< 1 -------- (2)
1−𝑆11 Γ𝑆

If the device is unilateral (S12 = 0), these conditions reduce to the simple results that |S11| < 1
and |S22| < 1 are sufficient for unconditional stability. Otherwise, the inequalities define a range
of values for Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 where the amplifier will be stable. Finding this range for Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 can
be facilitated by using the Smith chart and plotting the input and output stability circles.
The stability circles are defined as the loci in the Γ𝐿 (or Γ𝑆 ) plane for which |Γ𝑖𝑛 | = 1 (or
|Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | = 1). The stability circles then define the boundaries between stable and potentially
unstable regions of Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 . Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 must lie on the Smith chart (|Γ𝑆 | < 1, |Γ𝐿 | < 1 for passive
matching networks).
We can derive the equation for the output stability circle as follows:
Express the condition that |Γ𝑖𝑛 | = 1 using equation (1)
𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿
|Γ𝑖𝑛 | = |𝑆11 + |= 1 ------- (3)
1−𝑆22 Γ𝐿
|𝑆11 (1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 ) + 𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿 | = |1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 | ------- (4)
Now define ∆ as the determinant of the scattering matrix:
∆ = S11 S22 − S12 S21
We can write the above equation as,
|𝑆11 − ∆Γ𝐿 | = |1 − 𝑆22 Γ𝐿 | -------- (5)

In the complex plane, an equation of the form |Γ − 𝐶| = 𝑅 represents a circle having a center
at C ( a complex number) and a radius R ( a real number). The above resultant equation defines
the output stability circle with a center CL and radius RL where,
(𝑆22 −Δ𝑆11 ∗ )∗
𝐶𝐿 = |𝑆22 |2 −|∆|2
(𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) -------- (6a)

𝑆12 𝑆21
𝑅𝐿 = ||𝑆 2 2|
(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠) -------- (6b)
22 | −|∆|
Similar results can be obtained for the input stability circle by interchanging S11 and S22.
(𝑆11 −Δ𝑆22∗ )∗
𝐶𝑆 = |𝑆11 | −|∆|2
2
(𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟) -------- (7a)

𝑆12 𝑆21
𝑅𝑆 = ||𝑆 2 −|∆|2
| (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠) -------- (7b)
11 |
 Given the scattering parameters of the transistor, we can plot the input and output
stability circles to define where |Γ𝑖𝑛 | = 1 and |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | = 1. On one side of the input stability circle
we will have |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | < 1, while on the other side we will have |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | > 1.
Similarly, we will have |Γ𝑖𝑛 | < 1 on one side of the output stability circle, and |Γ𝑖𝑛 | > 1
on the other side. We need to determine which areas on the Smith chart represent the stable
region, for which |Γ𝑖𝑛 | < 1 and |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | < 1.

Consider the output stability circles plotted in the Γ𝐿 plane for |S11| < 1 and |S11| > 1, as
shown in Figure. If we set ZL = Z0, then Γ𝐿 = 0, and (1) shows that |Γ𝑖𝑛 | =|S11|. Now if |S11| <
1, then |Γ𝑖𝑛 |< 1, so Γ𝐿 = 0 must be in a stable region. This means that the center of the Smith
chart (Γ𝐿 = 0) is in the stable region, so all of the Smith chart (|Γ𝐿 | < 1) that is exterior to the
stability circle defines the stable range for Γ𝐿 . This region is shaded in Figure (a). Alternatively,
if we set ZL = Z0 but have |S11| > 1, then |Γ𝑖𝑛 | > 1 for Γ𝐿 = 0, and the center of the Smith chart
must be in an unstable region. In this case the stable region is the inside region of the stability
circle that intersects the Smith chart, as illustrated in Figure (b). Similar results apply to the
input stability circle.
If the device is unconditionally stable, the stability circles must be completely outside (or
totally enclose ) the smith chart. We can state this mathematically as,
||𝐶𝐿 | − 𝑅𝐿 | > 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑆11 | < 1 ----- (8a)
||𝐶𝑆 | − 𝑅𝑆 | > 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑆22 | < 1 ----- (8a)

