CHAPTER 2·

Semiconductor Diodes
Objectives
You will be able to:
1 Sketch a diode circuit sym\:>01, 7 Sketch diode ac equivalent
identify the terminals, and circuits and calculate junction
discuss diode circuit behavior. capacitance and switching times.
2 Explain diode forward and 8 Determine diode parameter
reverse characteristics. vah;1es from device data sheets.
3 List important diode 9 Test diodes, and plot the
parameters and determine forward and reverse
parameter vcdues from the characteristics,
characteristics. 10 Sketch a Zener diode circuit
4 Sketch approximate diode symbol, identify the terminals,
characteristics and de and explain the characteristics.
equivalent circuits, and apply 11 Determine Zener diode
them to circuit analysis. parameter values from device
5 Draw de load lines on diode characteristics and £rom data
charactetistics to precisely sheets,
analyze diode circuits. 12 Analyze basic Zener diode
6 Determine maximum diode circuits.
power dissipations and forward
voltages at various temperatures.

INTRODUCTION
The,. term diode refers to a two-electrode, o:r two.,[Link],al, devke. A
seiniconductor d~ode is simply a pn-junction with a connecting lead on each
~ide, A diode is a one-way device, offering (l low resistance, whcnforw(lrd-bwscd,, (lnd
behaving '11most as an optm switch wh~ r~vCr$c-biqsed. An ~pp.r9ximately
constant voltage drop [Link].s across. a, foMard..-biased diod~,, and thl.s
simpU6es diode circttit [Link]!?is, Diod~ f:orwa:i;d, an<l [Link].~ ct\axacte:ristjcs
~re g:r;aphl:I of 4;:orresponding ~u.r:i;ent and volt~ge levels, For pre~i~~ circ1,d t
analysis~ dc. load [Link] are d,rc;iwn on Uw diod~ forwa:i:d cl\~~~t~d~ti~'\
Some diodes a:re low..,cQl'[Link] devic;es. fo~ \lS~ in $Wit~hmg ~ir~uUS., High.,,
current
~.. . . - diodes
. . are most often \lSed, as :re~tifiefs fo:r ae t-q de ~OJ.:\V~:r~iQ~,
. ~ne.r
34 Electronic Devices and Circuits

diodes are operated in reverse breakdown because they have a very stable
breakdown voltage.

2-1 pn-JUI\ICTION DIODE

As explained in Sections 1-5 and 1-6, a pn-junction permits substantial cur-

rent flow when forward biased, and blocks current when reverse-biased.
Thus, it can be used as a switch: on when forward-biased and off when bi-
ased in reverse. A pn-junction provided with copper wire connecting leads
becomes an electronic device known as a diode (see Fig. 2-1).
The circuit symbol (or graphic symbol) for a
p-type n-type
diode is an arrowhead and bar (Fig. 2-2). The
arrowhead indicates' the conventional direc- i i
✓· 1/
tion of current' flow when the diode is for-
ward-biased (from the positive terminal
through the device to the negative terminal). Conductor
I
The p-side of the diode is always the positive Figure 2-1 A semiconductor
terminal for forward bias and is termed the diode is a po-junction with
conductors on each side of
anocle. Toe· n-side, called the cathode, is the the junction for connecting
negative terminal when the device is forward- the device to a circuit.
biased.
A pn-junction diode can be destroyed if a high level of forward current
overheats the device. It can also be destroyed if a large reverse voltage causes
the junction t<? break down. The maximum forward current and reverse volt-
age for diodes are specified on the manufacturer's data sheets (see Section 2-
7). In general, physically large diodes pass the largest currents and survive the
largest reverse voltages. Small diodes are limited to low current levels and low
reverse voltages.
Figure 2-3 shows the appearance of low-, medium-, and high-current
diodes. Since the body of the low-current device in Fig. 2-3a may be only
0.3 cm long, the cathode is usually identified by a coloured band. This type of
Positive terminal Negative terminal
for forward bias Ip for forward bias

Anode Cathode
(p-type) (n-type)
Arrowhead indicates
• conventional current
direction
Figure 2-2 Diode circuit symbol. Current flows in the arrowhead direction when the diode
is forward-bias~d: positive (+ ) on the anode and negative (- ) on the cathode.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 35

Cathode diode is usually capable of passing a maxi-

! mum forward current of approximately 100
(a) Low-current diode
mA. It can also survive about 75 V reverse bias
without breaking down, and its reverse cur-
rent is usually less than 1 µA at 25°C.
The medium-current diode shown in Fig. 2-
3b can usually pass a forward current of about
(b) Medium-current diode 400 mA and survive over 200 V reverse bias.
The anode and cathode terminals may be indi-
Cathode cated by a diode symbol on the side of the de-

~
vice.
Low-current and medium-current diodes
are usually mounted by soldering the connect-
(c) High-current diode
ing leads to terminals. Power dissipated in the
Figure 2-3 The size and ap- device is then carried away b y air convection
pearance of a diode depend
and by heat conduction along the connecting
upon the level of forward
current that the device is leads.
designed to pass. High-current diodes, or power diodes (see
Fig. 2-3c), generate a lot of heat. So air convec-
tion would be completely inadequate. Such devices are designed to be con-
nected mechanically to a metal heat sink. Power diodes can pass forward
currents of many amperes and can survive several hundred volts of reverse
bias.

2-2 CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS

Forward and Reverse Characteristics

The semiconductor diode is essentially a pn-junction, and its characteristics
are those discussed in Chapter 1. Figures 2-4 and 2-5 show typical forward
and reverse characteristics for low-current silicon and germanium diodes.
From the silicon diode characteristics in Fig. 2-4, it is seen that the forward
current (Ip) remains very low (less than 100 µA) until the diode forward-bias
voltage
r
(Vp) exceeds approximately 0.7 V. At Vp levels greater than 0.7 V,-h
increases almost linearly.
Because the diode reverse current (h) is very much smaller than its for-
ward current, the reverse characteristics are plotted with expanded current
scales. For a silicon diode, JR is normally less than 100 nA, and it is almost
completely independent of the reverse-bias voltage. As already explained in
Chapter 1, JR is largely a minority charge carrier reverse saturation current. A
small increase in JR can occur with increasing reverse-bias voltage, as a result
of minority charge carriers leaking along the junction surface. For a diode
with the characteristics in Fig. 2-4, the reverse current is usually less than
.,

.,
-
, I
I
I
--4--Twe
-- ,........... -· ,_ _J
l
I
, '>- ' .[Link]
I
,/ _ I, ,_
eli,er-se
iaklieWJt1 11
1.01,l<IJge --48 •. -- I-- - - ~-

I I
I
\.
I
IT.
• i i'<. -w uv i:;

-.'.i::, __;m - ,25 ,·

I

I i - (V)
01 02 03 04 05 06 0•7 08
-·--·--· --50 T r-="" ►--
I
JR
; -HJB- I
i
i
l !
:1-.::

'.Figure 2-4 Typical forward and .reverse characteristics for a silicon diode. There is a sub-
'staritial :forward cur-rent :(Ip,) when .the forward voltage •(VF) exceeds approximately 0.7 V.

(mA)
.,
' ~ .......... ,.
I ~v~

,.
I
I -- I
1-60
evr,!iSe !J;
akctow.r;i , l
•n
.ol age
T --:-
f---- ..·- ., ' - -
' IK

-:f 0 --:{ 5 i
"
!
(V)
C.l ( .2 'C.3 (.4
_;- h
v- I'
-
-~R
, -1-!
l
I
I
r / ..
,,1 :.1.,1,..

, (µA)

,Eiguli8 :2.;5 -1:~Pi~al ;[Link]:ard and reverse characteristics

;f or,:a,,$Jennanium :diode. ·substantial'forward current (IF)
-;flows ~When •the 'forward· vdltage (Vi;) ·e xceeds .approxi-
;rinately,-O:3 ·v.

:J,,f'ili'O:tl©li) ,<iff -'itlh.e ~l~west [Link] Jorward current ·level. Therefore, .JR is quite
n~~g1Me•'Wh.-e1fl-'.C011'\Pcll7ed. 't o ·'ft;, rand a .reverse-biasea diode ·may ·be treated
a'\[Link] ;a-n,::0pen switch. This :is·inv estigated further :rn Ex. 2-1.
 Chap1:er 2 SemiconducJ;oP Diodes 3·7

Example 2-1
Calculate the forward and reverse resistartce$ offered by a silicon diode with
the characteristics in Fig. 2.4 at Ip = 100 mA and af VR = SQ' V.

Solution

At Ip = 100 mA, Vp ~ 0.75 V

Vp 0.75 V
Rp = - = --- (see Fig. 2-6a)
Ip l00mA ,
= 7.5 n
At VR = 50V, IR~ l00nA

VR SQV
RR= 1; = l00nA (see Fig. 2-6b)

= S00MO
When the diode reverse voltage (VR) is sufficiently increased, the device
goes into reverse breakdown. For the characteristics shown in Fig. 2-4, this
occurs where V R = 75 V. Reverse breakdown can
destroy a diode unless the current is limited by a
suitable series-connected resistor. Reverse break-
(a) Forward resistance down is usefully applied in Zener diodes, which
are introduced in Section 2-9.
The characteristics of a germanium diode
are similar to those of a silicon diode but with
(b) Reverse resistance
some important differences (see Fig. 2-5). The for-
ward voltage drop of a germanium diode is typi-
Figure 2-6 Determination
of diode forward and
cally 0.3 V, compared to 0.7 V for silicon. For a
reverse resistance. germanium device, the reverse saturation current
at 25°C may be about 1 µ.A, which is much larger
than the reverse current for a silicon diode. Fi-
nally, the reverse breakdown voltage for germanium devices is likely to be
substantially lower than that for silicon devices.
The lower forward. voltage drop for germanium diodes can be a distinct
advantage. However, the lower reverse current and higher reverse break-
down voltage of silicon diodes make them preferable to germanium devices
for most applications.

Diode Parameters
The diode parameters of greatest interest are

Vp forward voltage drop

;18 Electronic Devices and Circuits

IR reverse saturation current

VsR reverse breakdown voltage
rd dynamic resistance
lF(max) maximum forward current
> ~Ip = l
The values of these parameters are nor-
mally listed on the diode data sheet provided J
A
= -
by device manufacturers (see Section 2-7). d A

Some of the parameters can also be deter- \ I

mined directly from the diode characteristics. AVi:: F 0.025 V

For the silicon diode characteristics in Fig . 2-4,

Vp ~ 0.7 V, IR = 100 nA, and V8 R = 75 V
The forward resistance calculated in Ex. 2-1
7
Figure 2-7 Determination of
is a static quantity. It is the constant resistance t he dynamic resist ance (rd)
of a diode from the forward
(or de resistance) of the diode at a particular characteristic.
constant forward current. The dynamic resis-
tance of the diode is the resistance offered to
changing levels of forward voltage. The dynamic resistance, also known as the
incremental resistance or ac resistance, is the reciprocal of the slope of the forward
characteristics beyond the knee. Referring to Figs 2-4 and 2-7,

(2-1)

The dynamic resistance can also be calculated from the rule-of-thumb

equation

(2-2)

where lp is the de forward current. Thus, for example, the d yn am ic resistance

for a diode passing a 1 mA forward current is rd = 26 m V / 1 mA = 26 n..
Equation 2-2 shows that the diode dynamic resistance chan ges with the
level of de forward current. Since this is not shown in Figs 2-4 and 2-5, the
characteristics are approximations of the actual device ch aracteristics. It
should also be noted that Eq. 2-2 g~ves the ac resistance only for the junction.
It does not include the de resistance of the semiconductor m aterialI which
might be as large as 2 n. depending on the design of the d evice. The
resistance derived from the slope of the device characteristic does include the
semiconductor de resistance. Sord (from the characteristic) should be slightly
larger than rd calculated from Eq. 2-2.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 39

Example 2-2
Determine the dynamic resistance at a forward current of 70 mA for the
diode characteristics given in Fig. 2-4. Using Eq. 2-2, estimate the diode
dynamic resistance.

[Link]
In Fig. 2-4 at IF = 70 mA,
liip = 60 mA and Ii Vp ~ 0.025 V
liVp 0.025 V
Eq. 2-1: rd= - - = · (see Fig. 2-7)
liip 60 mA
= 0.42 n
, 26mV 26mV
Eq. 2-2: rd = Ip 70mA
= o.37 n

~~a~ia~~~;r~~1em;,, .•. , .•. · •.

