1.

Introduction to Physical Testing of Leather

Leather and footwear products must be strong, comfortable, and long-lasting. To make sure of
this, every material used in a shoe—such as leather, lining, insole, and outsole—needs to be
tested. Testing helps us check the quality of materials before they are used in production.

Leather and footwear materials undergo different mechanical, chemical, and performance tests to
ensure:
 Durability
 Quality consistency
 Safety
 Compliance with national/international standards
 Customer satisfaction

Because leather is a natural material, its properties can change from piece to piece. Footwear also
contains many different materials that must work together. For this reason, the leather and
footwear industry uses physical tests to make sure materials will perform well during wearing,
bending, walking, or exposure to water and sunlight.

Physical testing shows:

 how strong the leather is

 how easily it bends or tears
 how well the colour stays
 how materials react to water or heat
 how durable soles are
 how safe the whole shoe is

To maintain uniform standards, the industry uses international testing methods such as ISO
and SATRA. These standards explain exactly how tests should be done, so results are fair and
reliable.

In this document, the tests are divided into three simple groups:

1. Leather Material Tests

These tests check properties like strength, tear resistance, colour fastness, flexibility, and
breathability. They help us understand if the leather is suitable for uppers, lining, bags, or
garments.

2. Footwear Component Tests

These tests examine materials used in the shoe, such as soles, insoles, adhesives, and linings.
They measure how well these materials perform before the shoe is made.

3. Finished Footwear Tests

These tests check the quality of the completed shoe. They include whole shoe flexing, slip
resistance, water penetration, and safety toe tests.

Physical tests help evaluate how leather behaves under:

 Stretching
 Flexing
 Abrasion
 Water exposure
 Heat
 Pressure

2. Mechanical Strength-Related Tests

2.1. Tensile Strength Test (ISO 3376)

Tensile strength measures the maximum force leather can withstand before it breaks when pulled
apart. It shows the overall strength, durability, and fiber integrity of the leather. It measures
the maximum pulling force that the leather can withstand before it breaks. This property
indicates how strong the fiber network is, how well the hide was tanned, and whether the leather
is suitable for high-stress applications such as footwear uppers, belts, and industrial gloves. This
test is important for footwear uppers, leather goods, upholstery, and safety products.

Purpose

 Determine leather strength under tension

 Compare different types or grades of leather
 Evaluate tanning quality and fiber bonding
 Check suitability for footwear uppers and stress-bearing parts

Specimen Preparation
  Test pieces are cut into dumbbell-shaped or 25 mm wide strips.
 At least 5 specimens are prepared.
 All samples are conditioned for 24 hours at 20°C and 65% RH.
 Thickness is measured, because strength is sometimes expressed relative to cross-
sectional area.

Test Principle / Procedure

1. The specimen is clamped between the two jaws of a tensile testing machine.
2. The machine pulls the leather at a constant speed (usually 100 mm/min).
3. The sample stretches until it breaks.
4. The machine records:
o The maximum force applied
o The extension of the sample before breaking

Both values are automatically stored.

Results & Expression

1. Tensile Strength (Breaking Force)

Reported as: N(Newtons) or N/mm (force per width)

Higher tensile strength = stronger leather.

 Full-grain: usually highest

 Corrected grain: moderate
 Split leather: lowest

2. Elongation at Break (%)

Elongation at break measures how much leather stretches before it finally breaks.
It is reported as a percentage increase in length.

✔ Formula
Elongation at break (%) = (Original length/Extension at break)×100

✔ Why It Matters

 Shows flexibility and stretchability of leather

 Helps determine suitability for lasting and shaping
 Affects comfort and fit in footwear

✔ Typical Values

 Upper leather: 40–80%

 Garment leather: 60–100%
 Sole leather: 10–30% (very low because it is stiff)

✔ Interpretation

 High elongation → soft, flexible, good for lasting (vamp, quarters)

 Moderate elongation → ideal balance for most footwear uppers
 Low elongation → stiff or brittle leather, likely to crack during lasting

Low values may indicate:

 Over-dried leather
 Insufficient fatliquoring
 Loose grain
 Weak fiber structure

Overall Importance

Tensile strength and elongation at break together give a complete picture of leather quality:

 Strength = resistance to breaking

 Elongation = flexibility before breaking
A good upper leather must have both high enough strength and balanced elongation to withstand
stitching, lasting, and daily wear.

