Module 3: NETWORK LAYER

The network layer is the third layer in the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. The OSI model is a seven-layer architecture developed by the
ISO in 1984. Each layer has a specific function and interacts with the layers
above and below it.

Functions of Network Layer

1. Assigning Logical Address
Network layer is solely responsible for assigning logical addresses to devices
which are either sending or receiving data packets. It is useful to uniquely
identify each devices in a certain network. The data packets sent or received
consists the IP address of both the sender device and the receiver device. It
is useful to confirm that the packets are sent or received by the desired
parties. There are two part in an IP address, a Host ID and Network ID, using
the Host ID it can be confirmed that the packets were sent by the authorized
sender and it has successfully reached the desired receiver.
2. Routing
Routing is the process of identifying the best path to transmit the packets,
Network Layer not only just sends packets from sender to receiver, but also
determines the best route to send them. Numerous routers are used to find
out the best and safest route to transmit the data packets. Various routing
algorithms are used to determine the best path, like link state
routing, Distance Vector Routing, Flooding, Random Walk etc. The header of
each data packet holds the information regarding the path they need to
follow to reach their destination via different routers. Usually there are
multiple routers between the sender and the receiver, so the data packets are
routed by using all these available routers.
3. Host-to-Host delivery
Host-to-Host delivery also known as Forwarding is the process in which the
network layer transmits or forwards the data packets via routers, after
determining the best path/route. In some cases it takes more than one router
to reach the destination, Network Layer takes care of those too, it forwards
packets from each router to the another router until it reaches the destination
securely.
4. Logical Subnetting
Network Layer also allows a bigger network to be divided into smaller chunks
of network known as Logical Subnetting. It helps the IP addresses to be used
more efficiently and less amount of IP address will be wasted. It is also
helpful to manage a larger network more efficiently. Due to smaller networks,
it would be easier to find the device if any troubleshooting is needed.
5. Fragmentation and Reassembly
Each device / node has a maximum capacity to receive data (it may differ from
Node to Node), which is called Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). If the total
size of data packets exceedes that size limit, then those data packets are
fragmented into more smaller packets / fragmented so that they can fit the
MTU. After fragmentation those packets are being send to the receiver, and
at the receiving end all those fragmented packets are rearranged to create
the actual data in order. The fragmentation is taken care by the routers.
6. Error Handling
Network Layer also check for errors and handles them. Network Layer uses
various error detection techniques like Cylic Redundancy Check (CRC) ,
Checksums etc. Apart from just detecting, it also handle those errors using
different approaches like Forward Error Correction (FEC), Hamming
Code, Reed-Solomon Codes etc. It also re-transmit the packets which are
either erroneous or didn’t reach the receiver. It uses the ACK messages to
determine whether a packet has been successfully reached the receiver or
not, if there is a Negative ACK, then it means that there is some error with the
packet, and the receiver will ask the sender to resend that packet.
7. Quality of Service (QoS)
Network layer also keep track of the important data or the particular quality
of data which is needed to be send first. Based on the QoS settings, it
determines and prioritize the important data types which needed to be send
first. It ensures that there is no delay in receiving the important data in any
condition.
8. Network Address Translation (NAT)
Network Layer also takes care of the Network Address Translation (NAT),
means that it converts any private IP address into a public IP address which
is required to communicate between the sender and the receiver.
9. Congestion Control
Just like MTU, if there is an excessive load on the network which it can’t
handle, the network become congested. Due to which the entire process of
sending and receiving data comes to a pause. Congestion can be dealt with
using different algorithms like Leaky Bucket Algorithm and Token Bucket
Algorithm. In case of the leaky bucket algorithm, whatever might be the
speed or amount of data flow into the bucket, the data leaks at a constant
rate, which reduces the congestion in the network. In case of the Token
Bucket Algorithm, tokens are being added into the bucket one by one, until it
has reached the maximum capacity, then one by one according the token
sequence each data packet is transmitted.
10. Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Network Layer encapsulates the data coming from the Transport Layer, and
also adds important header parts to the packets, which consists of the
necessary information like source IP address and destination IP address. After
receiving the data packets on the destination side it decapsulates those and
make them of original size.