• ,,., '/- ., '(. ~' • • '. < ·· ·, __;: ~-. :· .
,.
.
; /
··
~~ia C:f~~a{e -~ f i e ~js~~¢e$: [Link]~4py, a diode w~th the characteristics in
, .. Fig,: ,%-5,ftf.3tt;N,i reverse·,~iaS'.~~rn:l,~t 60 rriA of forwar<:;l current.
2;~;2: Peten:.i!lirtf~~i djnamic -r eVigt~ce '. at a 50 'mA forward current for a
, ,~ , ·~ )di~ tfi .~ Jih";Th~ ch~rac;leristics m.P1g. i-s. Use Eq. 2-2 to estimate the
~ ' '.; 'd·· ' !j/,'h•:l'-'' ' >•!;';,{If\,@~~~ ' . ' ' '
• . • ),O&e ·u:Yfla:01,1~ ,res~stanqe:· .. •. .,•

2-3 DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

Ideal Diodes and Practical Diodes

As already explained, a diode is essentially a one-way device, offering a low
resistance when forward-biased and a high resistance when biased in
reverse. An ideal diode (or perfect diode) would have zero forward resistance
and zero forward voltage drop. It would also have an infinitely high reverse
resistance, which would result in zero reverse current. Figure 2-8a shows the
current/voltage characteristics of an ideal diode.
Although an ideal diode does not exist, there are many applications where
diodes can be assumed to be near-ideal devices. In circuits with supply
voltages much larger than the diode forward voltage drop, Vp can be assumed
to be constant withou~ introducing any serious error. Also, the diode reverse
current is normally so much smaller than the forward current that the reverse
current can be ignored. These assumptions lead to the near-ideal, or
approximate, characteristics for silicon and germanium diodes shown in
Figs 2-8b and c. Example 2-3 investigates a situation where the diode Vp is
assumed to be constant.
 .4 0 El111ct!'.!OOiq.,Devices and Circuits

I
•
Ip
t.
IF o.: V
♦
Ip 0.7V

◄
VR \ p-+-
I I
1 p-+-
' F...,
◄ ◄
r VR VR
r r
"' -,.,. - 1'

♦ ♦ ♦

(a) Ideal diode characteristics (b) Germanium diode appro- (c) Silicon diode approximate
ximate characteristics characteristics
Figure 2-8 An ideal diode has VF = o and IR = o. Practical diodes can be treated as
near-ideal devices if the forward voltage drop is tak~n into account.

Example 2-3
A silicon diode is used in the circuit shown in Fig. 2-9. Calculate the diode
current.

Solution

E = lpR1 + Vp
E
E - VF 15 V - 0.7 V 1sv -
or Ip= R1 - 4.7 k!l

= 3.04mA
Figure 2-9 Circuit for Ex. 2-3.

Piecewise Linear Characteristic

When the forward characteristic of a djode is not
available, a straight-line approximation called (mA) (Vp + Li Vp)
rr
the piecewise linear characteristic may be em- 200 )

ployed. To construct the piecewise linear 160

characteristic, Vp is first marked on the horiz- 120
ontal axis, as shown in Fig. 2-10. Then,from Vp, a Ip
80
straight line is drawn with a slope equal to the
diode dynamic •resistance. Example 2-4 40
. demonstrates the process. A
0 (V)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Vp
Example 2..4
Construct the piecewise linea.r characteristic for Figure. 2-10 Diode piece-
a silicon diode •which has a 0.25 n dynamic wise linear characteristic,
or straight-line approxima-
resistance ~nd a 200 ntA maximum forward tion of the diode forward
Cl,.lrrent. characteristic.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 41

Solution

Plot point A on the horizontal axis at

Vp = 0.7V (see Fig. 2-10)
[Link] = Alp X rd= 200 mA X 0.25 0

= 0.05V
Plot point B (on Fig. 2-10) at
lp = 200 mA and Vp = (0.7 V + 0.05 V)
Draw the characteristic through points A and B.

DC Equivalent Circuits
An equivalent circuit for a device is a circuit that represents the device behavior.
Usually, the equivalent circuit is made up of a number of components, such as
.resistors and voltage cells. A diode equivalent
circuit may be substituted for the device when
investigating a circuit containing the d iode.
Equivalent circuits may also be used as device (a) Basic de equivalent circuit
models for computer analysis.
In Ex. 2-3, a forward-biased diode is assumed Ideal
rd VF diode
to have a constant forward voltage drop (Vp) and
negligible series resistance. In this case the diode ---A/V\r-i 1 --►
1-- ~1-
equivalent circuit is assumed to be a voltage cell (b) Complete de equivalent
circuit
with a voltage Vp (see Fig. 2-lla). This simple de
equivalent circuit is quite suitable for a great Figure 2-11 DC equivalent
circuit s for a junction diode.
many diode applications.
A more accurate equivalent circuit includes the diode dynamic resistance
(rd) in series with the voltage cell, as shown in Fig. 2-llb. This takes account of
the small variations in Vp that occur with change in forward current. An ideal
diode is also included to show that current flows only in one direction. The
[Link] circuit without rd assumes that the diode has the approximate
characteristics illustrated in Fig. 2-8b or c. With rd included, the equivalent
circuit represents a diode with the type of piecewise linear characteristic shown
in Fig. 2-10. Consequently, the circuit in Fig. 2-llb is termed the piecewise linear
equivalent circuit.

Example 2-5
Calculate [p for the diode circuit in Fig. 2-12a assuming that the diode has
Vp = 0.7 V and rd= 0. Then re~alculate tJ;te current taking r d = 0.25 n.
 4l!: Eles,t ronic [Link] and Ci·rcwits . ,

Solution

Substituting Vp as the diode equivalent circuit (Big. 2;, 12b),

Ip ~ E - Vp _ 1.5 V - 0.7 V
R1 10 0
=BOmA
Substituting Vp and rd as the diode equivalent circuit (Fig. 2-12c),

E - VF 1.5 V - 0.7 V
Jp = R1 + rd - 10 0 + 0.25 0
= 78inA

E
-
Ip
·

E
- Ip

E
[Link] 1.,_S V [Link]

(a) Diode circuit (b) Diode replaced (c) Diode replaced

with voltage cell w ith rd and V F
Figure 2-12 Diode circuits for Ex. 2-5.

•~1 ,.,,,,,
{ I
•/ • i

tin the circuit in Fig. 2-9 when

. tect silicon-fi,[Link] .
.foi#ard cu~ren.t .of 100 mA and a
the ,piecewise linear characteris-
',f'f' ; A }- • , ' •

i en,,e diode ,i n Problem 2-3.2 is for-

. , •• -~ · • • >, ~ ,. !/ •

. . a.~ -~ -resistor.•attd a 3 V battery.

,/... j ~ ~~ ..... - ,, - ,.,

2-4 DC LOAD LINE ANALYSIS

DC Load Line
Figure 2-13a shows a diode in series with a 100 n resistor (R1) and a supply
voltage (E). The polarity of E is such that the diode is forward-biased, so
that there is a diode forward curr~nt (Ip). As already discussed, the circuit
current can be detern;tlned approximately by assuming a constant diode
forward voltage drop (Vp). When the precise levels of the diode current and
voltage must be calculated, graphical analysis (also termed de load line
analysis) is employed.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 43

40

-
Ip

100n
R1
:}1,R1
Ip ,
30

20
E
SV
-
D1
:}v, 10

0 (V)
0 1 2 3 4 6
Vp

(a) Diode-resistor series circuit (b) Plotting the de load line on the
diode characteristics
Figure 2-13 Drawing a de load line on the diode characteristic.

For graphical analysis, a de load line is drawn on the diode forward char-
acteristics (Fig. 2-13b). This is a straight line that illustrates all de conditions
that could exist within the circuit. Because the load line is always straight, it
can be constructed by plotting any two corresponding current and voltage
points and then drawing a straight line through them. To determine two
points on the load line, an equation relating voltage, current, and resistance
is first derived for the circuit. From Fig. 2-13a,

(2-3)

Any two convenient levels of lp can be substituted into Eq. 2-3 to calculate
corresponding Vp levels, or vice versa. As demonstrated in Ex. 2-6, it is
convenient to calculate Vp when lp = 0, and to determine lp when Vp = 0.

Example 2-6
Draw the de load line for the circuit in Fig. 2-13a on the diode forward char-
acteristic given in Fig. 2-13b.

Solution
Substitute lp = 0 into Eq. 2-3,
E = (IF R1) + VF = 0 + VF
or Vp =E =5V
Plot point A on the diode characteristic at
Ip= 0 and V p = 5 V
Now·substitute VF=· 0 into Eq. 2:..3,
~- = (lp R1)1 -t 0
E 5V
giving Ip, = - = - -
• R1 MlO 0
=50mA I

Plot- p0int B1 on. the diod~ eharacteristic at

Ip= ~OmAanq_ Vp =0
Draw the de load line through points A and B.

Q--Point • I '

The relationship betwee11; the dioµ~ [Link] voltage and current in the
circuit in Fig. 2-13a is defined by the llevice characteristic. Consequently,
there is only one,poin,t op... the de load line where the diode voltage and
~rent:a re com,pa~ble with the circuit€onditions. That is point Q, termed the
quie~qent point ot de bias p0int, where -the load line intersects the characteristic.
this may be checked by substituting the levels of Ip and VF at point Q into
ILq. 2-3, Fram the Q pointonFig.2-13b,- IF = 40 mAand VF= 1 V. Equation 2-3
states that E = OP R1) + Vp. Ther~fore,

E...:.. (40 mA X 100 0) + 1 V

=SV
So, with E = 5 V artd R1 = 100 n,. the only levels of lp and. Vp that can satisfy
Eq~2-3 on the· dibde cI:,.[Link] in F~g. 2-13b are 40 mA and 1 V.
Note -tha.t1 although.O. ai;td 5 V were used for Vp when the de load line was
drawn in Ex. 2-61 no functioning semiconductor diode would have a 5 V
forward voltage drop. This is simply a convenient theoretical level for
plotting the de loacl,line.,

Calculating Load Resistance and Supply Voltage

In a diode series circuit (see Fig. 2-14a), resistor R1 dictates the slope of the de
load line, and supply voltage E determines point A on the load line. So the
circuit conditions can be altered by changing either R1 or E.
When designing a diode circuit, it may be necessary to use a given supply
voltage and set up a specified forward current. h;l this case, points A and Q
are first plotted and the load line is drawn. ~esistor R1 is then calculated from
the slope of the load line. The problem could also occur in another way. For
example, R1 and the required Ip are know,n, and the supply voltage is to be
 Chapter 2 Semiconduc:tor Diodes 45

(mA)
50
I

40

- Ip
30mA
37.5

IF
30

20
"' "' Q
LiVp

DCIbad Ii h.e
i-.. . / .... F
"
E -
5v-
10
~
......

0
~ A
(V)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Vp
(a) Diode-resistor circuit (b) Resistor deterrninatio!-1

Figure 2-14 Determination of the required circuit series resistance R, from the slope of the
de load line. •

determined. This problem is solved by plotting point Q and drawing the load
line with slope 1/R1. The supply voltage is then read at point A.

Example 2-7
Using the device characteristics in Fig. 2-14b, determine the required load
resistance for the circuit in Fig. 2-14a to give lp = 30 mA.

Solution

From Eq. 2-3, Vp = E - (Ip R1)

Substituting IF= 0, Vp = E - 0 = 5 V
Plot point A on the diode characteristic in Fig. 2-14b at
lp = 0 and Vp = 5 V
Now plot point Qin Fig. 2-14b at
Ip = 30mA
Draw the de load line t hrough points A and Q. From t):le load line,

= 1330
W.8 Electroni'c: Cilevices and Circuits

Example 2-8
Determine a new supply voltage for the circuit in Fig. 2-14a to give a 50 mA.
diode forward current when R1 = 100 n.