2.1. Stitch Tear Strength (ISO 23910)

Stitch tear strength measures how strongly leather can hold a line of stitches before tearing. Since
most leather products are sewn, this test provides a realistic assessment of performance during
manufacturing and use.

Specimens are cut and stitched using a standard sewing machine with specified thread and
needle. The stitched portion is placed between the jaws of a tensile tester. When the machine
pulls the specimen, the leather eventually tears along the stitched holes. The maximum force
recorded is the stitch tear strength.

Results are expressed in newtons (N). Higher stitch tear strength indicates good fiber cohesion
and resistance at perforated areas. Low results suggest that the grain may crack or the seam may
burst during use, making the leather unsuitable for footwear uppers or seams under high tension.

2.2. Tear Strength Tests (ISO 3377-2)

Tear strength tests measure how well leather resists propagation of a tear once a cut already
exists. These tests are essential for evaluating leather used in footwear uppers, bags, upholstery,
gloves, and items that undergo mechanical stress during stitching, lasting, or daily use.

Tear strength measures how resistant leather is to propagation of a tear once a small cut or notch
exists. This test is essential in footwear manufacturing because leather is stitched, punched, and
skived—operations that can initiate weak spots.

For the test, rectangular specimens are cut with a small slit on one side. The conditioned
specimen is mounted in a tensile testing machine so that the notch faces the direction of applied
force. The machine pulls the specimen at 100 mm/min, and the force required to spread the tear
is recorded.
Results are given in newtons (N). High tear strength means the leather resists ripping during
sewing or lasting. Low tear strength indicates weak fiber bonding, poor tanning, or issues in
splitting. This test is especially important for materials used in footwear toe and heel areas.

What affects the test: Type of animal skin, Fiber orientation and density, Tanning method,
Thickness of the leather, Fatliquoring & finishing

2.2.1. Single Edge Tear Strength Test

✔ Purpose

Simulates a small cut or damage starting from one edge. It measures how easily the tear
continues. Important for checking the quality of leather used in stressed areas like eyelets, straps,
seams, and vamp regions.

✔ Specimen

 Strip of leather (≈ 25 × 100 mm)

 One single notch cut on one side
 Conditioned for 24 hours

✔ Method

 Clamped in a tensile tester

 Pulled at 100 mm/min
 Tear propagates from the notch toward the opposite end

✔ Result

Maximum tearing force in Newtons (N).

✔ Interpretation

 Higher = stronger leather

 Lower = loose fibers or weak structure
 Full-grain leather usually performs best
 2.2.2. Double Edge Tear Strength Test
✔ Purpose

Evaluates tear resistance more accurately by creating a balanced, even tear. Used to assess fiber
cohesion and overall leather strength.

✔ Specimen

 Same rectangular strip

 Two notches, one on each side
 Conditioned before testing

✔ Method

 Placed in tensile tester

 Pulled at 100 mm/min
 Tear propagates from both sides toward the middle

✔ Result

Maximum force (N) required to continue the tear.

✔ Interpretation

 More stable and repeatable than single tear

 Useful for comparing leather grades
 Lower values indicate weak fiber bonding

Key Differences — Combined Table

Feature Single Edge Tear Double Edge Tear
Number of notches One Two (opposite)
Tear direction One direction Two directions (toward center)
Symmetry Asymmetrical Symmetrical
Best for Straps, upper leather, seams General grading, structural evaluation
Accuracy Good Higher
Overall Importance of Tear Strength

 Both tests help determine:

 Durability of leather during wear
 Suitability for footwear uppers & bag components
 Strength around seams, eyelets, buckles
 Resistance to accidental tearing
 Fiber integrity and tanning quality

Strong tear resistance ensures longer product life and reduced failures during lasting, stitching,
and user wear.

2.3. Ball Burst Test (ISO 3379)

The ball burst test measures the strength and elasticity of leather when force is applied from
beneath in all directions. This is an important property for footwear uppers, where the leather
stretches in multiple directions during walking and lasting.