Network Devices
Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware,
are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub,
Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to
regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too
weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal but also regenerate it.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at
its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is
a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple
wires coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star
topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not
have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads
to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and
can clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It
serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are
used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes
and power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals
onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to
network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the
hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater,
with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting
two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single
output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations
are completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or
not a bridge is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration
of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two
processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is
performed by the source station and the frame specifies which
route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a
 special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through
the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that
can boost its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and
performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform
error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the
collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
Types of Switch
1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-
play design and do not offer advanced configuration options. They
are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion to a
larger network.
2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration
options such as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are
suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for
centralized management.
3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed
switches but are typically easier to set up and manage. They are
suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of
the OSI model and are responsible for forwarding data between
devices on the same network segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of
the OSI model and can route data between different network
segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are
often used in larger, more complex networks.
6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet
capabilities, which allows them to supply power to network
devices over the same cable that carries data.
7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds,
which are faster than traditional Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be
mounted in a server rack and are suitable for use in data centers or
other large networks.
9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a
desktop or in a small office environment and are typically smaller
in size than rack-mounted switches.
10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which
allows for easy expansion or customization. They are suitable for
large networks and data centers.
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets
based on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device.
Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the
data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two

networks that may work upon different networking models. They work as
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it
to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than
switches or routers. A gateway is also called a protocol converter.
7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines
features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or
a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across
networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area
network traffic.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to
connect the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to
establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a
connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between
the computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which
means that it works on both the physical and data link layers of the network
model.

Logical addressing
A logical address is a virtual address generated by the CPU while a program
is running. It is also known as a virtual address because it doesn't have a
physical presence.

IPv4 and IPv6

The address through which any computer communicates with our computer
is simply called an Internet Protocol Address or IP address. For example, If
we want to load a web page or we want to download something, we require
the address for delivery of that particular file or webpage. That address is
called an IP Address.
Types of IP Addresses
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
IPv4
IPv4 address consists of two things that are the network address and the
host address. It stands for Internet Protocol version four. It was introduced
in 1981 by DARPA and was the first deployed version in 1982 for production
on SATNET and on the ARPANET in January 1983.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that have to be expressed in Decimal
Notation. It is represented by 4 numbers separated by dots in the range of 0-
255, which have to be converted to 0 and 1, to be understood by Computers.
For Example, An IPv4 Address can be written as [Link].
IPv4 Address Format
IPv4 Address Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises binary digits
separated by a dot (.).

IPv4 Address Format

IPv6
IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It was first
introduced in December 1995 by Internet Engineering Task Force. IP version
6 is the new version of Internet Protocol, which is way better than IP version
4 in terms of complexity and efficiency. IPv6 is written as a group of 8
hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:). It can be written as 128 bits of
0s and 1s.
IPv6 Address Format
IPv6 Address Format is a 128-bit IP Address, which is written in a group of 8
hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:).

IPv6 Address Format

Benefits of IPv6
The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4. Here are
some of the mentioned benefits:
• Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than
IPv4, which is required for expanding the IP Connected Devices.
IPv6 has 128 bit IP Address rather and IPv4 has a 32-bit Address.
• Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built
in with it. IPv6 offers security like Data Authentication, Data
Encryption, etc. Here, an Internet Connection is more Secure.
• Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a
simpler and more effective header Structure, which is more cost-
effective and also increases the speed of Internet Connection.
• Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for
QoS features, which helps in increasing traffic over websites and
increases audio and video quality on pages.
• Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and
better support for Mobile Devices. It helps in making quick
connections over other Mobile Devices and in a safer way than
IPv4.
For more, you can refer to, the Advantages of IPv6.
Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit

IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
address length

It Supports Manual and

It supports Auto and renumbering address
DHCP address
configuration
configuration

In IPv4 end to end,

In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is
connection integrity is
Achievable
Unachievable

It can generate
The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can
4.29×109 address
produce 3.4×1038 address space
space

The Security feature is

IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6
dependent on the
protocol
application
 IPv4 IPv6

Address representation Address Representation of IPv6 is in

of IPv4 is in decimal hexadecimal

Fragmentation
In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the
performed by Sender
sender
and forwarding routers

In IPv4 Packet flow

In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available
identification is not
and uses the flow label field in the header
available

In IPv4 checksum field

In IPv6 checksum field is not available
is available

It has a broadcast
In IPv6 multicast and anycast message
Message Transmission
transmission scheme is available
Scheme

In IPv4 Encryption and In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are

Authentication facility provided
not provided

IPv4 has a header of IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

20-60 bytes.