If |S11| > 1 or |S22| > 1, the amplifier cannot be unconditionally stable because we can always
have a source or load impedance of Z0 leading to Γ𝑆 = 0 or Γ𝐿 = 0, thus causing |Γ𝑖𝑛 | > 1 or |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |
> 1. If the device is only conditionally stable, operating points for Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 must be chosen
in stable regions, and it is good practice to check stability at several frequencies over the range
where the device operates. Also note that the scattering parameters of a transistor depend on
the bias conditions, and so stability will also depend on bias conditions.

Tests for Unconditional Stability

The stability circles discussed above can be used to determine regions for Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿
where the amplifier circuit will be conditionally stable, but simpler tests can be used to
determine unconditional stability. One of these is the K − ∆ test, where it can be shown that a
device will be unconditionally stable if Rollet’s condition, defined as,
 1−|𝑆11 |2 − |𝑆22 |2 +|∆|2
𝐾= > 1 ------- (9)
2|𝑆12 𝑆21 |

Along with the auxiliary condition that

|∆| = |𝑆11 𝑆22 − 𝑆12 𝑆21 | < 1 --------(10)

are simultaneously satisfied. These two conditions are necessary and sufficient for
unconditional stability, and are easily evaluated. If the device scattering parameters do not
satisfy the K −∆ test, the device is not unconditionally stable, and stability circles must be used
to determine if there are values of Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 for which the device will be conditionally stable.
Also recall that we must have |S11| < 1 and |S22| < 1 if the device is to be unconditionally stable.
While the K − ∆ test is a mathematically rigorous condition for unconditional stability, it
cannot be used to compare the relative stability of two or more devices because it involves
constraints on two separate parameters.

𝝁 -test
combines the scattering parameters in a test involving only a single parameter, 𝜇 .
𝜇 is defined as,
1−|𝑆11 |2
𝜇 = |𝑆 ∗ >1 -------- (11)
22 −∆𝑆11 |+|𝑆12 𝑆21 |

If 𝜇 > 1, the device is unconditionally stable. In addition, the larger values of 𝜇 imply greater
stability.

Development of 𝝁 -test
𝑆12 𝑆21 Γ𝑆 𝑆 −∆Γ𝑆
22
Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆22 + = 1−𝑆 --------(12)
1−𝑆11 Γ𝑆 11 Γ𝑆
Where, ∆ is the determinant of the scattering matrix. Unconditional stability implies that |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |
< 1 for any passive source termination, Γ𝑆 . The reflection coefficient for a passive source
impedance must lie within the unit circle on a Smith chart, and the outer boundary of this circle
can be written as Γ𝑆 = e jφ. The expression given in (12) maps this circle into another circle in
the Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 plane.
Substituting Γ𝑆 = e jφ into (12) and solving for e jφ:
𝑆22 −Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑒 𝑗∅ =
∆ − 𝑆11 Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡
This equation is of the form | Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − C| = R, representing a circle with center C and radius R in
the Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 plane. Thus the center and radius of the mapped |Γ𝑆 | = 1 circle are given by,

𝑆22 −∆𝑆11∗
𝐶= -------- (13a)
1−|𝑆11 |2
|𝑆12 𝑆21 |
𝑅 = 1−|𝑆 2
--------- (13b)
11 |

If points within this circular region are to satisfy |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | < 1, then we must have that ,
|C| + R < 1 -------- (14)
Substituting equation (13) in equation (14) gives,
∗ |
|𝑆22 − ∆𝑆11 + |𝑆12 𝑆21 | < 1 − |𝑆11 |2
Rearranging the above equation yields the 𝜇- test.
1−|𝑆11 |2
∗ |+ |𝑆 𝑆 |
|𝑆22 −∆𝑆11
>1
12 21