Solution

Plot point Q on the diode characteristic in Fig. 2-15 at

]p = 50 mA
From the characteristic, read
VF= 1.1 V
From Eq. 2-3, Vp =E- (Ip R1)
When lp changes from 50 mA to 0,
Ll]p = 50mA (see Fig. 2-15)
and aVp = ]p R1 = 50 mA X 100 0 (see Fig. 2-15)
=5V
The new supply voltage is
E = Vp,, + .ilVp = 1.1 V + 5 V
= [Link]
Point A may now be plotted (on Fig. 2-15) at lp = 0 and E = 6.1 V, and the
new de load line may be drawn through points A and Q.

(mA)
60

50

' ' ..
.... .I'

"
Q
40
~ /rx
load ine
Ip 30
i~Ip
~ .
20

10

0
0 2 3
Vp
4
"' "' 5 6
.A
7
(V)

1.1 V

Figure 2-15 Determination of the required supply voltage for a diode-resistor circuit with
a given resistor and a specified load current.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 65

j . .

. I

Review Questions
Section 2-1
2-1 Sketch the symbol for a semiconductor diode, labelling the anode and cathode
and showing the polarity and current direction for forward bias. Show the di­
rection of movement of charge carriers when the device is (a) forward-biased
and (b) reverse-biased.
2-l Draw sketches to show the appearance of low-current and medium-current
diodes, and show how the cathode is identified in each case.

Section 2-2
2-3 Sketch typical forward and reverse characteristics for a germanium diode and
for a silicon diode. Discuss the characteristics, and compare silicon and germa­
nium diodes.
2-4 For diodes, define forward voltage drop, maximum forward current, dynamic
resistance, reverse saturation current, and reverse breakdown voltage.
2-5 Show how the diode dynamic resistance can be determined from the forward
characteristics. Write an equation for calculating the dynamic resistance from
the de forward current.

Section 2-3
2-6 Sketch the characteristics for an ideal diode and the approximate characteris­
tics for practical diodes. Briefly explain each characteristic.
2-7 Draw the de equivalent circuit for a diode and the piecewise linear equivalent
circuit. Discuss the application of each.

Section 2-4
2-8 Explain the purpose of a de load line. Write the equation for drawing a de load
line for a series circuit consisting of a supply voltage (E), a resistor (R1 ), and a
diode (D1 ).
,ae Electp:inic Devi(![Link] and Circuits
•
-
·2-9 Define the Q-point in a diode circuit, and explain how it is related to the diode
cltaracteristics and the de load line.

[Link]
Section 2-2

2-1 Calculate the static forward resistance for the characteristics in

Fig. 2-31 at a 200 mA forward current. Determine the reverse resistance at a
75 V reverse voltage.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 67

(mA)
n~~
-vv

---
--v

♦ n~~

I
,-vv

' r
-, 1 --
. ~V

1 --
~ ·-
'---1,,_
-- ,.. -50
110 -'i 15 -! 0 -:s
(V) (V)

50~~JR- - -i- F

i ;c ~
(µA)
Figure 2-31
and 2-9.
Diode characteristics for Problems 2-1, 2-2,
.
2-2 Determine the dynamic resistance at a 150 mA forward current for a diode
with the characteristics shown in Fig. 2-31.
2-3 Calculate the static forward resistance for the diode characteristics shown in
Fig. 2-32 at a 25 mA forward current. Also, determine the dynamic resistance
for the device at Ip= 25 mA, using the characteristic and using Eq. 2-2.

Section 2-3
2-4 Calculate the forward current in a circuit consisting of a germanium diode con-
nected in series with a 9 V battery and a 3.3 kO. resistor.

(mA)
604----- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

50+---+---lf+---+--+--+---1----1----l----l

40 - - -+---t-+---+---+-- + - - - + - - + - - - 1 - - -

Ip 30 +--+--++--+--+---+---+---+----1--------"

204----t--+-+--+--+---+--+--+--+---I

10-+-- +---+--+--+-- + - - + - - + - - - 1 - - - + - - - l

0 \-......,:::::.._+----+---l--~-4----4---1-~ (V)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Vp

Figure 2-32 Diode characteristics for Problems 2-3, 2-10, and

2-11.
ea 6l1;1(!)tlF1l'llli�@evlQes and Cireuitrs 1

2-5 A silicon diode in series with a 2.7kn resistor and a battery is to have an lp of
1.96 [Link] the battery voltage.
i-6 Draw the piecewise linear characteristics for a silicon diode with a
0.6 n dynamic resistance and a·75 mA �aximum forward current.
2-7 Draw a s�aight -line approximation of the forward characteristi c for a silicon
diode that has a 0.5 n dynamic resistance and a maximum forward current of
300mA.

Section 2-4
2-8 A diode with the characteristics in Fig. 2-13b is to pass a 35 rnA current from a
5.5 V supply . Draw the· de load line and calculate the required series resistance
value. Determine the new current level when the supply is reduced to 3.5V.
2-9 k diode with the forward characteristic in Fig. 2-31 is connected in series with
a 30 n resistance and a 6 V supply. Determine the diode current, and find the
new current when the resistance is changed to 20 n.
2-10 A diode which has �he characteristics shown in Fig. 2-32is to pass a 20mA for­
ward current when the �upply is 12 V. Determine the value of resistance that
must be connected in series with the diode.
2-11 Calculate the new supply voltage for the circuit in Problem 2-10 to give a 15
mA current level.

--
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 69

Practice Problem Answers

2-2.1 5.5 0, 30 MO
2-2.2 o.s n, o.s n
2-3.1 2.89 mA
2-3.2 (Point A: 0 mA, 0.3 V), (Point B: 100 rnA, 0.35 V)
2-3.3 174 mA
2-4.1 20 mA
2-4.2 50 n
2-4.3 3.45 V
2-5.1 154 rnA, 61.5 mA
2-5.2 267 mV, 421 mV, 1.23 0, 1.54 0

--
"!_7~0.....JE~le~c~tr~o~ni~c_!:!.Oe~v~ic~es~a~n~d~C_!£irc~u~it~s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

2-5.3 780mV
2-6.1 50 ns
2-6.2 150 ns
2-6.3 154 ns
2-7.1 600 V, 1.5 A, 50 A
2-7.2 1N5392
2-8.2 Vertical 1 V /cm, Horizontal 0.1 V/cm, 100 fl
2;-9.1 64.5 mA, 38.7 mA
2-9.2 40.4mW

I
CHAPTER 3
Diode Applications

Objectives
You will be able to:
1 Sketch various diode half-wave 6 Design and analyze Zener diode
and full-wave rectifier circuits voltage regulator circuits.
and their input and output 7 Draw diagrams for series and
waveforms. Explain the shunt clipping circuits and
operation of each circuit. sketch their input and output
2 Sketch basic de power supply waveforms. Explain the
circuits using rectifiers and operation of each circuit.
capacitor filters. Discuss the 8 Design and analyze series and
operation and performance of shunt clipping circuits.
each circuit. 9 Draw diagrams for clamping
3 Design de power supply circuits circuits and de voltage
and analyze them to determine multipliers. Sketch the input
diode current and voltage
and output waveforms, and
levels, output ripple voltage,
explain the circuit operation.
line and load effects, and line
and load regulation. 10 Design and analyze clamping
4 Sketch Zener diode voltage circuits and de voltage
regulator circuits, and explain multipliers.
their operation. 11 Sketch diode AND and OR gate
5 Design and analyze RC and LC circuits, and explain their
1r-input and L-input filters for operatiqn. Calculate circuit
de power supplies. current and voltage levels.

INTRODUCTION
One of the most important applications of diodes is rectification: conversion
of a sinusoidal ac waveform into single-polarity half cycles. Rectification
may be performed by half-wave or full-wave rectifier circuits. A de power
supply converts a sinusoidal ac supply to de by rectification and filtering.
The filtering process normally involves the use of a large reservoir capacitor,
which charges to the peak input voltage level to produce the de output. The
capacitor partially discharges between peaks of the rectified waveform, and
this results in a ripple voltage on the output. The ripple can be reduced by the
72 6lectri0nic Devices and Circuits

use of RC or LC filters. Power suppHes arE; [Link] according to the de

output voltage, load current, and ripple v,0ltage. Power supply: perf9rmance
is defined in terms of the output voltage stability when the input voltage or
the load current changes. •
J
Other important diode applitations include clipping, clamping, de volt­
age multiplication, and logic circuits. Diode clipping circuits are used for
clipping off an unwanted portion of a waveform. Clamping circuits change
the de voltage level of a waveform without affecting the wave shape. DC
voltage multipliers are applied to change the level of a de voltage source to a
desired higher level. Logic circuits produce a high or low output voltage, de­
pending upon the [Link] levels at several input terminals.

.. RECTIFICATION
3-1' HALF-WAVE
Positive Half-Wave Rectifier
A diode positive h'alf-wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3-la. An alternating
input voltage is applied via a transformer (T 1) to � .single diode connected in
series with a load resistor R1. The transformer is normally necessary to de­
isolate the rectifier circuit from the ac supply. The diode is forward-biased
dur:irrg the 'positive half cycles of the input waveform, and reverse-biased
during the negative half cycles. Substantial current flows thrm.�gh R1 only
during the positive half cycles of the input. For the duration of the negative
half cycles, the diode behaves almost as an open switch. The output voltage
waveform developed across R1 is a series of positive half cycles of alternat­
ing voltage with intervening very small negative voltage levels produced by
the diode reverse saturation current.
When the diode is forward-biased (see Fig. 3-lb), the voltage drop across it is
Vp, and the output voltage is (input voltage) - Vp. So, the peak output voltage is

�', ·v• po. = Vp1. - Vp., (3-1)

Note that Vpi = 1.414 Vi, where Vi is the rms level of the sinusoidal input volt­
age to the rectifier circuit (from the transformer output).
The diode peak forward current is

(3-2)

During the negative half-cycle of the in put (Fig. 3-lc), the reverse-biased
diode offers a very high resistance . So there is only a very small rev erse cur­
rent (IR), giving an output voltage
•¥ .,. • { I � ,

-V0' =
-1RRc
• (3-3)
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 73

Input waveform

Output waveform

I ,

(a) Transformer-coupled half-wave rectifier circuit

Input waveform

n
Output waveform
Vpi { - - -

-'---+---~ (\:}v~
-Vo

(b) Half-wave rectifier circuit with input and output waveforms

Reservoir
capacitor

~l

+
(c) Effect of negative input (d) Use of a reservoir capacitor
Figure 3-1 Positive half-wave rectifier circuit. The diode is forward-biased during the posi-
tive half-cycle of the applied wavefonn and reverse biased during the negative half-cycle.

While the diode is reverse-biased, the peak voltage of the negative half-cycle
of the input is applied to its terminals. Thus the peak reverse voltage, or peak in-
verse voltage (PIV), applied to the diode is

(3-4)

The average and rms values of the half-wave rectified waveform can be
determined as Vo(ave) = 0.318 Vpo and Vo(rms) = 0.5 Vpo· However, most recti-
fier circuits use a reservoir capacitor at the output terminals to smooth the rec-
tified voltage wave into direct voltage (see Fig. 3-ld). It is very important to
note that the presence of the capacitor changes the output waveform and that it sub-
stantially affects the load current and voltage and the diode current and voltage. This
is discussed in Secti<;ms 3-2 and 3-3.