IPv4 can be converted

Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4
to IPv6

IPv4 consists of 4 fields

IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated by
which are separated by
a colon (:)
addresses dot (.)

IPv4’s IP addresses are

divided into five
different classes. Class IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP address.
A , Class B, Class C,
Class D , Class E.
 IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 supports
VLSM(Variable Length IPv6 does not support VLSM.
subnet mask).

Example of Example of IPv6:

IPv4: [Link] 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

Network Address Translation(NAT)

Network Address Translation (NAT) is a service that lets private IP networks
use the internet and cloud. It works by translating private IP addresses in a
local network to a public IP address before sending packets to an external
network.
To access the Internet, one public IP address is needed, but we can use a
private IP address in our private network. The idea of NAT is to allow multiple
devices to access the Internet through a single public address. To achieve
this, the translation of a private IP address to a public IP address is
required. Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or
more local IP address is translated into one or more Global IP address and
vice versa in order to provide Internet access to the local hosts. Also, it does
the translation of port numbers i.e. masks the port number of the host with
another port number, in the packet that will be routed to the destination. It
then makes the corresponding entries of IP address and port number in the
NAT table. NAT generally operates on a router or firewall.
Network Address Translation (NAT) working –
Generally, the border router is configured for NAT i.e the router which has
one interface in the local (inside) network and one interface in the global
(outside) network. When a packet traverse outside the local (inside) network,
then NAT converts that local (private) IP address to a global (public) IP
address. When a packet enters the local network, the global (public) IP
address is converted to a local (private) IP address.
If NAT runs out of addresses, i.e., no address is left in the pool configured
then the packets will be dropped and an Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) host unreachable packet to the destination is sent.
NAT inside and outside addresses –
Inside refers to the addresses which must be translated. Outside refers to
the addresses which are not in control of an organization. These are the
network Addresses in which the translation of the addresses will be done.
 • Inside local address – An IP address that is assigned to a host on
the Inside (local) network. The address is probably not an IP
address assigned by the service provider i.e., these are private IP
addresses. This is the inside host seen from the inside network.

• Inside global address – IP address that represents one or more

inside local IP addresses to the outside world. This is the inside
host as seen from the outside network.

• Outside local address – This is the actual IP address of the

destination host in the local network after translation.

• Outside global address – This is the outside host as seen from the
outside network. It is the IP address of the outside destination host
before translation.

Network Address Translation (NAT) Types –

There are 3 ways to configure NAT:

1. Static NAT – In this, a single unregistered (Private) IP address is

mapped with a legally registered (Public) IP address i.e one-to-one
mapping between local and global addresses. This is generally
used for Web hosting. These are not used in organizations as there
are many devices that will need Internet access and to provide
Internet access, a public IP address is needed.
Suppose, if there are 3000 devices that need access to the
Internet, the organization has to buy 3000 public addresses that
will be very costly.

2. Dynamic NAT – In this type of NAT, an unregistered IP address is

translated into a registered (Public) IP address from a pool of
public IP addresses. If the IP address of the pool is not free, then
the packet will be dropped as only a fixed number of private IP
addresses can be translated to public addresses.
Suppose, if there is a pool of 2 public IP addresses then only 2
private IP addresses can be translated at a given time. If 3rd
private IP address wants to access the Internet then the packet
 will be dropped therefore many private IP addresses are mapped
to a pool of public IP addresses. NAT is used when the number of
users who want to access the Internet is fixed. This is also very
costly as the organization has to buy many global IP addresses to
make a pool.