Development of K − ∆ test
The K − ∆ test can be derived more simply from the µ-test.
1−|𝑆11 |2
∗ |+ |𝑆 𝑆 | >
|𝑆22 −∆𝑆11
1
12 21
|𝑆22 − ∆𝑆11 ∗ | |𝑆11 |2 − |𝑆12 𝑆21 | -------- (15)
< 1−
Rearranging and squaring gives,
Which yields the Rollet’s condition

1−|𝑆11 |2 − |𝑆22 |2 +|∆|2

𝐾= > 1
2|𝑆12 𝑆21 |

The squaring of equation (15) introduces an ambiguity in the sign of the right hand side, thus
requiring an additional condition. The right hand side of equation (15) should be positive before
squaring. Thus,

Which is the required additional condition.

SINGLE-STAGE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER DESIGN for maximum gain

A single-stage microwave transistor amplifier can be modelled by the circuit shown in

Figure, where matching networks are used on both sides of the transistor to transform the input
and output impedance Z0 to the source and load impedances ZS and ZL . The most useful gain
definition for amplifier design is the transducer power gain, which accounts for both source
and load mismatch. We can define separate effective gain factors for the input (source)
matching network, the transistor itself, and the output (load) matching network as follows:
1−|Γ𝑆 |2
𝐺𝑆 = |1−Γ 2
------- (1a)
𝑖𝑛 Γ𝑆 |
|S21 | 2
𝐺0 = -------(1b)
1−|Γ𝐿 |2
𝐺𝐿 = |1−S 2
------(1c)
22 Γ𝐿 |
The overall transducer gain is then GT = GSG0GL . The effective gains GS and GL of the
matching networks may be greater than unity. This is because the unmatched transistor would
incur power loss due to reflections at the input and output of the transistor, and the matching
sections can reduce these losses.
Design for Maximum Gain (Conjugate Matching)
After the stability of the transistor has been determined and the stable regions for Γ𝑆 and
Γ𝐿 have been located on the Smith chart, the input and output matching sections can be
designed. Since G0 is fixed for a given transistor, the overall transducer gain of the amplifier
will be controlled by the gains, GS and GL , of the matching sections.
Maximum gain will be realized when these sections provide a conjugate match
between the amplifier source or load impedance and the transistor.
We know that maximum power transfer from the input matching network to the
transistor will occur when
Γ𝑖𝑛 = Γ𝑆∗ ------(2a)
and that maximum power transfer from the transistor to the output matching network will
occur when
Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Γ𝐿∗ -------- (2b)
With the assumption of lossless matching sections, these conditions will maximize the overall
transducer gain.
The maximum gain is given by,
1 1−|Γ𝐿 |2
𝐺𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1−|Γ 2
|S21 |2 -------- (3)
𝑆| |1−S22 Γ𝐿 |2
In the general case with a bilateral (S12 = 0) transistor, Γ𝑖𝑛 is affected by Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 and vice versa, so
the input and output sections must be matched simultaneously. The necessary equations are:
𝑆21 𝑆12 Γ𝐿
Γ𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆11 + = Γ𝑆∗ --------(4)
1−𝑆22 Γ𝐿
𝑆12 𝑆21 Γ𝑆
Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆22 + = Γ𝐿∗ --------(5)
1−𝑆11 Γ𝑆

Solutions to Γ𝑆 and Γ𝐿 are only possible if the quantity within the square root is positive, and
it can be shown that this is equivalent to requiring K > 1. Thus, unconditionally stable devices
can always be conjugately matched for maximum gain, and potentially unstable devices can be
conjugately matched if K > 1 and |∆| < 1.
∗
The results are much simpler for the unilateral case. When S12 = 0, Γ𝑆 = 𝑆11 and Γ𝐿 =
∗
𝑆22 , and the maximum unilateral transducer gain is
 1 1
𝐺𝑇𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
|S21 |2
1 − |𝑆11 | 1 − |S22 |2