Circular specimens are cut and clamped tightly in a ring fixture. A steel ball is pushed upward
against the leather at a controlled speed. The machine measures both the force at burst and the
amount of stretch before failure.

A leather sample with high ball burst strength is typically strong, flexible, and well-tanned.
Leather that bursts under low force may have loose fiber structure, excessive softness, weak
grain, or poor tanning uniformity.

2.4. Bally Flex Test (ISO 5402-1)

The Bally flex test assesses how well leather withstands repeated bending—similar to the flexing
a shoe upper undergoes during walking. Good flex resistance ensures comfort, durability, and
prevention of cracks.
Rectangular specimens are folded with the grain side facing outward and mounted into a Bally
flexing machine. The sample is repeatedly flexed at a fast rate (around 100 cycles per minute) for
thousands of cycles, commonly 20,000 cycles.

After testing, the leather is inspected for cracks, grain breaks, or finish damage. Leather with
excellent flex resistance shows little or no cracking even after long cycles. Early cracking
indicates poor tanning, weak grain, or insufficient lubrication in the leather structure.

2.5. Ross Flex / Sole Flexing Test (ISO 4643)

The Ross flex test evaluates the ability of outsole materials—such as rubber, EVA, and PVC—to
resist cracking during repeated flexing. Soles bend thousands of times while walking, so this test
predicts their durability in real-life conditions.

A strip of outsole material is cut with a deliberate small cut (notch). This encourages crack
development during flexing. The specimen is mounted on a Ross flexing machine, which bends
the sample back and forth through a 90° angle at around 100–150 cycles per minute.

After a required number of cycles (e.g., 30,000), the specimen is examined. Results are
expressed in terms of crack length or number of cycles to crack initiation. High-quality soles
show short or no cracks; brittle or poorly cured soles crack early.

2.6. Whole Shoe Flexing Test (ISO 17707)

This test assesses the performance of a fully constructed shoe under repeated flexing, providing a
realistic evaluation of durability. It checks for problems such as cracking in the upper, sole
cracking, sole separation, and stitch failure.

A complete shoe is mounted on a whole-shoe flexing machine. The machine bends the shoe
repeatedly through a fixed angle (usually 30°–45°). After a predetermined number of cycles
(often 30,000), the shoe is inspected visually.
Results are based on observed damage, including crack length, detachment of sole, separation at
the flexing point, or tearing of seams. A shoe that passes this test without significant defects is
considered suitable for high-flex applications such as sports shoes and school shoes.

3. ADHESION & BONDING TESTS

3.1. Sole Adhesion / Peel Strength Test (ISO 17708)

Sole adhesion testing evaluates the bonding strength between the outsole and the upper or
midsole. This is one of the most important tests in footwear construction because poor adhesion
can cause the sole to detach during walking, leading to discomfort and safety risks.

To conduct the test, a footwear sample or a bonded strip is prepared. If a full shoe is used, the
sole is partially cut to expose a peeling edge. The specimen is mounted in a tensile testing
machine so that the machine pulls the sole away from the upper or midsole at a constant angle of
90°. The pulling speed is usually set to 100 mm/min.

The machine measures the peel force (N/mm) required to separate the two materials. A higher
peel strength indicates strong cementing, proper surface preparation, and correct adhesive curing.
Low values suggest poor roughing, weak cement, insufficient curing time, or contamination
during bonding. This test is especially critical for sports shoes and children’s footwear.

3.2. Laminated Bond Strength Test (ISO 2411)

This test measures how well laminated layers—such as leather + foam + fabric lining—hold
together. Laminated uppers are common in modern footwear for comfort and reinforcement.

Rectangular specimens containing the layered structure are cut. One layer is peeled back slightly
to create a tab. The specimen is clamped in a tensile testing machine, and one layer is peeled
from the other at a constant rate and angle.

Results are recorded in newtons per millimetre (N/mm) as peel strength. High peel strength
indicates good lamination, appropriate adhesive, and proper pressure and heat application. Weak
bond strength leads to delamination, bubbling, or wrinkling of footwear uppers during use.
 3.3. Toe Puff and Counter Stiffener Bond Strength

Toe puffs and counters are components inserted in the toe and heel areas of footwear to maintain
shape. Their bonding strength to the upper material is important to ensure firm structure and
long-term shape retention.