3. Port Address Translation (PAT) – This is also known as NAT

overload. In this, many local (private) IP addresses can be
translated to a single registered IP address. Port numbers are used
to distinguish the traffic i.e., which traffic belongs to which IP
address. This is most frequently used as it is cost-effective as
thousands of users can be connected to the Internet by using only
one real global (public) IP address.

Advantages of NAT –

• NAT conserves legally registered IP addresses.

• It provides privacy as the device’s IP address, sending and

receiving the traffic, will be hidden.

• Eliminates address renumbering when a network evolves.

Disadvantage of NAT –

• Translation results in switching path delays.

• Certain applications will not function while NAT is enabled.

• Complicates tunneling protocols such as IPsec.

• Also, the router being a network layer device, should not tamper
with port numbers(transport layer) but it has to do so because of
NAT.
Protocols
A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is
transmitted between different devices in the same network.

Types of Internet Protocol

Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses. These are
mentioned below:
1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
 2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)
4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)
6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)
8. TELNET(Terminal Network)
9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3)
10. IPv4
11. IPv6
12. ICMP
13. UDP
14. IMAP
15. SSH
16. Gopher
1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
These are a set of standard rules that allows different types of computers to
communicate with each other. The IP protocol ensures that each computer
that is connected to the Internet is having a specific serial number called the
IP address. TCP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet and how
it should be broken into IP packets. It also makes sure that the packets have
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the
message data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-
assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the specific
destination. The TCP is also known as a connection-oriented protocol.
For more details, please refer TCP/IP Model article.
2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
These protocols are important for sending and distributing outgoing emails.
This protocol uses the header of the mail to get the email id of the receiver
and enters the mail into the queue of outgoing mail. And as soon as it delivers
the mail to the receiving email id, it removes the email from the outgoing list.
The message or the electronic mail may consider the text, video, image, etc.
It helps in setting up some communication server rules.

3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)
It is a communication protocol that is used to create a direct connection
between two communicating devices. This protocol defines the rules using
which two devices will authenticate with each other and exchange
information with each other. For example, A user connects his PC to the
server of an Internet Service Provider and also uses PPP. Similarly, for
connecting two routers for direct communication it uses PPP.

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used for transferring files from one system to the other. This
works on a client-server model. When a machine requests for file transfer
from another machine, the FTO sets up a connection between the two and
authenticates each other using their ID and Password. And, the desired file
transfer takes place between the machines.
5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)
SFTP which is also known as SSH FTP refers to File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
over Secure Shell (SSH) as it encrypts both commands and data while in
transmission. SFTP acts as an extension to SSH and encrypts files and data
then sends them over a secure shell data stream. This protocol is used to
remotely connect to other systems while executing commands from the
command line.
6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over the internet and it is defined
by the www(world wide web) for information transfer. This protocol defines
how the information needs to be formatted and transmitted. And, it also
defines the various actions the web browsers should take in response to the
calls made to access a particular web page. Whenever a user opens their web
browser, the user will indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being
used to share text, images, and other multimedia files on the World Wide
Web.
Note: Hypertext refers to the special format of the text that can contain links
to other texts.
7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)
HTTPS is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used
for secure communication over a computer network with
the SSL/TLS protocol for encryption and authentication. So, generally, a
website has an HTTP protocol but if the website is such that it receives some
sensitive information such as credit card details, debit card details, OTP, etc
then it requires an SSL certificate installed to make the website more secure.
So, before entering any sensitive information on a website, we should check
if the link is HTTPS or not. If it is not HTTPS then it may not be secure enough
to enter sensitive information.
8. TELNET(Terminal Network)
TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual terminal service given
by ISO. This enables one local machine to connect with another. The
computer which is being connected is called a remote computer and which is
connecting is called the local computer. TELNET operation lets us display
anything being performed on the remote computer in the local computer. This
operates on the client/server principle. The local computer uses the telnet
client program whereas the remote computer uses the telnet server program.