Example 3-1
A diode with Vp = 0.7 Vis connected as a half-wave rectifier. The load resis-
tance is 500 n, and the (rms) ac input is 22 V. Determine the peak output volt-
age, the peak load current, and the di~de peak reverse voltage.
 •74 Electronic Devices and Circuit s
'
Solution
V pi = 1.414 Vi = 1.414 X 22 V
= 31.1 V
Eq. 3-1: Vpo = Vpi - VF= 31.l V - 0.7V
= 30.4 V

Eq. 3-2: I = V po = 30.4 V

P RL 500 0
= [Link]
Eq. 3-4: PIV = Vpi = 31.1 V

Negative Half-Wave Rectifier

Figure 3-2a shows the effect of reversing the diode polarity in the circuit of
Fig. 3-1. The negative half-cycle of the ac input waveform (instea d of the pos­
itive half-cycle) is passed to the load resistor. Consequently, the peak output
voltage and current are negative quantities.
Figure 3-2b shows a positive half-wave rectifier circuit with the positive
output terminal grounded. This is possible because, as already discussed, the
ac input to the rectifier circuit is normally derived from the secondary of a
transformer. Either of the two output terminals may be grounded so long as
there is no other grounded point in the circuit. Now, when the transformer out­
put waveform is at its peak positive level, the load waveform is actually a peak

, Output waveform

\Jv
(a) Negative rectification by reversing the diode polarity

I1,91 L�1�
Variac
Output waveform
c$ I�

\Jv
115V
60Hz

B transformer
(b) Negative rectification by grounding the positive (c) An isolation transformer should be used when
output terminal the power supply transformer is not available

Figure 3-2 Negative half-wave rectificat ion is perfonned when the d io d e is forwa r d-bi­
ased during the negative half-cycle of the input. Negative output half-cycles can also
b e derived from a positive half-wave recti fier if the positive outpu t te nninal is g rounded.
Rectifier circuit sh'oul d be tr ansfor mer-coupled for de isolation f rom the input.
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 75

negative quantity, as shown, because output terminal B is negative with respect

to the grounded terminal A. The diode is reverse-biased during the negative
half-cycle of the transformer output, and so the load voltage is zero. Thus, a
negative half-wave rectified waveform can be generated simply by grounding
the positive output terminal of a positive rectifier circuit. It is important to note
that one of the rectifier circuit output terminals may be grounded only when the
transformer is present to provide complete de isolation from the ac supply. If a vari-
able transformer (autotransformer or variac) is used without a power supply
transformer, a 1:1 isolation transformer must be substituted for the power sup-
ply transf9rmer to provide the required de isolation (see Fig. 3-2c).

Practice Problems
3-1.1 Ahalf-wa:ve·rectifier circuit has a 15 V ac input and a 330 n load resis-
, ta!lce'. Calculate the peak output voltage, the peak load current, and
1 the<~lo'cl.e maximum reverse voltage.
3-1.1 •A half-wave rectifier (as in Fig. 3-1) produces a 40 mA peak load cur-
, t t "· • ,
•rent through a 1.2 ,kn resistor. If the diode is silicon, calculate the rms
, r input voJtage and the diode PIY.

3-2 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

Two-Diode Full-Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier circuit in Fig. 3-3 uses two diodes, and its input voltage
is supplied from a transformer (T1) with a centre-tapped secondary winding.
The circuit is essentially a combination of two half-wave rectifier circuits,
each supplied from one half of the transformer secondary.
When the transformer output voltage is positive at the top, as illustrated in
Fig. 3-4a, the anode of D1 is positive, and the centre tap of the transformer is
connected to the cathode of D1 by RL. Consequently, D1 is forward-biased, and
load current (h) flows from the top of the transformer secondary through D1,
through RL from top to bottom, and back to the transformer centre tap. Dur-
,, ing this time, the polarity of the voltage from the bottom half of the trans-
former secondary causes diode D2 to be reverse-biased, as illustrated.
For the duration of the negative half-cycle of the transformer output, the
polarity of the transformer secondary voltage causes D1 to be reverse-biased
and D2 to be forward-biased (see Fig. 3-4b). h flows from the bottom terminal
of the transformer secondary through diode D2, through RL from top to
bottom, and back to the transformer centre tap. The output waveform is the
combination of the two half-cycles, that is, a continuous series of positive half-
cycles of sinusoidal waveform. This is positive full-wave rectification.
Figure 3-5 shows that if the polarity of the diodes is reversed, the output
waveform is a series of sinusoidal negative half-cycles: negative full-wave
,76 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Output waveform
Input waveform
v,OCY]~}v~

Figure 3-3 Full-wave rectification can be performed by two diodes used with' a trans-
former that has a centre-tapped secondary. The diodes are connected to conduct dur-
ing positive half-cycles of the transformer output to give a positive output waveform.

Forward-biased Reverse-biased
i_
-IL + l I
-i+

T1 +li
-
D1
RL
1:},CTJ:.
II ~D_ ---
IL

-t+ + t-
• Reverse-biased Forward-biased

(a) D1 forward-biased, D2 reverse-biased (b) D 1 reverse-biased, D 2 forward-b iased

Figure 3-4 In a two-diode full-wave rectifier circuit, diodes 01 and 0 2 conduct alternately.
When D1 is forward-biased, D2 is reverse-biased, and vice versa.

Input waveform

'1

Figure 3-5 Two-dioQe negative full-wave rectification is produced by connecting the

diodes to conduct during negative half-cycles of the transformer output.
 Chapter 3 Oi0de Apl1)licatior,is 7,7

rectification. The centre tap of the transformer is normally grounded, as

shown in Fig. 3-5, and so the only way to obtain a negative output from this
type of circuit is to reverse the diode polarity.

Bridge Rectifier
The centre-tapped transformer used in the circuit of Fig. 3-3 is usually more
expensive and requires more space than additional diodes. So a bridge recti-
fier is the circuit most frequently used for full-wave rectification.
The bridge rectifier circuit in Fig. 3-6 is seen to consist of four diodes con-
nected with their arrowhead symbols all pointing toward the positive output
terminal of the circuit. Diodes D 1 and D2 are series-connected, as are D3 and
D4. The ac·input terminals are the junction of D1 and D 2 and the junction of
D3 and D4. The positive output terminal is at the cathodes of D1 and D3, and
the negative output is at the anodes of D 2 and D 4.
During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, diodes D1 and D 4 are in
series with RL, as illustrated in Figs 3-7a and b. Load current (h) flows from
the positive ir,put terminal through D1 to RL, and then through RL and D 4
back to the nesat'ive input terminal. Note that the direction of the load
current through RL is from top to bottom. During this time, the positive input
terminal is applied to the cathode of D2 and the negative output is at the D2
anode (see Fig. 3-7a). So D2 is reverse-biased during the positive half-cycle of
'
the input. Similarly, D3 has the negative input at its anode and the positive

Input waveform + Output waveform

D1 D3

DII
T1
RL
Vo m~}v~
D2 D4

Figure 3-6 A full-wave bridge rectifier circuit uses four diodes and a transformer with a
single secondary winding.

output at its cathode during the positive input half-cycle, causing D 3 to be

reverse-biased.
Figures 3-7c and d show that diodes D2 and D 3 are forward-biased during
the negative half-cycle of the input waveform, while D 1 and D 4 are reverse-
biased. Although the input terminal polarity is reversed, h again flows
through RL from top to bottom, via D3 and D2.
It is seen that during both half-cycles of the input, the output terminal
polarity is always positive at the top of Rt and negative at the bottom. Both
positive and negative half-cycles of the input are passed to the output. The
negative half-cycles are inverted, so that the output is a continuous series of
positive half-cycles of sinusoidal voltage.
78 !;iJee::tmlllniq 'Device.s anti! @i_r,;mui,ts

• I

l,nput
f +. I +
tIt D3 Output +

Uv+- 1

+ '
Rt i It
v"Q
-- D4 th'

(a) Effect of positive half-cycle of input (b) D 1 and D 4 forward-biased

+ + Output +
D3 t[L

D Input

v,+
+
Rt i It 'vo
Q
tIt D4
(c) Effect of negative half-cycle of input (d) D 3 and D 2 forward-biased

Figure 3-7 In a bridge rectifier circuit, diodes D1 and D4 are forward-biased during the
positive half cycle of the input, while 0 2 and 0 3 are reverse-biased. During the input
negative half-cycle, D2 and D3 are forward-biased and D1 and D4 are reversed. In each
case current flows through load resistor RL in the same direction (from top to bottom).

A full-wave bridge rectifier circuit always requires that the input be

derived from a transformer that provides de isolation from the supply. The
circuit will not function correctly if one of its input terminals is grounded.
However, given the required de isolation between supply and output, either
output terminal may be grounded to provide a positive or negative output
voltage.
The bridge rectifier has two forward-biased diodes in series with the
supply voltage and the load. Because each diode has a forward voltage drop
(Vp), the peak output voltage is

(3-5)

The av~rage and rms values of the full-wave rectified waveform can be
determined as follows: Vo(ave) = 0.637Vpo and Vo(rms) = 0.707Vpo· However;
once again it should be noted that most rectifier circuits u se a reservoir capacitor
to smooth the rectified voltage wave into direct voltage, and the presence of the
capacitor changes the output waveform and substantially affects the load current and
voltage and the diode current and voltage. See Sections 3-2 and 3-3.
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 79

Example 3-2
Determine the peak output voltage and current for the bridge rectifier circuit
in Fig. 3-7 when Vi = 30 V, RL = 300 fl, and the diodes have Vp = 0.7 V.

Solution
Vpi = l.414Vi = 1.414 X 30 V
= 42.42 V
Eq. 3-5: Vpo = Vpi - 2Vp = 42.42 V - (2 X 0.7 V)
=41 V

Vpo 41 V
Eq. 3-2: Ip= - =
RL 300 fl
= 137 mA

More Bridge Rectifier Circuits

Figure 3-8 shows two common methods of drawing a bridge rectifier circuit.
Although they both look more complex than the circuit in Fig. 3-7, they are
exactly the same circuit. The cathodes of D 1 and D3 in all three circuits are con-
nected to the positive output terminal, and the anodes of D2 and D4 are con-
nected to the negative output terminal. The ac input is applied to the junction
of D1 and D2 and to the junction of D3 and D4.

Figure 3-8 Two additional ways of drawing a bridge rectifier circuit diagram.
Both of these circuits have the diodes connr cted exactly as in Fig. 3-6.

Practice Problems
3-2.1 Determine the peak load voltage, peak current, and power dissipation
in a 470 load resistor connected to a bridge rectifier circuit that has a
24 V ac input. The rectifier diodes are germanium.
3-2.2 A bridge rectifier with silicon diodes and a 680 .n load resistor has an
18 V peak output. CalculatE: the power dissipated in the load resistor
and the rms input voltage.
,90 ,Eleotr (!jmi9 Qeviees and Circuits

3'- 4 FUL~-VVAVE .[Link] SUPPLY

Like half-wave rectifiers, full-wave rectifiers require filter circuits in order to

convert the output waveform to direct voltage. Figure 3-15 shows a full-
wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor and a surge-limiting resistor.
These components operate exactly as explained for the half-wave rectifier
circuit, with a few important exceptions.
Surge-limiting Direct voltage
resistor with ripple
Input waveform i Output w aveform
+
Rs

Cu rrent Rectified
pulse wave

Figure 3-15 Bridge rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor to smooth the o utput volt-
age and a surge-limiting resistor to protect the diodes.

Direct voltage
with ripple

Current
90° ►,~,~ _

pulse
--t1-=i t2 -
,---360° - - - - 1

, - - - - T ---....i
Figure 3-16 Ripple voltage, waveform angles, and time
periods for a full-wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir
capacitor.

The capacitor-smoothed full-wave rectifier w aveforms are shown in detail

in Fig. 3-16. Equation 3-7, derived for the half-wave rectifier circuit, still ap·
plies for determining the angle 01.
A. . _
1 E o(min)
Eq. 3-7: v1 = sm
E o(max)
(h can be determined from

Eq. 3-8:
and to calculate time 't2,
l

Eq. 3-9:
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 91

A comparison of Figs 3-16 and 3-10 shows that the capacitor discharge
time t1 for the half-wave rectifier circuit is approximately equal to the wave-
form time period T, while for the full-wave rectifier t 1 approximately equals
T/2. More precisely,

t1 = (~.) - f2 (3-20)

By using the correct value of t1, the reservoir capacitance for a full-wave rec-
tifier circuit can be calculated from

Eq. 3-11:

Similarly (with the correct value of t 1 in Fig. 3-16), the repetitiv e current
UFRM) can be determined from

Eq. 3-15:

D1 and D4 D2 and D3
conducting conductin g
i i

---- -----JFRM
----- - - IL
- - - - - - ---JF(ave) Figure 3-17 Because the d iodes in
a bridge rectifier conduct during
Current pulse
- t1 - I t2 -
alternate half-cycles, the average
forward current (I F(aveJ) in each
diode is equal to half the load cur-
rent (IJ .

The average forward current passed by the bridge rectifier circuit is equal
to the load current. But each pair of diodes supplies current for no more than
a half-cycle of the input wave. The other p air cond ucts during the other half-
cycle. So, as illustrated in Fig. 3-17, the average forward current for each
diode is half of the load current.