Specimens are prepared by cementing toe puff or counter material to upper leather or synthetic
material under controlled temperature and pressure. The bonded area is then tested in a tensile
machine using a peeling method similar to the lamination test.

The peeling force (N/mm) shows how securely the stiffener adheres. High values mean strong
bonding and stable shoe structure. Low values result in loose toe shapes, collapsing heels, and
premature deformation.

4. ABRASION & WEAR RESISTANCE

4.1. Martindale Abrasion Resistance Test (ISO 17076-2)

The Martindale abrasion test evaluates the durability of the leather surface against rubbing and
wear. This test is essential for upholstery leather, automotive leather, and footwear uppers that
endure constant friction.

Circular specimens are cut and mounted in the Martindale machine. A standard abrasive fabric is
rubbed against the leather in a figure-eight motion under a defined pressure. The machine runs
for a set number of cycles—often 5,000, 10,000, or more depending on the product category.

At the end of testing, the leather is examined for changes such as scuffing, fibre exposure,
surface roughness, or loss of finish. Results are expressed as the number of cycles endured
before the leather shows visible damage. Leather with high abrasion resistance maintains its
surface appearance longer and performs better in high-wear applications.

4.2. Colour Fastness to Rubbing (ISO 11640)

The rubbing (crocking) test determines how easily colour or finish transfers from leather to
another material through friction. This is important for shoe uppers, linings, garment leather, and
bags.

A rubbing finger covered with standard white cotton fabric rubs the leather surface repeatedly.
The test is done twice: once with a dry cloth and once with a wet cloth. The number of rub
cycles and pressure are standardized.

After rubbing, the white cloth is examined and compared against a grey scale to rate staining
from 1 to 5, where 5 means no staining. Good leather should show minimal colour transfer.
Excessive staining indicates poor finishing, weak dyes, or inadequate fixation.

5. WATER & MOISTURE TESTS

5.1. Water Vapour Permeability (Breathability) Test (ISO 14268)

This test measures how easily moisture vapour (sweat) passes through leather. High breathability
is essential for footwear uppers and garments to maintain comfort.

Specimens are placed over a container of desiccant or water, and sealed. The assembly is
weighed and then placed in a controlled chamber for a fixed period. Moisture migrating through
the leather changes the weight of the container.

Results are expressed in mg/cm²/hour. Higher values mean better breathability. Low
breathability causes discomfort, sweating, and odour.

5.2. Water Absorption and Desorption Test (ISO 2417)

This test checks how much water leather absorbs and how quickly it dries. It is especially
important for insoles, linings, and vegetable-tanned materials.

Specimens are weighed, immersed in distilled water for a fixed time, and weighed again.
Afterward, the sample is dried for another fixed period and weighed once more.

Results include:
  Water absorption (% increase in weight)
 Desorption (how much water is lost during drying)

High absorption with fast desorption indicates comfortable and breathable material. Low
desorption results in damp shoes and discomfort.

5.3. Water Spotting Test (ISO 15700)

This test measures how leather reacts when small drops of water fall onto the surface. It is
especially important for aniline leather and lightly finished uppers.

A drop of water is placed on the leather and left for a standard amount of time. After removing
the water, the leather is dried and inspected for spots, darkening, or surface deformation.

Better-finished leather shows no mark after drying. Sensitive leather shows dark water stains or
roughened grain.

5.4. Colour Fastness to Water (ISO 11642)

This test evaluates whether the colour of leather bleeds, fades, or transfers when in prolonged
contact with water.

The leather specimen is sandwiched between standard fabrics and immersed in distilled water
inside a perspirometer. After pressing and drying, both the leather and the adjacent fabric are
rated using a grey scale.

Good leather shows minimal colour change and minimal staining. Poor results indicate unstable
dyes or inadequate fixation.

6. COLOUR FASTNESS TESTS

6.1. Colour Fastness to Light (ISO 105-B02)

Colour fastness to light is a test that evaluates how well the colour of leather resists fading when
exposed to artificial sunlight. This test is important because footwear, bags, garments, and
upholstery are often exposed to outdoor or indoor light for long periods. Poor light fastness leads
to fading, discoloration, or patchy appearance.