9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3)

POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version 3. It has two Message Access
Agents (MAAs) where one is client MAA (Message Access Agent) and
another is server MAA(Message Access Agent) for accessing the messages
from the mailbox. This protocol helps us to retrieve and manage emails from
the mailbox on the receiver mail server to the receiver’s computer. This is
implied between the receiver and the receiver mail server. It can also be
called a one-way client-server protocol. The POP3 WORKS ON THE 2
PORTS I.E. PORT 110 AND PORT 995.
10. IPv4
The fourth and initially widely used version of the Internet Protocol is called
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4). It is the most popular version of the Internet
Protocol and is in charge of distributing data packets throughout the network.
Maximum unique addresses for IPv4 are 4,294,967,296 (232), which are
possible due to the use of 32-bit addresses. The network address and the
host address are the two components of each address. The host address
identifies a particular device within the network, whereas the network
address identifies the network to which the host belongs. In the “dotted
decimal” notation, which is the standard for IPv4 addresses, each octet (8
bits) of the address is represented by its decimal value and separated by a
dot (e.g. [Link]).

11. IPv6
The most recent version of the Internet Protocol, IPv6, was created to address
the IPv4 protocol’s drawbacks. A maximum of 4.3 billion unique addresses
are possible with IPv4’s 32-bit addresses. Contrarily, IPv6 uses 128-bit
addresses, which enable a significantly greater number of unique addresses.
This is significant because IPv4 addresses were running out and there are an
increasing number of devices that require internet access. Additionally, IPv6
offers enhanced security features like integrated authentication and
encryption as well as better support for mobile devices. IPv6 support has
spread among websites and internet service providers, and it is anticipated
to gradually displace IPv4 as the main internet protocol.
For more details, please refer Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 article.
12. ICMP
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a network protocol that is used
to send error messages and operational information about network
conditions. It is an integral part of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite and is used
to help diagnose and troubleshoot issues with network connectivity. ICMP
messages are typically generated by network devices, such as routers, in
response to errors or exceptional conditions encountered in forwarding a
datagram. Some examples of ICMP messages include:
• Echo Request and Echo Reply (ping)
 • Destination Unreachable
• Time Exceeded
• Redirect
ICMP can also be used by network management tools to test the reachability
of a host and measure the round-trip time for packets to travel from the
source to the destination and back. It should be noted that ICMP is not a
secure protocol, it can be used in some types of network attacks
like DDoS amplification.
13. UDP
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless, unreliable transport layer
protocol. Unlike TCP, it does not establish a reliable connection between
devices before transmitting data, and it does not guarantee that data packets
will be received in the order they were sent or that they will be received at
all. Instead, UDP simply sends packets of data to a destination without any
error checking or flow control. UDP is typically used for real-time applications
such as streaming video and audio, online gaming, and VoIP (Voice over
Internet Protocol) where a small amount of lost data is acceptable and low
latency is important. UDP is faster than TCP because it has less overhead. It
doesn’t need to establish a connection, so it can send data packets
immediately. It also doesn’t need to wait for confirmation that the data was
received before sending more, so it can transmit data at a higher rate.
14. IMAP
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is a protocol used for retrieving
emails from a mail server. It allows users to access and manage their emails
on the server, rather than downloading them to a local device. This means
that the user can access their emails from multiple devices and the emails
will be synced across all devices. IMAP is more flexible than POP3 (Post
Office Protocol version 3) as it allows users to access and organize their
emails on the server, and also allows multiple users to access the same
mailbox.
15. SSH
SSH (Secure Shell) is a protocol used for secure remote login and other
secure network services. It provides a secure and encrypted way to remotely
access and manage servers, network devices, and other computer systems.
SSH uses public-key cryptography to authenticate the user and encrypt the
data being transmitted, making it much more secure than traditional remote
login protocols such as Telnet. SSH also allows for secure file transfers using
the SCP (Secure Copy) and SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol) protocols. It
is widely used in Unix-based operating systems and is also available for
Windows. It is commonly used by system administrators, developers, and
other technical users to remotely access and manage servers and other
network devices.
16. Gopher

Gopher is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files

with some description for easy management, retrieving, and searching of
files. All the files are arranged on a remote computer in a stratified manner.
It is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.