J F(ave)
h
=2 (3-21)

Another difference between the half-wave and full-wave rectifier power

supply circuits concerns the reverse voltage applied to the d iodes. Consider
Fig. 3-18. When the instantaneous input voltage is + V p, as illustrated, VP is
82 ~1eotronie Devic:es aml"I @inmeiit·s

applied qcrass forward-biased d,iode Di in .[Link] wiilh reverse-biased diode

D3. Thenefore, the reverse volta,g,e acros~ D3 ~
VR= Yip- Vp
or vR~vP

Examination of the circuit in Eq. 3-18 shows that VR ~ Vp applies to each

diode when it is reverse-biased.

Reverse
voltage

Figure 3-18 The diode reverse voltage in a

Reverse bridge rectifier circuit with a reservoir capac-
voltage itor is equal to the peak of the input voltage.

As in the case of the half-wave circuit, capacitor •and ripple calculations

can be simplified by assuming that time t 2 is very much smaller than t1. This
gives the approximation that the capacitor discharge time is equal to half the
input waveform time period.

(3-22)

Exa~_ple 3.:s
The full-wave rectifier de power supply in Fig. 3-19 is to supply 20 V to a
500 n load. The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is not to exceed 10% of the
average output voltage, and the ac input frequency is 60 Hz. Accurately
calculate the required reservoir capacitor value. (Note that the
specifications 'for this example are similar to those for the half-wave
circuit in Examples 3-4 and 3-5.)

Solu'fion

From Ex..3..:5, Yr = 21\'1 T =.16:7 ms, t2 = 1.16 ms, and h = 40 mA

T 16:7ms
Eq. '3-2tl: :i 1-=
2- t.2 =
2
- 1.16 ms

= ,7.19ms
 Chapter 3 Difildl:! Applications 93

1 +

Input
o---.....rn..___......,
Figure 3-19 Full-wave rectifier
power supply for Ex. 3-8.

1 ht 40 mA x 7.19 ms
Eq. 3-11: C1= -=----
Vr 2V

= 144 µ,F (use 150 µF standard value)

Example 3-9
Assuming that f2 is very much smaller than t1, for the full-wave rectifier
[Link] in Ex. 3-8, recalculate the required reservoir capacitor value.

Solution
From Ex. .3-5, Vr = 2 V, T = 16.7 ms, and h = 40 mA
T l6.7ms
·Eq. 3-22: t1 ~ - =
2 2
= 8.35ms
ht1 40 mA X 8.35 ms
Eq. 3-11: C1 = Vr = 2V
= 167 µ,F (use 150 µ,F standard value)

Example 3-10
.Specify-the diodes for the bridge rectifier circuit in Ex. 3-8. Select a suitable
device and calculate the surge-limiting resistance.

Solution
VP = Eo(max) + (2 Vp) = 21 V + (2 X 0.7 V)
= 22.4 V
vR ~ vP = 22.4 v
h
40mA
Eq..3-21: IF(ave) = =
2 2
= 20mA
h(t1 + "t2) 40 mA X 8.35 ms
Eq. 3-15: IFRM = - - - - = - - -- - - -
t2 l.16 ·m s
= 288mA
94 Electronic Devices and Circuits

From data sheet A-2 in Appendix A, it is seen that the 1N4001 is suitable.
For the 1N4001, lF(surge) = 30 A

Eq. 3-16: Rs = VP = 22.4 V

lpsM 30A
~o.7sn
Transformer Selection
The transformer specification for a full-wave bridge rectifier power supply is
determined similarly to that for a half-wave circuit, with some exceptions. Two
diode voltage drops are involved in calculating the secondary rms voltage.

(3-23)

For full-wave rectifiers with capacitor filters, power supply transformers

manufacturers recommend

lL(dc) = 0.621s(rms)

which gives (3-24)

As with all transformers, the primary current is

V s(rms) X 1s(rms)
Eq. 3-19: lp(rms) = V
p(rms)

Example 3-11
Specify the transformer for the full-wave rectifier power supply circuit in
Examples 3-8 and 3-9.

Solution

Eq. 3-23: Vs(rms) = 0.707(Eo(max) + 2Vp) = 0.707(21 V + 1.4 V)

= 15.8 V

Eq. 3-24: 1s(rrns) = 1.6 h (dc) = 1.6 X 40 mA

=64mA

Vp(rms) = 115 V, 60 Hz
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 95

V s(rms) X l s(rms) 15.8 V X 64mA

Eq. 3-19: lp(rms) = ------
V p(rms) 115 V

= 8.8mA
Practice Problems
3-4.1 A de power supply consisting of a bridge rectifier and a reservoir
capacitor has to supply 15 V to a 150 n load. Determine the capacitance
required if the maximum ripple voltage is to be ±5% of the average
·output and the input frequency is 60 H z.
3-4.2 For Problem 3-4.1, recalculate the capacitance approximately by as-
suming that the capacitor discharge time is very much larger than the
charging time.
3-4.3 For the circuit in Problem 3-4.1, specify the diodes, select a suitable
device from the available data sheets, determine the required surge
limiting resistance, and specify a suitable h·ansformer.

3-5 RC AND LC POWER SUPPLY FILTERS

RC ,,,. FILTER
The ripple voltage that app ears across the reservoir capacitor in a rectifier
power supply can be attenuated by the u se of an additional resistor and
capacitor, which together function as an ac voltage divider. Figure 3-20a
shows the circuit, C1 being the reservoir capacitor, and R1 and C2 the
additional components. The combination of C1, R1, and C2 is referred to as a
7T filter, because of the 7T-shaped arrangement of the circuit components.
Assuming a constant output load current, the reservoir capaci~or
continues to charge and discharge, producing a sawtooth (ripple) waveform
across C1 regardless of the presence of the additional components. As
illustrated in Fig. 3-20b, the saw tooth waveform is composed of a
fundamental ac voltage (same frequency as the rip ple) and a number of
smaller-amplitude, higher-frequency harmonic components. Due to their
higher frequencies, the harmonic components are more severely attenuated
than the fundamental frequency component by the voltage division across R1
and C2. This combined with the smaller input amplitude of the harmonics
means that the waveform developed across C2 (the filter output) is
essentially an attenuated version of the sinusoidal fundamental component.
By Fourier analysis, the peak value of the fundamental componen t of th e
sawtooth waveform can be shown to be

V
V
= -r (3-25)
p 7T
88 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Ripple voltage
across C1 AC voltage
across C2
N\N r"\J'J\._,

v.,

(a) RC 1r filter circuit

Sawtooth waveform
filter input voltage

Fundmental-frequency
component

Higher-frequency
smaller-amplitude
components

(b) The sawtooth waveform at the filter input consists of

a fundamental-frequency component and a number of
smaller-amplitude, higher-frequency harmonics

Fl~ure 3-20 When a resistor and capacitor (R1 and C2) are connected as a
vt>ltage divider to a power supply reservoir capacitor (C1), the combina-
tion is an RC 1r filter. The '"filter attenuates the ac components that con-
stitute the ripple voltage.

where Vr is the ripple voltage peak-to-peak amplitude.

The ac voltage developed across C2 is the filter ac output and is given by
. ,r' I er\ •x ., i ,
,' • ~ Vt '. C2
t,..o':• ':Rt.
'
,; x.2'C2 I l (3-26)
.,. ~, , . I

where t\ is the filter ac input voltage applied across capacitor c1.

T, 1
.. , . '
From Eq. 3-26, '/1 "
(3-27)
'
(3-28)
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 97

The additional attenuation of the rip-

ple voltage obviously depends upon the
selection of R1 and C2 values. However,
there is a de voltage drop across R 1 pro-
duced by the output current (VRl in
Fig. 3-21), and this must be considered
when determining a suitable resistance
for R1.

Example 3-12 Figure 3-21 RC 1rfilterfor Ex. 3-12.

The 2 V ripple waveform across capaci-
tor C1 in Ex. 3-8 is to be further attenuated by the use of an additional resis-
tor and c~pacitor, as in Fig. 3-21. If R1 = 22 n and C1 = C2 = 150 µF, calculate
the de output voltage and the output ripple amplitude.

Solution
Vo(dc) = Eo(ave) - (Irft1) = 20 V - (40 mA X 22 fl)
= 19.12 V

V 2V
Eq. 3-25: Vi = Vp = _r = -- -
7T 7T

= 637mV
1 1
Xcz = - - - = - - - - - - - -
27T fr C2 27T X 120 Hz X 150 µF

= 8.84fl

= 637 mV x 8.84 fl
vi x Xcz
Eq. 3-26: Vo= ✓Ri + Xc 2 ✓(22 !1)2 + (8.84 !1)2
= 238 mV (peak)
= 475 m V (p-to-p)
I

LC Tr Filter
If the resistor (R1) it'!. the RC 7T filter is replaced with an inductor (L1), as
illustrated in Fig. 3~22, the de voltage drop due to It is almost completely
eliminated because the irtductor winding resistance is likely to be very much
smaller than the resistor. The circuit is now an LC 1T filter, and it can be
analyzed similarly to the RC '71' filter,
Assuming that the inductor winding resistance (Rw) is very much smaller
than the inductor impedance (XL), the ac voltage developed across C2 in the
circuit nf Fig. 3..22 ts
98 Electronic Devices and Circuits

From Eq. 3-29, ·xL =;c2 ( :: + 1J'

The design process normally commences by selecting C2 equal to C 1- Then a
suitable inductance for L 1 can be calculated using Eq. 3-30.

Ripple voltage
across C1 AC voltage
across C2
'IJ1Jv
f\j\f\j LC '1T filter

l +

V0

Figure 3-22 An inductor (L1) substituted in place of the resistor

in an RC TT filter, eliminates the de voltage drop across R 1
while still attenuating the ripple voltage. The circuit is now an
LC TTfilter.

Example 3-13
The 2 V ripple waveform across capacitor C1 in Ex. 3-8 is to be attenuated by
a factor of approximately 4 (as in Ex. 3-12) by the use of an additional
inductor and capacitor, as in Fig 3-22. Determine suitable values for L1
and C2.

Solution
Select (see Ex. 3-8)

Eq. 3-30: J
XL= Xe2 ( :: + 1 = Xc2 (: + 1)

= 5Xcz

5Xc 2 _ 5x8.84D
so, L1= - .- - - - - - -
21Tf 27TX120Hz

~ 59rnH
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 99

L-lnput Filter
Figure 3-23(a) shows the circuit of an L-inputfilter (also termed a choke-input fil­
ter), which is similar to the LC 7T filter without the input capacitor. The major
advantage of this circuit is that the inductor impedance minimizes the rectifier
surge current, so that surge-limiting resistors are not needed. The inductor also
limits the repetitive current spikes that pass through the rectifiers to charge the
filter capacitor, thus producing less stress on the rectifiers. However, the de
output voltage available from an L-input filter is less than that produced by a
capacitor-input filter with a similar transformer and rectifier circuit.
Input voltage AC voltage
across C 1
(VY\ LC-input filter r'\J\.J\.J

AC in ut

(a) L-input filter circuit

Rectified waveform
filter input voltage

DC component of
the input

l
Fundmental-frequency
component

Higher-frequency,
smaller-amplitude
components

(b) The full-wave rectified waveform at the filter input

consists of a de voltage, a fundamental-frequency
component, and a number of smaller-amplitude, higher­
frequency harmonics

Figure 3-23 An L-input filter is similar to an LC 1rfilter with the

reservoir capacitor removed. This type of filter reduces the
rectifier current spikes passed to the capacitor. The de output
voltage is much lower than that from other filters with similar
inputs.
 1.0 0 El!=lct:oni_c [Link]~s and Circuits

The peak output from the rectifiers is .Eo(max), and the ripple amplitude is
Yr (see Fig. 3-16). So, the average de output voltage from a capacitor-input
filter is

The ,guantities :in Ex. 3-8 are Ede = ZO V l;Uld. V0 =.'2 V, giving Eo(max) = 21 V. So,
Ede .z 0.95Eo(max)

F11om Fourier .analysis, a full-wave rectified waveform is found to be

[Link] compos~d .of -~ de quantity, an ac ,component at the fundamental fre-
quer,icy (the rectified waveform frequency), and a number of much smaller
amplitude harmonics. The waveforms are -i llustrated in Fig. 3-23b, and the
important quantities are
., l

de (average) voltage, .£de';;, °?·!:. <~Eif~.