Purpose of the Test

 To assess the stability of dyes, pigments, and finishes when exposed to light
 To determine suitability of leather for end-use applications
 To compare different types of finishing and colouring systems
 To ensure long-term colour durability

Test Principle

The leather specimen is exposed to controlled artificial daylight produced by a Xenon-arc lamp.
This lamp closely simulates natural sunlight, including UV radiation which is responsible for
fading.

The leather sample is exposed side-by-side with Blue Wool Standard reference fabrics (1–8).
These blue wool standards fade at known rates and are used to grade the leather.

Specimen Preparation

 Leather is cut to a suitable size (usually 4–5 cm wide)

 One half is covered to remain unexposed
 The other half is exposed to the light
 Conditioning at 20°C and 65% RH is recommended

Testing Procedure

1. Leather is placed in the Xenon light fastness chamber.

2. Blue Wool Standards (1–8) are mounted beside it.
3. Exposure continues until Standard Blue Wool No. 3 shows a defined fading.
4. Leather is removed, and the faded part is compared with the covered (unexposed) part.
5. The degree of colour change is visually matched with the blue wool standards.
Result Expression

Results are given on the Blue Wool Scale (1–8):

Rating Meaning
1–2 Very poor light fastness (fades quickly)
3 Poor
4 Moderate (acceptable for many indoor uses)
5–6 Good (suitable for footwear uppers, bags)
7–8 Excellent (outdoor leather, automotive)

Interpretation

 Aniline, drum-dyed leather usually has better light fastness.

 Light colours fade faster than dark colours.
 Finished/pigmented leather improves light fastness due to surface coating.
 Vegetable-tanned leather may show lower light fastness unless treated.
Good light fastness means the leather maintains appearance during prolonged exposure to
sunlight or store lighting.

6.2. Colour Fastness to Perspiration (ISO 11641)

This test simulates acidic and alkaline sweat to check colour migration from leather used in shoe
linings or garments.

Leather is placed between multifibre fabrics soaked in artificial sweat, pressed in a

perspirometer, and dried. Colour change and staining are evaluated using grey scales.

High-quality leather shows little to no staining. Poor results indicate unstable dyes that may stain
socks or skin.

6.3. Colour Fastness of Leather to Water

EN ISO 11642 / IUF 421 / VESLIC C 4210. The colour fastness of leather to water is the
resistance to the prolonged action of water.

Method

Pre-wetted pieces of wool (WO) and cotton (CO), or multi-fibre fabric strips, are placed on the
test surface of the dyed leather sample, which has been thoroughly wet out in water. The
composite specimen is then placed between glass plates under pressure for 3 hours at 37°C. The
specimen and the textile are dried. The change in colour of the leather specimen (N) is compared
with the original leather sample (Tq) and of the textile are assessed with standard Grey Scales.
 6.4. Water Spotting Colour Fastness of Leather

EN ISO 15700 / IUF 420. The colour fastness of leather to water spotting is the resistance to the
action of water drops on dyed leather surfaces. The colour fastness of leather to water spotting is
the resistance to the action of water drops on dyed leather surfaces. A sample of leather has 2
water drops placed on the surface. One drop is dried after 30 min.

Method

A sample of leather has 2 water drops placed on the surface. One drop is dried after 30 min. with
absorbent paper and the other left for 16h. The change of colour of the leather is evaluated using
the change of colour Grey Scale. Any other changes to the leather surface should be noted.

6.5. Color Fastness of Leather to Mild Washing

Applies EN ISO 15703 / IUF 423. Fastness of the color of leather to hand washing is the
resistance to washing under mild domestic laundering in water. In washing leather, not only
changes in color can occur in the leather, but colored substances may bleed from it and may stain
adjacent textile materials.

Method

The samples of dyed leather in contact with undyed textiles, e.g. multi-fiber strips or wool and
cotton, are agitated in a neutral solution of a synthetic detergent (5g/l sodium lauryl sulphate) for
30 min. at 30°C. The samples are rinsed and dried.
The change in color of the leather specimen (N) compared with the original sample (Tq) and the
staining of the textiles are assessed with standard Grey Scales.