The maximum transducer power gain occurs when the source and load are conjugately matched
to the transistor. If the transistor is unconditionally stable, so that K > 1, the maximum
transducer power gain can be simply rewritten as follows:
|S21 |
𝐺𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐾 − √𝐾 2 − 1)
|S12 |

The maximum transducer power gain is also sometimes referred to as the matched gain. The
maximum gain does not provide a meaningful result if the device is only conditionally stable
since simultaneous conjugate matching of the source and load is not possible if K < 1. In this
case a useful figure of merit is the maximum stable gain, defined as the maximum transducer
power gain with K = 1.
|S |
Thus, 𝐺𝑚𝑠𝑔 = |S21|
12
The maximum stable gain is easy to compute and offers a convenient way to compare the gain
of various devices under stable operating conditions.

Single stage amplifier design

Low-Noise Amplifier Design
Besides stability and gain, another important design consideration for a microwave
amplifier is its noise figure. In receiver applications especially it is often required to have a
preamplifier with as low a noise figure as possible since, the first stage of a receiver front end
has the dominant effect on the noise performance of the overall system.
Generally it is not possible to obtain both minimum noise figure and maximum gain for
an amplifier, so some sort of compromise must be made. This can be done by using constant-
gain circles and circles of constant noise figure to select a usable trade-off between noise figure
and gain. Here we will derive the equations for constant–noise figure circles and show how
they are used in transistor amplifier design.

The noise figure of a two-port amplifier can be expressed as

𝑅𝑁 2
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + |𝑌𝑆 − 𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 | ------ (1)
𝐺𝑆
where the following definitions apply:
YS = GS + j BS = source admittance presented to transistor.
Yopt = optimum source admittance that results in minimum noise figure.
Fmin = minimum noise figure of transistor, attained when YS = Yopt.
RN = equivalent noise resistance of transistor.
GS = real part of source admittance.
Instead of the admittance YS and Yopt, we can use the reflection coefficients Γ𝑆 and Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 ,
1 1−Γ𝑆
𝑌𝑆 = 𝑍 ---- (2a)
0 1+Γ𝑆

1 1−Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡
𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝑍 ---- (2b)
0 1+Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡

Γ𝑆 is the source reflection coefficient. The quantities Fmin, Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 and RN are characteristics of
the particular transistor being used, and are called the noise parameters of the device; they may
be given by the manufacturer or measured.

2
Using equations for YS and Yopt , we can express the quantity |𝑌𝑆 − 𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 | interms of Γ𝑆 and
Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 as,
2
2 4 |Γ𝑆 −Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |
|𝑌𝑆 − 𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 | = 𝑍 2 2 --------(3)
0 |1+Γ𝑆 |2 |1+Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |

In addition,
1 1−Γ 1−Γ∗ 1 1−|Γ𝑆 |2
𝐺𝑆 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑌𝑆 } = 2𝑍 (1+Γ𝑆 + 1+Γ∗𝑆 ) = 𝑍 |1+Γ𝑆 |2
-----(4)
0 𝑆 𝑆 0

Using these results, Noise figure F is given as,

𝑅 2
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐺𝑁 |𝑌𝑆 − 𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 |
𝑆
2
4𝑅𝑁 |Γ𝑆 −Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + -------(5)
𝑍0 (1−|Γ𝑆 |2 )|1+Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |2

For a fixed Noise figure F, this result defines a circle in the Γ𝑆 plane.
Noise figure parameter N is defined as,

2
|Γ𝑆 −Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |
𝑁= ------- (6)
(1−|Γ𝑆 |2 )

Using equation (5), N can be written as,

𝐹−𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
𝑁= 4𝑅𝑁 |1 + Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | -----(7)
⁄𝑍
0

N is a constant for a given noise figure and set of noise parameters. Equation (6) can be
rewritten as,

Generally it is not possible to obtain both minimum noise figure and maximum gain for
an amplifier, so some sort of compromise must be made. This can be done by using constant-
gain circles and circles of constant noise figure to select a usable trade-off between noise figure
and gain.