0
(3-31)
,• Tr

peak voltage of ac component, iEae(p)

' .~ , 4 £.o(r,nqx)
. . . (3-32)
. - ·3n
From Eq. 3-31, Ede~ 0,64Eo(max)

Thus, the de output voltage from an L-input filter is only 64% of E o(max),
while that from .a capacitor--input filter is typically 95% of Eo(max)• This means
that, for a given de output voltage, a power supply circuit with an L-input
filter requires a ~ansformer with a larger output voltage than a circuit that
:qses ,a .capacitor-input filter.
For.a n L-input filter, there is a minimum critical inductance (Le) that actually
keeps the rectifiers cond1:1trting (instead of two turning off and two commenc-
,ing t0 conduct at the end of each half-cycle of the input waveform) . For this to
oc_c.ur, the peak ac load current must not exceed the peak de load current:

_ Ede
€1:c output current, Ide- -
RL

From Eq. J-31, (3-33)

Assuming that Xe<< Rt and that Xe<< Xt, then the peak ac current is

Eac(,p)
Iac(p) =
XL

I I
 Chapter 3 Diode 'Applications 101

Equating lae(p) and Ide from Eqs 3-33 and 3-34, the reactance for the critical
inductance (Le) is

Xie 2 Rt
:1 (3-35)
3
The critical inductance as determined from Eq. 3-35 is a minimum induc-
tance value. Typically, the inductance selected should be 25% larger than Le.
The output capacitor value for an L-input filter is dictated by the required
output ripple amplitude and the fundamental frequency ac input to the filter.

From Eq. 3-30, X - XL (3-36)

C- (v.I 'IV 0 )· + 1

+
-
I t 40 mA

Figure 3-24 L-input filter for Ex. 3-14.

Example 3-14
The de power supply in Fig. 3-24 is to produce a 20 V, 40 mA output with an
approximate 0.24 V peak ripple (as in Examples 3-12 and 3-13). Determine
the required peak output voltage from the rectifier circuit and calculate suit-
able values for L1 and C1. The supply frequency is 60·Hz.

Solution

From Eq. 3-31, Eo(max) = 7T Ede = 7T X 20 V

2 2
= 31.4 V

4 Eo(max)
From Eq. 3-32, Eae(peak) =
31T
= 4 X 31.4 V
37T

= 13.3 V
Filter ac input: Vi = Eac(peak) = 13.3 V

Filter ac output: V0 = 0.24 V

Rt= vo(de) = 20 V
IL 40mA

= soon
102 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Eq.3-35: XLc = 2 RL = 2 x 500 fl

3 3
=3330

XLc 3330
Le= 21T fr = 2'TT X 120 Hz
= 442mH
Select L1 ~ l.25Lc = 1.25 X 442 mH ~ 553 mH (use 600 mH stan-
dard value)
now, XL= 2efrL = 21r X 120 Hz X 600 mH

= 4520

From Eq. 3-36, Xe= XL = 4520

(vi/v0 )+l (13.3V/0.24V)+l

1
21rxl20Hzx8f!
= 166 µF (use 180 µF)
When there is no load current flowing from the output of an L-input filter,
the output capacitor charges up to the peak level of the rectified voltage.
Consequently, there is a large voltage drop as the load current is increased
from zero. This effect can be combated by the use of a bleeder resistor
connected in parallel with the output terminals, to draw a suitable minimum
load current from the filter.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The obvious advantage of RC and LC power supply filters is the reduction
in ripple voltage. Also, as discussed, the inductor-input filter can reduce
the current spikes that rectifiers must pass to a capacitor-input filter. A
disadvantage of the L-input filter is the substantially larger rectifier output
voltage required for a given. de output voltage level. However, power
supply filter outputs are normally applied to voltage regulator circuits,
which can easily reduce a ±1 V ripple to millivolt or microvolt levels. Also,
inductors are physically large, heavy, and more expensive than capacitors.
So, single capacitor (reservoir capacitor) type filters are currently the most
commonly used.
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 103

Practice Problems
3-5.1 An RC 'Tr filter has the following components: C1 = C2 = 500 µF, R 1 =
10 n. Insted of RL, there is a constant 90 mA load current. The ac input
voltage to the full-wave rectifier 'circuit is 15 V rms, and the diodes
each have a 0.7 V drop when forward biased. Calculate the de output
..
voltage and the peak output ripple voltage.
3-5.2 Resistor·R1 in Problem 3-5.1 is replaced with a 100 mH inductor (L 1)
with a 0.5 n winding resistance. Calculate the de output voltage and the
peak output ripple voltage.
3-5.3 Capacitor C1 in the circuit described in Problem 3-5.2 is removed and
reconnected in parallel with C2, so that the filter becomes an L-input
type. Calculate the de output voltage and the peak output ripple
voltage.

t
.-::::::s::::=

supply

-
Review Questions
Section 3-1
3-1 Draw the circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier for producing a positive out­
put voltage. Sketch the input and output waveforms, and explain the circuit op­
eration.
3-2 Draw circuit diagrams to show two methods of producing a negative output
voltage from a half-wave rectifier. Briefly explain.

Section 3-2
3-3 Sketch a two-diode full-wave rectifier circuit for producing a positive output
voltage. Sketch the input and output waveforms and explain the circuit opera­
tion.
3-4 Draw the circuit diagram for a bridge rectifier, together with its input and out­
put waveforms. Carefully explain the operation of the bridge rectifier circui t,
identifying the forward-biased and reverse-biased diodes during each half­
cycle of the input waveform.
3-5 Draw diagrams to show how a negative output voltage can be obtained from:
(a) a two-diode full-wave rectifier circuit, (b) a bridge rectifie r circuit. Brie fly
explain.
II 3-8

Section 3-4
3-11 Draw the circuit diagram for a de power supply that uses a bridge rectifier and
a capacitor filter circuit. Sketch the input and output waveforms, and explain
the circuit operation and the shape of the waveforms.
3-12 List the factors involved in diode selection for a full-wave rectifier circuit.
Briefly explain.
3-13 Compare half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits with capacitor filtering, re­
ferring to capacitor size for a given ripple amplitude, diode specification, and
transformer selection.

Section 3-5
3-14 Draw the circuit diagram of an RC 1T filter for use with a full-wave rectifier
power supply. Sketch typical filter input and output waveforms, and explain
how the circuit functions.
3-15 Draw the circuit diagram of an RL 1T filter. Explain how the circuit reduces the
. output ripple voltage, and how it affects the de output of a rectifier power sup­
. ply.
3-16 Sketch the circuit of an L-input filter, and explain how the filter reduces the ac
component of the rectifier output voltage. Also, discuss how the filter affects
the power supply de output voltage.
 -
136 Electronic Devices and Circt,1its

Problems
Section 3-1
3-1 A half-wav e rectifier circuit has a 25 V (rms) sinusoidal ac input and a 600 f1
load resistance. Calc ulate the peak output voltage , peak load current, and
diode peak reverse voltage. Assume that VF = 0.7 V.
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 137

3-2 A half-wave rectifier circ�it produces a 55 rnA peak current in an 820 .0, load re­
sistor. Calculate the rms ac input voltage and the diode peak reverse voltage if
Vp = 0.7V.
3-3 Calculate the power dissipated in a 560 .0, load resistor connected to the output
of a half-wave rectifier circuit. The ac input is 25 V (rms), and the diode voltage
drop is 0.7 V.

Section 3-2
3-4 A 470 il load resistor is connected at the output of a bridge rectifier circuit that
has a 15 V (rms) input. Calculate the peak output voltage, peak load current, and
load power dissipation. Assume the diodes have 0.3 V forward voltage drop.
3-5 A bridge rectifier circuit has a 25 V (rms) sinusoidal ac input and a 600 n load re­
sistance. Calculate the peak output voltage, peak load current, diode power
dissipation, and diode peak reverse voltage. Assume the diodes have a VF of
0.7V.
3-6 A two-diode full-wave rectifier circuit (as in Fig. 3-3) dissipates 640 mW in a
400 il load resistor. If the diodes are silicon, calculate the peak output voltage
from each half of the transformer secondary.

Section 3-4
3-15 A de power supply consisting of a bridge rectifier circuit and a reservoir capac­
itor is to supply 24 V with a 200 mA maximum load current. The output ripple
is not to exceed ±500 mV, and the ac input frequency is 60 Hz. Determine a
suitable capacitance for the reservoir capacitor.
138 Electronic Devices and Circuits

3-16 Recalculate the capacitance for the circuit in Problem 3-15, using the
approximation that the capacitor• discharge time is much greater than the
charge time. ,
3-17 Specify the diodes required for the rectifier circuit in Problem 3-15. Select a
suitable device from Appendix A, and calculate the required surge limiting re-
sistance.
3~18 Specify a suitable transformer for the power supply in Problem 3-15.
3-19 Calculate the reservoir capacitance for a de power supply which produces an
18 V output with a 300 mA maximum load current. A bridge rectifier circuit is
used, and the ac input frequency is 60 Hz. The peak-to-peak output ripple volt-
age is to be a maximum of ±10% of V 0.
3-20 Specify the diodes required for the power supply in Problem 3-19. Select a suit-
able device from Appendix A, ·a nd calculate the required surge limiting resis-
tance.
3-21 Recalculate the capacitance for the power supply in Problem 3-19 for a 400 Hz
ac supply.
3-22 Specify a suitable transformer for the power supply in Problem 3-19.

Section 3-5
3-23 A de power supply consists of a full-wave rectifier with a 200 µF reservoir
capacitor (C1). The rectifier peak output is 30 V, and the (sawtooth) ripple
voltage is 5 V peak-to-peak when the load current is 120 rnA. A resistor R 1 = 15
n and a capacitor C2 = C1 = 200 µFare connected to C1 to create an RC 7T filter.
Calculate the output voltage and ripple amplitude.
3-24 A full-wave rectifier power supply with a 200 µF reservoir capacitor has Vo(dc)
= 45 V and Vr(p-p) = 8 V when the load current is 190 rnA. A resistor and
capacitor (R1 and C1) are to be added to the circuit to reduce the ripple voltage
by a factor of 4. Allowing a 3 V de drop across R1, determine suitable
CC:!__mponent values.
3-25 A de power supply using full-wave rectification is to be designed to produce a
25 V, 60 mA output with a 200 mV (p-p) ripple. The circuit is to u se an LC -rr
filter, and the input ripple to the filter is to be 3 V (p-p ). Determine suitable
component values for the filter, and calculate the required peak output voltage
from the rectifiers. Assume that the inductor has a 10 n winding resistance.
3-26 An LC 7r filter .has C1 = C2 = 220 µF, and L1 = 300 mH with Rw = 6 D.
Determine the de output voltage and ripple amplitude when the load current
is 75 rnA, and the full-wave rectifier supply has Eo(max) = 33 V.
3-27 Capacitor C1 in the circuit in Problem 3-26 is removed and reconnected in par-
allel with C2, so that the filter becomes an L-input type. Calculate the de output
voltage and the peak output ripple voltage.
3-28 A de power supply using full-wave rectification is to be designed to produce a 25
V, 60 mA output with a 200 mV (p-p) ripple, as in Problem 3-25. Calculate the
critical inductance for an L-input filter, and determine a suitable output capacitor
value. Also, determine the required peak output voltage from the rectifiers.
142 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Practice Problem Answers

3-1.1 20.51 V, 62.2 mA, 21.2 V

3-1.2 33.95 V, 48.7 V
3-2.1 32.54 V, 69.2 mA, 1.12 V
3-2.2 238 mW, 13.7 V
3-3.1 1000 µF
3-3.2 835 µF
3-3.3 25.2 V, 60 mA, 860 mA, 1N4001, 0.42 D,
(115 V, 17.7 mA), (9.5 V, 216 mA)
3-4.1 500 µF
3-4.2 557 µF
3-4.3 17.5 V, 100 mA, 714 mA, 1N4001, 0.57 D
(115 V, 16.8 mA), (12.1 V, 160 mA)
3-5.1 18.15 V, 126 mV
3-5.2 19V, 17mV
3-5.3 12.6 V, 147 m V
3-6.1 50 m V, 100 m V, 0.33%, 0.66%
3-7.1 1N756, 680 n, 14.7 mA
3-7.2 1N756, (220 n + 22 0), 43.8 mA
2
3-7.3 61.4 m V, 336 m V, 3.07 x 10-
3-8.1 5.6 kD, 7 V, 1 mA
3-8.2 4.7 kD, 6 V, 1 mA
3-9.1 330 D, 7 V, 19 mA
3-9.2 ±2.8 V, 2.7 kD
3-9.3 1N753, 1.8 kO
3-10.1 550 m V
3-10.2 1 µF, 100 kD
3-10.3 7.5 V, - 16.5 V, 4.5 V
3-11.1 1.6%, 0.65%
3-11.2 ±10.7 V, 3.9 µF, 8 µF
3-12.1 680 n
3-12.2 1.41 mA, 469 µA
f'!'