(CA= acetate, CO = cotton, PA = polyamide, PES = polyester, PAC = Polyacrylic, WO = wool)

6.6. Color Fastness of Leather to Machine Washing

EN ISO 15702 / IUF 435 Fastness of the colour of leather to machine washing is the resistance to
washing under domestic machine laundering in water. In washing leather, not only changes in
colour can occur in the leather, but colored substances may bleed from it and may stain adjacent
textile materials.

Method

The samples of dyed leather in contact with undyed textiles, e.g. multi-fibre strips or wool and
cotton, are agitated in a solution of a standard wash detergent (4g/l ECE Colour Fastness Test
Detergent 77) for 30 min. at 40°C. The samples are rinsed and dried.

The change in colour of the leather specimen (N) is compared with the original leather sample
(Tq) and the staining of the textiles are assessed with standard Grey Scales.

(CA= acetate, CO = cotton, PA = polyamide, PES = polyester, PAC = Polyacrylic, WO = wool)

 7. FOOTWEAR SOLE & COMPONENT TESTS
(DETAILED)
7.1. Sole Hardness Test (ISO 868 – Shore Hardness)

The hardness of an outsole is an important physical property because it influences comfort,

durability, slip resistance, and the overall walking feel of the shoe. Hardness is tested using a
device called a durometer, which measures how much the material resists indentation.

Outsoles made of rubber, TPR, EVA, or PU are tested using the Shore A scale. Plastics or harder
TPU materials use the Shore D scale. A flat, smooth part of the sole is selected and the
durometer needle is pressed onto the surface under a standardized force. The depth of indentation
is converted into a hardness reading.

Higher values mean the material is harder and less compressible. Very hard soles may wear well
but can feel uncomfortable and stiff. Very soft soles give good cushioning but may compress too
fast or wear out quickly. This test helps determine suitable materials for sports shoes, casual
shoes, and safety footwear.

7.2. Ross Flexing Test (Flexometer for Sole Materials) – ISO 4643 /
SATRA TM60

The Ross Flexing Test evaluates the flexing endurance of outsole materials such as rubber,
TPR, PU, and EVA. It measures how well a sole material resists cracking when repeatedly bent
during walking. This is one of the most important durability tests for outsole compounds.
Purpose of the Test

 To determine resistance to crack formation and crack growth

 To assess durability under repeated bending
 To check quality of rubber soles, especially for sports and school shoes
 To evaluate long-term performance of sole materials

Specimen Preparation

 Rectangular pieces of sole material are cut (typically 70 × 25 mm).

 A sharp notch (cut) is made in the center of the sample to initiate a crack.
 Samples are conditioned before testing.
 For cold flexing, samples are tested at −20°C.

Test Principle / Method

1. Each specimen is clamped in the flexometer machine.

2. The sample is bent repeatedly at a fixed angle.
3. The machine operates at about 100 cycles per minute (varies by standard).
4. The test continues for a specified number of cycles:
o 10,000 cycles
o 30,000 cycles
o 50,000 cycles
depending on specification.

During bending, cracks expand from the notch.

Results & Expression

After flexing, measure:

 Crack length (mm)

 Rate of crack growth
 Number of cycles survived without failure
Interpretation:

 Small crack growth → excellent durability

 Long cracks → poor flex resistance
 Stiffer materials crack more easily
 EVA usually performs better than rubber in cold flexing

This test predicts how long soles last before cracking in real use.

7.3. Whole Shoe Flexing Test – ISO 17707

The Whole Shoe Flexing Test evaluates the durability of an entire finished shoe under conditions
similar to walking. It examines how well the shoe withstands repeated bending in the forepart
(ball region), which is the most stressed area.

7.4. Purpose of the Test

 To assess overall durability of the shoe

 To examine sole–upper bonding performance

 To identify design or construction weaknesses
 To ensure the shoe does not crack, delaminate, or fail prematurely

This test simulates walking for thousands of steps.