.....

(, Il l lb

2-9 ZENER DIODES

Junction Breakdown
When a junction diode is reverse-biased, there is normally only a very small
reverse saturation current: Is on the reverse characteristic in Fig. 2-25a. When
the reverse voltage is sufficiently increased, the junction breaks down and a
large reverse current flows. If the reverse current is limited by means of a
suitable series-connected resistor (R 1 in the circuit in Fig. [Link] ), the power
dissipation in the diode can be kept to a level that will not destroy the device.
In this case, the diode may be operated continuously in reverse breakdown.
The reverse current returns to its normal level when the voltage is reduced
below the reverse breakdown level.

Figure 2-25 A diode

can be operated in
reverse breakdown if
JR the current is limited
E
by means of a series­
connected resistor.
Zener diodes are de­
signed for operation
in reverse break­
(a) Diode reverse characteristic (b) Diode-resistor circuit down.
80 Electronic [Link] and Cilicuits,1

Diodes designed for operation in reverse breakdowu are found to have a

breakdown voltage that remains extremely stable over a wide range of current
levels. This property gives the breakdown diode many useful applications as a
voltage reference source. There ·are two mechanisms that cause breakdown in
a reverse biased pn-junction. With a very narrow depletion region, the electric
field strength (volts/width) produc~d by a reverse bias voltage can be very
high. The high-intensity electric field causes electrons to break away from their
atoms, thus converting the depletion region from an insulating material into a
conductor: This·is ionization by electric field, also called Zener breakdown, and it
usually occurs with reverse bias voltages less than 5 V.
In cases where the depletion region is too wide for Zener breakdown, the
electrons in the reverse saturation current can b.e given sufficient energy to
cause other electrons to break free when they strike atoms within the deple-
tion region. This is termed ionization by collision. The electrons released in this
way collide with other atoms to produce more free electrons in an avalanche
effect. Avalanche breakdown is normally produced by reverse voltage levels
above 5 V: Although Zener and avalanche are two different types of break-
down, the name Zener diode is commonly applied to all breakdown diodes.

Circuit Symbol and Package

The circuit symbol for'} Zener diode in Fig. 2-26a is the same as that for an
ordinary diode but with the cathode bar approximately in the shape of a letter
Z,. The arrowhead on the symbol still points in the (conventional) direction of
forward current when the de~ice is forward-biased. As illustrated, for opera-
tion in reverse bias, the voltage drop (Vz) is positive (+)on the cathode and
negative ( - ) on the anode.
'
Arrowhead indicates
' conventional current
Negative Positive
direction when the
terminal for terminal for
device is forward-biased

=~ ~~~--An-o_d_e_~--l►■j•f~-C-a-th_o_d_e_~?operntion
lz
(a) Circuit symbol

ARo~~•:hode

lz
(b) Low-current Zener diode
Figure 2-26 Zener diode circuit symbol and low-current Zener diode
package.
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 61

Low-power Zener diodes are available in a variety of packages. For the

device package shown in Fig. 2-26b, ,t he coloured band identifies the cathode
terminal, as in the case of an ordinary low-current diode. High-current Zener
diodes are also available ip. the type of package that allows for mounting on
a heat sink. •

Characteristics and Parameters

The typical characteristics of a Zener diode are shown in detail in Fig. 2-27.
Note that the forward characteristic is simply that of an ordinary forward-bi-
ased diode. Some important points on the reverse characteristic are

Vz Zener breakdown voltage

lzT Test current for measuring V z
IzK Reverse current near the knee of the characteristic, the minimum
reverse current to sustain breakdown
IZM Maximum Zener current, limited by the maximum power dissipation

v~ l1
t
T
I
1{ ~r ron~arct

(V)
-'
l - - t - _:, - __.,, cha~acteri :;tic

JZK Vp- I-+

,...
RevE rse ~

char cteri~ tic

:i::::
- :J:-5
R

>-
.
-~il,
n.,
-- T
- ;1

nr-
--
~

'I.
:::0
il1 z

--.,,...
401 ! ~m

--
Ar-

(mA)
Figure 2-27 Typical characteristics for a Zener diode. The most im-
portant parameters are the Zener voltage Vz, the knee current IzK,
the test current Izr, and the maximum current IZM-

The dynamic impedance (Zz) is another important parameter that may be

derived from the characteristics:
~82~~E~le~c~t~ro~n~ic~D~e~v~ic~e~s~a~nd~C,!.!.:ir~cu~i~ts~------------------

(2-10)

As illustrated in Fig. 2-27, Zz defines how Vz changes with variations in

diode reverse current. When measured at lzT, the dynamic impedance is
designated (ZzT), The dynamic impedance measured at the knee of the
characteristic (ZZK) is substantially larger than ZZT.
The Zener diode may be operated at any (reverse) current level between
IZK ~d lzM- For greatest voltage stability, the diode is normally operated at
the test current (IzT)- Many low-power Zener diodes have a test current
specified as 20 mA; however, some devices have lower test currents.

Data Sheet
A portion of a data sheet for low-power Zener diodes with voltages ranging
from 3.3 V to 12 Vis shown in Fig. 2-28. (See also data sheet A -4 for 2.4 V to
110 V Zener diodes in Appendix A.) Note in Fig. 2-28 that the Vz tolerance is
stated as ±5% or ±10%. This means that the devices can be purchased with
either a ±5% or±10% tolerance on Vz. For a 1N753 w ith a ±10% tolerance, the
actual Vz is 6.2 V ±10%, or 5.58 V to 6.82 V. The Zener voltage remains stable
at whatever it happens to be within this range.

I'
/ . t

Type 1N74_6 'IJ)rough 1N759 Silicon Zener Diodes

I
3.3 V to 12·V'(:!::5% .or ±10%)
=
P0 400 mlf- (derate linearly above so0 c at 3.2 mW/°C) .

'.' EleGtrical c~a:cte1'~lics i:i,t 25°'C a,mbient temperature

Type Nominal Test Zener Leakage Reverse
1 number Zener current impedance current temperature
'•. voltage lz (rnA) Z zT (fl) IR (µA) coefficient
Vz{V) CXz (%/OC)

IN746 3.3 20 28 10 -0.062

IN747 3,6 20 24 10 - 0.055
IN753 6.2 20 7 0,1 +0.022
IN755 7.5 20 6 0.1 +0.045
IN757 9.1 20 10 0.1 + 0.056
IN759 12.0 20 30 0.1 +0.060
- ' "

Figure 2-28 Portions of a data sheet for low-power Zener diodes.

The data sheet also lists the dynamic impedance (ZzT); reverse leakage
current (IR), which is the reverse current before breakdown; and the temper·
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 63

ature coefficient (az) for the V z of each device. The Zener voltages at any
temperature can be calculated as follows:
• ·o

ev~~
.
at~?f 1{ '[ir az Vz;/lOO}f
\,
(2-11)

Temperature-compensated Zener diodes are also available with extremely low

temperature coefficients.
Low-power Zener diodes are generally limited to a maximum power
dissipation of 400 mW (Po in Fig. 2-28). Higher power devices are available.
All of the power dissipations must be derated with temperature increase,
exactly as explained in Section 2-5. When the maximum Zener current is not
listed on the device data sheet, it may be calculated from the power dissipation
equation:

(2-12)

Example 2-15
Calculate the maximum current that may be allowed to flow through a
1N755 Zener diode at device temperatures of 50°C and l 00°C.

Solution

From data sheet A-4 in Appendix A, it can be seen that for the 1N755 Zener
diode, Vz = 7.5 V, Po = 400 mW at 50°C, and the derating factor= 3.2 mW1°C.
At 50°C:

Po 400mV
From Eq. 2-12, lzM = Vz = 7.5V

= 53.3mA
At 100°C:
Eq. 2-5: P2 = (P1 at T1) - [~T X derating factor]
= 400 mW - [(l00°C - 50°C) x 3.2 mW 1°C]
=240mW

P2 240mW
From Eq. 2-12, IZM = v z = 7.5V

=32mA
,84 Electronic Devices and Circuits . '.i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
'~ '......!::!!:'.!::.~.'..!!!::.~~~~~~~____.::_:__

E~ample 2-16 .
For the Zener diode circuit in Fig. 2-29, E ,= 20 V,
and R1 = 620 n. The Zener diode is a 1N755. Cal- E
2ov-
,c ulate the diode current ~d power dissipation. D1
IN755
Solution figure 2-29 Circuit for Ex. 2-16.
From the data sheet in Fig. 2-28, it is seen that
for the 1N755 Zener diode, Vz = 7.5 V

V RI ;=;= B ,- V z = 20 V - 7.5 V
I

= 12.5 V ,

_ I _ V RI _ 12.5 V
I Z - Rl - -
R1 620 n
= 20.16mA
Po= Vzlz = 7.5 V X 20.16 rnA
I '

= 151 mW

Equivalent Circuit
The de equivalent circuit for a Zener diode is Vz
simply a voltage cell with a voltage Vz, as in --1 1--
Fig. 2-30a. This is the complete equivalent cir- (a) DC equivalent circuit
cuit for the device for all de calculations. For
the ac equivalent circuit (Fig. 2-30b), the dy-
namic impedance is included in series with the
voltages cell. The ac equivalent circuit is used (b) AC equiv alent circuit
in situations where the Zener current is varied
Figure 2-30 DC and AC equi-
by small amounts. It must be understood that valent circuits for a Z ener
these equivalent circuits apply only when the diode.
Zener diode is maintained in reverse breakdown. If the d evice becomes for-
ward-biased, then the equivalent circuit for a forward-biased d iode must be
used.

Example 2-17 .
A Zener diode with V z = 4.3 V has Zz equal to 22 n when Iz = 20 rnA. Cal-
culate the upper and lower limits of Vz when Iz changes by ± 5 rnA .

Solution
!),. Vz = ± (D,.lz X Zz) = ± (5 mA X 22 fl)
 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Diodes 65

= ±ll0mV
Vz(max) = Vz + LiVz = 4.3 V + 110mV
= 4.41 V
Vz(mjn) = Vz - LiVz = 4.3 V - 110mV
= 4.19 V
Practice Problems j . .

1
2-9�_ 1.<;al�til�e the W<lrimum cvrr��t f�! a 1�753 �ener diode at device
. te:OJ,ft�atur�� of 5Q °C �I).q 1Q0 °�. I. •
2-9.2 A 1N749, Zener diode is connected ill series with an 820fl .resistor and
1 ,11,ii»\:-· sqpply. �a;l�wate the 4iode,curr�nt and power dissipation.
. I

Review Questions
 •

Section 2-9
2-20 Discuss the different types of junction breakdown that can occur in a reverse­
biased diode. Sketch the circuit symbol for a Zener diode, and briefly explain
Zener diode operation.
2-21 Sketch typical characteristics for a Zener diode. Explain the shape of the char­
acteristics, and identify the important points.
2-22 Sketch the equivalent circuit for a Zener diode. Briefly explain.

[Link]
 Section 2-9
2-27 Determine the maximum current that may be used with a 1N757 Zener diode
at temperatures of 25°C and 80°C.
2-28 A 1N750 Zener diode is connected in series with an 470 0 resistor and a 10 V
supply voltage. Calculate the diode current and power dissipation.

Practice Problem Answers

2-2.1 5.5 0, 30 MO
2-2.2 o.s n, o.s n
2-3.1 2.89 mA
2-3.2 (Point A: 0 mA, 0.3 V), (Point B: 100 rnA, 0.35 V)
2-3.3 174 mA
2-4.1 20 mA
2-4.2 50 n
2-4.3 3.45 V
2-5.1 154 rnA, 61.5 mA
2-5.2 267 mV, 421 mV, 1.23 0, 1.54 0

--
!;_70~E~le~c~tr~o~ni~c~De~v~ic~es~a~n~d~C~irc~u~it~s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __

2-5.3 780mV
2-6.1 50 ns
2-6.2 150 ns
2-6.3 154 ns
2-7.1 600 V, 1.5 A, 50 A
2-7.2 1N5392
2-8.2 Vertical 1 V / cm, Horizontal 0.1 V/ cm, 100 0
2;-9.1 64.5 mA, 38.7 mA
2-9.2 40.4 mW

I
 e

3-7 ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Regulator Circuit with No Load

The most important application of Zener
diodes (discussed in Section 2-9) is in de volt- Es-=-
age regulator circuits. These can be the simple
12
!
01
+}
regulator circuit shown in Fig. 3-30'or the more Vo== Vz
.___ __......_ -
complex regulators discussed in Chapter 18. -n
The circuit in Fig. 3-30 is usually emplpyed as Figure 3-30 Zener diode
used as a reference voltage
a voltage reference source that supplies only a source, or voltage regulator
very low current (much lower than Iz;) to the
out put. Resistor R 1 in Fig. 3-30 limits the Zener diode current to the desired
lev el. Jz is calculated as follows:

(3-41)

The Zener current may be just greater than the diode knee current (JzK)­
However, for the most stable reference voltage, 1z should be selected as [zr
(the specified test current). Example 3-16 demonstrates the circuit design
procedure.

Example 3-16
A 9 V reference source is to use a series-con­ R,
nected Zener diode and resistor connected to a Es
3ov -=-
1 kO
30 V supply (see Fig. 3-31). Select suitable com­
ponents, and calculate the circuit current when
the supply voltage dtops to 27 V.
i}
...1_N_7_~-~- -= V o - 91 V

Figure 3-31 Zener diode cir·

Solution cuit designed in Ex. 3-16.

Data sheet A -4 in Appendix A, for Zener diodes, shows that the most suitable
device is a 1N757, which has Vz = 9.1 V and lzT = 20 mA.
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 109

With Es = 30 V:

Frqm Eq. 3-41, Ri = Es - Vz = 30 V - 9.1 V

lz 20mA

= 1.05 kO (use 1 kil-see Table Bl in Appendix B)

PR1 = {f R1 = (20 mA) 2 X 1 kil
=0.4W
When Es = 27 V:
lz = Es - Vz = 27V - 9.1 V
R1 1 kil
= 17.9mA
Loaded Regulator i lz + IL

- ]v,
R1
When a Zener diode regulator has to supply a IL
Es -=-
load current (h), as shown in Fig. 3-32, the total
supply current (flowing through resistor R1) is
D1 RL
the sum of h and ]z. Care must be taken to en-
sure that the minimum Zener diode current is
Figure 3-32 Zener diode
large enough to keep the diode in reverse break-
voltage regulator circuit
down. Typically, lz(min) = 5 mA for a Zener supplying a load current (IL.).
diode with an Izr of 20 mA. The circuit current The diode must be able to
equation is pass a maximum current of
(IL+ lz).

Es - V
lz +h = z (3-42)
R1

In some cases, the load current in the type of circuit shown in Fig. 3-32
may be reduced to zero. Because the voltage drop across R1 remains constan t,
the supply current remains constant:
IR1 = lz + ft

All of this current flows through the Zener diode when RL is disconnected .
The circuit design must ensure that the total current does not exceed the
maximum Zener diode current.
Example 3-17 demonstrates the design process for a loaded voltage refer-
ence source that uses a low-power Zener diode. It should be noted that high-
power Zener diodes are available for higher-current applications.
11.0 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Example 3-17
Design a 6 V de reference source to operate from a 16 V supply (see Fig. 3-33).
The circuit is to use a low-power Zener diode (as in data sheet A-4 in Appen-
dix A) and is to produce the maximum possible load current. Calculate the
maximum load current that can be taken from the circuit.

Solution

From the Zener diode data sheet A-4 in Appendix A, it is seen that the 1N753
has Vz = 6.2 Vand Po= 400 mW. .

From Eq. 2-12, I _Po _ 400mW

ZM - Vz - 6.2 V

= 64.5mA
lt(max) + lz(min) = lzM = 64.5 mA

R1

Es -
16V-
1500

D1
-
[Link]

RL +} Vo
1N753 _ 6.2~ Figure 3-33 Zener diode circuit designed in
Ex. 3-17.

£5 - Vz 16 V - 6.2 V
From Eq. 3-41, R1 = =
l zM [Link]
= 152 D (use 150 D standard value)
PR1 = If R1 = (64.5 mA)2 X 150 D
= 0.62 W
Select lz(min) = 5 mA
h(max) = IZM - lz(min) = 64.5 mA - 5 mA
= 59.5 mA

Regulator Performance
The performance of a Zener diode voltage regulator may be expressed in
terms of the source and load effects and the line and load regulations, exactly
as discussed in Section 3-6. Equations 3-37 to 3-40 may be applied. If there is
an input·ripple voltage, it will be severely attenuated. The ripple rejection ratio
is the ratio of the output to input ripple amplitudes.
To assess the performance of a Zener diode voltage regulator, the ac
equivalent circuit is first drawn by replacing the diode with its dynamic im-
pedance (Zz), as shown in Fig. 3-34a. The complete ac equivalent circuit is
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 111

s~en to be a simple voltage divider. When the [Link] voltage changes by [Link],
the output voltage change is

(3-43)

Equation 3-43 assumes that there is no load

connected to the regulator output. When there
is a load, RL appears in parallel with Zz in the ac t.E5
equivalent circuit (see Fig. 3-34b). The equation
for the output voltage change now becomes

[Link] x (ZzllRL) (a) Regulator without a load

[Link] = - - -- - - (3-44)
R1 + (ZzllRd

The regulator source effect can be determined

from either Eq. 3-43 or Eq. 3-44, as appropriate. [Link]
The equations can also be used for calculating
the ripple rejection ratio. The input ripple
amplitude (V11) and the output ripple (Vro) are
substituted for the input and output voltages in (b) Regulator with a load
Eqs. 3-43 and 3-44. Thus, Eq 3-43 can be modified Figure 3-34 AC equivalent
circuits for Zener diode volt-
to give a ripple rejection ratio equation, age regulator.

(3-45)

For a loaded regulator, Eq. 3-44 gives

Vro Zzll RL
- - (3-46)
Vri II
R1 + (Zz RL)

To determine the load effect of the Zener

diode voltage regulator, the circuit output
resistance has to be calculated. The regulator
Thevenin equivalent circuit in Fig. 3-35 shows
that, assuming a zero source resistance, the
circuit output resistance is
V
0
T
" " - - - -- 0

Figure 3-35 Thevenin equiv-

(3-47) alent circuit for a Zener
diode voltage regulator.
112 Electronic Devices and Circuits

When the load current changes by Ah, the output voltage change is

(3-48)

Example 3-18
Calculate the line regulation, load regulation, and ripple rejection ratio for
the voltage regulator in Ex. 3-17.

Solution
From data sh,eet A-4 in Appendix A, it is seen that the 1N753 h as Zz = 7 n.
Source effect:
AEs = ~0% of Es = 10% of 16 V
= 1.6V
V0 6.2 V
RL=-=
h [Link]
= 104!1

AEs x (Zz II RL) 1.6 V x (7 n 11104 D )

Eq. 3-44: AV0 = - ---- = - - - -- - - -
R 1 + (Zz IIRL) 150 n + (7 n l\104 D )
=67mV
(AE0 for 10% change in Es) X 100%
Eq. 3-38: Line regulation= E
0

67mV X 100%
- 6.2V
= 1.08%
Load effect:
Eq. 3-48: AVo = Air,(Zz llR1) = 59.5 mA X (7 n 111so D)
= 398mV

. _ (AE0 for AIL(max)) X 100% 398 m V 100%

Eq. 3-40: Load regu1ation - _ ....::,__ _" - - ~ - - = - -- - -
E0 6.2 V

Ripple rejection:
Vro=
- II
Zz RL _ __7
_D....::,_
\1104
_ _D,__
Eq. 3-46:
Vri R1 + (Zzl\RL) 150 n+ (7 n 11104 D)
= 4.19 X 10- 2
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 113

R•di�e P.r,oblems
3-'[Link] :Oesi� a 12 V de referen�e ;s.©�ce (,consisting of a Zener diode and
• s�1:ie�",c0�ee,tecl resisto�)�to,0.p'.e11�te fr@W a;25 y supply. Qeterm;ine,the
_ ,eff'eet, 0:\11 the di4>de .�urr�:p.t whe:m th¢ sµpply drops to; 42 ¥, 1
• �1.2 ,{An $. l!t 4� ,,-[Link] sowee is: t$)•beidesigned to p,[Link],-j:1\e ma�mn
.
f©ssible 1 ou:tput ,cun1.e:nt µom a l0w,,.p0wer �ner diode. ]lte supply volt:­
age is 20· V. Design the circuit and determine the maximum-load current.
3�'Z.3 Calc;:ulate the line effec,t, load eJfec;t, and ripple reject ion for the circ uit
designed in Problem 3-7.2.

--0

u
j_
....

Chapter 3 Diode Applications 135

3·8

Section 3-7
3-20 Sketch the circuit diagram for a Zener diode voltage regula tor. Briefly explain
the circuit operation and discuss the effects of load current.

3-21 Sketch the ac equivalent circuit for a Zener diode voltage regulator. Write
equations for source effect and load effect.
 Chapter 3 Diode Applications 139

Section 3-7
3-33 A series-connected Zener diode and resistor are to be used as a 10 V reference
source with a load current less than 1 rnA. The available supply voltage is 25 V.
Select suitable components and calculate the effect of a ±10% change in supply
voltage on the diode current.
3-34 A 5 V Zener diode voltage source is to be designed to produce maximum pos­
sible output current from a low-power Zener diode. Design the circuit to oper­
ate from a 22 V supply, and calculate the maximum load current.
3-35 Determine the source effect, load effect, and ripple rejection for the circuit de­
signed for Problem 3-34.
3-36 Recalculate the maximum output current for the circuit designed for Problem
3-34 when the ambient temperature is raised to 100°C. The diode derating fac­
tor is 3.2 mW 1 °C for temperatures above 50°C.
3-37 A 1N751 Zener diode is connected in series with a 330 fl resistor to a
25 V supply. Determine the maximum and minimum level of the Zener diode
voltage, and calculate the minimum resistance that may be connected in paral­
lel with the diode.
3-38 Calculate the source effect, load effect, and ripple rejection for the circuit in
Problem 3-37.
!_42 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Practice Problem Answers

J

3-1.1 20.51 V, 62.2 mA, 21.2 V

3-1.2 33.95 V, 48.7 V
3-2.1 32.54 V, 69.2 mA, 1.12 V
3-2.2 238 mW, 13.7 V
3-3.1 1000 µF
3-3.2 835 µF
3-3.3 25.2 V, 60 mA, 860 mA, 1N4001, 0.42 0,
(115 V, 17.7 mA), (9.5 V, 216 mA)
3-4.1 500 µF
3-4.2 557 µF
3-4.3 17.5 V, 100 mA, 714 mA, 1N4001, 0.57 D
(115 V, 16.8 mA), (12.1 V, 160 mA)
3-5.1 18.15 V, 126 mV
3-5.2 19 V, 17 mV
3-5.3 12.6 V, 147 mV
3-6.1 50 mV, 100 mV, 0.33%, 0.66%
3-7.1 1N756, 680 0, 14.7 mA
3-7.2 1N756, (220 n + 22 0), 43.8 mA
3-7.3 61.4 mV, 336 mV, 3.07 x 10- 2
3-8.1 5.6 kO, 7 V, 1 mA
3-8.2 4.7 kO, 6 V, 1 mA
3-9.1 330 0, 7 V, 19 mA
3-9.2 ±2.8 V, 2.7 kO
3-9.3 1N753, 1.8 kO
3-10.1 550 mV
3-10.2 1 µF, 100 kil
3-10.3 7.5 V, -16.5 V, 4.5 V
3-11.1 1.6%, 0.65%
3-11.2 ±10.7 V, 3.9 µF, 8 µF
3-12.1 680 n
3-12.2 1.41 mA, 469 µA