Test Principle / Method

1. The complete shoe is mounted on a flexing machine.

2. The forepart bends repeatedly at a standard angle.
3. Common cycle counts:
o 30,000 cycles (basic quality)
o 50,000 cycles (good shoes)
o 100,000+ cycles (high durability footwear)
4. Flexing is done at approximately 1–3 Hz (bends per second).
5. Shoes may be tested dry or wet depending on specification.
Observations & Results

After testing, examine:

 Upper cracks (especially vamp area)

 Sole cracks
 Sole–upper separation
 Stitching failure
 Lining damage
 Insole movement
 Detachment or wrinkling

Interpretation:

 Minimal or no damage → high-quality shoe

 Cracks or separation → poor bonding, weak materials, or bad construction
 Synthetic uppers often show early cracking
 Good leather uppers perform better due to flexibility

This test represents real-world durability more accurately than material tests alone.

7.5. Compression Set Test for EVA/Rubber Soles (ISO 1856)

Compression set measures how well a material recovers after being compressed for a long time.
Materials like EVA midsoles and rubber insoles undergo constant pressure during walking. If
they fail to recover, the shoe becomes flat, uncomfortable, and loses cushioning.

To perform the test, a sample of midsole or outsole material is cut to standard thickness and
placed between metal plates. It is compressed to a specific percentage of its thickness (often
50%) and held under controlled heat for a fixed time. After the test, the sample is allowed to cool
and recover, then measured again.

Results are expressed as percentage permanent deformation. A low compression set means the
material returns close to its original thickness, providing long-term cushioning. A high
compression set indicates poor resilience and quick loss of comfort. EVA soles in particular rely
on this property for shock absorption.

7.6. Slip Resistance Test (ISO 13287)

Slip resistance is critical for footwear performance and safety. This test measures how much grip
the outsole can maintain on different surfaces under wet and dry conditions.

A full shoe is mounted on a slip resistance tester. The machine presses the shoe onto a testing
surface (such as ceramic tiles or steel) under a specified load. The shoe is then slid forward at a
controlled speed. Sensors calculate the coefficient of friction.

Dry surfaces test normal grip, while wet or detergent-covered surfaces simulate real-life hazards
such as slippery floors. A higher coefficient of friction means better slip resistance. Shoes with
poor values are unsafe and may fail to meet safety footwear regulations. Good slip resistance is
essential for kitchen shoes, industrial shoes, school shoes, and sports footwear.

7.7. Heel Impact (Shock Absorption) Test (ISO 20344)

Shock absorption is a measure of how well footwear reduces the impact forces generated during
walking or running. This test is important for athletic shoes, children’s shoes, and safety shoes
where comfort and joint protection are priorities.

The test uses a machine that drops a known weight onto the heel area of the shoe at a controlled
height. A sensor measures how much energy is absorbed by the sole. The deformation of the
material and the rebound effect are also recorded.

High shock absorption means the heel provides good cushioning and reduces stress on the foot
and leg. Low shock absorption indicates that the material is stiff or degraded, which may cause
discomfort, heel pain, or faster fatigue. This test is essential for evaluating new designs and
quality consistency.

7.8. Insole Water Absorption Test (ISO 20344)

Insoles must manage sweat effectively. This test determines how much water an insole can
absorb and how quickly it can release moisture, contributing to comfort and hygiene.

Standard insole pieces are weighed, soaked in distilled water for a fixed time, and weighed again
to determine absorption. Then they are dried for a specific period and weighed once more to
determine desorption.

Good insoles show high absorption but also quick drying. Poor materials may absorb too little
(leading to sweaty feet) or dry too slowly (leading to dampness, odour, and discomfort). This test
is fundamental for lining materials and insoles used in casual, formal, and sports footwear.

7.9. Toe Impact & Compression Test (ISO 22568 – For Safety Footwear)

This test applies only to safety footwear, where toe caps protect the wearer’s feet from falling
objects or heavy compression.

A safety shoe with a steel or composite toe cap is mounted on a testing rig. A heavy striker is
dropped from a specified height onto the toecap to simulate impact. The deformation of the toe
cap is measured. The toe cap must not collapse beyond a defined clearance, ensuring the toes
inside remain safe.

Compression testing is also done by applying slow but increasing pressure to the toe cap. Safety
footwear must maintain structural integrity to pass. Failure results in rejection of the footwear
batch.

8. DIMENSIONAL & STRUCTURAL TESTS

(DETAILED)
8.1. Shrinkage Temperature Test (ISO 3380)

The shrinkage temperature is a key indicator of tanning quality. It measures the temperature at
which leather fibers suddenly contract when heated in water. Good tanning stabilizes collagen
fibers, allowing the leather to maintain structure under heat.
Small strips of leather are immersed in a water bath and gradually heated. The temperature at
which the specimen visibly shrinks or curls is recorded as the shrinkage temperature.

Chrome-tanned leather typically shrinks around 90–100°C, while vegetable-tanned leather

shrinks at lower temperatures. A low shrinkage temperature may indicate poor tanning,
inadequate chrome fixation, or insufficient retanning.

8.2. Leather Thickness & Density Measurement (ISO 2589)

Thickness and density are basic but essential physical properties used to classify leather and
determine its appropriate use. Thickness influences strength, flexibility, and suitability for
footwear uppers, soles, or bag construction.

Thickness is measured with a thickness gauge under a specified pressure and time, ensuring
accurate readings. Multiple points on each specimen are measured to account for natural
variation.

Density is calculated by measuring the mass and volume of the leather sample. Dense leather
generally has tightly packed fibers, giving better strength and durability. Low density may
indicate loose fiber structure or excessive splitting.

8.3. Stiffness / Softness Test (ISO 17235 – Softness Measurement)

Softness determines how easily leather bends or conforms to shape—critical for shoe uppers,
gloves, and garment leather. Excessive stiffness results in uncomfortable footwear, while overly
soft leather may lack support.

A softness tester presses a spherical probe into the leather under a controlled load. The depth of
indentation indicates softness: deeper penetration means softer leather.

Softness influences lasting performance, drape, and wearer comfort. It also helps detect problems
such as overdrying, excessive stretching, or incorrect fatliquoring during processing.

8.4. Drapability Test (Leather Flexibility & Drape Behaviour)

Drapability refers to how easily leather hangs, folds, and conforms to curved or three-
dimensional shapes. It is an important property for footwear uppers, garment leather, gloves,
wallets, and bags, where leather must adapt smoothly without forming unwanted stiffness or
wrinkles.

Although not governed by a single ISO standard like other mechanical tests, drapability is
commonly evaluated using modified textile drape meters (similar to ISO 9073-9 in textiles) or
industry-specific flex-and-drape tests. The goal is to observe how the leather behaves under its
own weight.

Purpose of the Test: The drapability test helps determine:

 Smoothness of leather fall (how it hangs)

 Flexibility in shaping and lasting
 Ease of folding around curves
 Comfort for upper leather and garments
 Aesthetic appearance in bags and accessories

Leather with good drapability appears smooth and soft. Poor drapability results in stiffness or
unnatural folds.

Specimen Preparation

 Circular or square pieces of leather (usually 20–30 cm diameter).

 Conditioned at 20°C and 65% RH for 24 hours.
 Grain direction marked (optional, for comparison).
 Thickness is recorded because it affects drape.

Testing Method (Common Industry Approach)

A leather specimen is placed on a drape meter. The material is allowed to hang freely over a
pedestal. A light source projects the shadow of the draped leather onto a horizontal surface.
The projected shadow shows how much the leather collapses under its own weight.
The drape coefficient is calculated by comparing:
  The area of the draped shadow
 The area of the full circular specimen

Result Expression
Results are reported as a drape coefficient:
✔ Low drape coefficient → Soft, flexible, excellent drapability
(leather collapses more)
✔ High drape coefficient → Stiff, firm leather with poor drapability
(leather holds its shape without folding)
Typical values are:

 40–60% = desirable for footwear uppers

 < 40% = very soft (garment leather, gloves)
 > 60% = stiff (belts, structured bags)

Interpretation

Good drapability indicates:

 Proper fatliquoring
 Correct moisture content
 Fine fiber structure
 Suitable for soft shoes and fashion goods

Poor drapability suggests:

 Over-dried leather
 Insufficient lubrication
 Thick or boardy leather
 Poor suitability for curved shapes (toe area, vamp curves)

Manufacturers use this test to select leather for:

 Fashion shoes
  Ladies’ bags
 Jackets and gloves
 Loafers, ballet shoes, moccasins

Where smooth folding and comfort are essential.