STS

ANCIENT GREECE
REVIEWER ANCIENT ROME

1. ORIGINS AND HISTORICAL PERIODS

1. INTRODUCTION Ancient Rome grew from a small village on the Tiber River
Ancient Greece began about 4,000 years ago on the shores of into a vast empire.
the Aegean Sea. Three main periods:
Made major contributions in art, philosophy, democracy, Regal Period – ruled by seven kings, starting with
and military achievements. Romulus.
Expanded across a vast region over a millennium. Republican Period (509 BC) – power held by annually
2. POLITICAL LEGACY elected praetors (consuls), with leaders like Julius Caesar.
Greece was made up of over 1,500 city-states, each acting as Imperial Period – emperors such as Octavian (peace) and
a sovereign nation. Nero (cruelty) shaped Rome’s direction.
City-states sometimes fought against each other but also 2. EXPANSION AND MILITARY POWER
united during external threats.
Rome used military strength to expand.
Athens developed the first large-scale democracy, giving
Conquered the Italian peninsula and the Mediterranean,
representation and political power to its people.
including Greece, Egypt, and Carthage.
3. MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS
Focus on the army was key to territorial dominance.
The Greek military expanded the empire and defended
against invaders like the Persian Empire. 3. ENGINEERING ACHIEVEMENTS
Spartans valued their military strength, producing soldiers Built aqueducts that improved public health.
regarded as heroes. Developed a 50,000-mile road system, boosting movement,
Inspired cultural traditions such as literary works and the communication, and trade.
Olympics. Infrastructure reinforced Rome’s power and unity.
4. CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS 4. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Greek art and architecture (sculptures, columns) became Adopted Latin language from Latium and
iconic and were imitated worldwide. religion/gladiatorial combat from Etruria.
Their religion featured anthropomorphic deities (gods in Strong Greek influence in art, philosophy, and architecture.
human form). Iconic structures: Pantheon and Colosseum.
Philosophy shaped ways of thinking and influenced other Christianity rose as a major religion, supported by Emperor
cultures. Constantine I.
The Greek language, with 3,400 years of history, greatly 5. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
impacted modern languages, including English.
5. LEGACY Caused by political corruption, economic crises, and
invasions.
Ancient Greece left a powerful legacy of artistry, heroism,
Decline came after over a millennium of rule.
and democratic rule.
Its cultural, political, and military achievements shaped 6. LEGACY OF ROME
world history. Known for ability to integrate diverse cultures,
Greece remains recognized as a legendary civilization. dominate rivals, and adapt politically.
Left enduring lessons in governance, engineering,
WATERMILL
and culture that remain influential today.
Used for agricultural processes like milling of grains, for NEWSPAPER
mass production of rice, flour and cereals. First newspaper was known as Gazettes, it contained
announcements of the Roman Empire to the people
BOUND BOOKS (CODEX)
According to sources, Julius Caesar started the tradition
of stacking papyrus to form pages of a book.
With the papyrus pages bound together and covered by
animal skin, the Ancient Roman was able to produce
the first book.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
It is one of the most visual contributions of the ancient
Roman Empire to the world.
ROMAN NUMERALS
Romans devised their own number system specifically to
address the need for a standard counting method that
would meet their increasing communication and trade
concerns.
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ANCIENT EGYPT REVIEWER
1. INTRODUCTION & ORIGINS
HIEROGLYPHICS
Ancient Egypt lasted for over 3,000 years, one of the most System of writing using symbols.
powerful civilizations in history. COSMETICS
Empire stretched from modern-day Syria to Sudan. Used for health and aesthetic reasons.
Originally a collection of city-states along the Nile River, They believed that a person wearing make-up was
divided into Upper and Lower Egypt. protected from evil and that beauty was a sign of
Around 3100 BC, Egypt was united and lasted for millennia. holiness
Civilization divided into three major periods: Old Kingdom, WIG
Worn for health and wellness.
Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom.
2. PHARAOHS The wig were used to protect the shaved heads of the
About 300 rulers, called pharaohs (meaning “great wealthy Egyptian from the harmful rays of the sun.
house”), guided Egypt. MACHU PICHU
Pharaohs were seen as divine protectors and liaisons between
1. INTRODUCTION
people and the gods.
Machu Picchu is a fascinating archaeological site located in
They were not always men, nor exclusively Egyptian.
Peru.
3. TOMBS & BURIAL PRACTICES It reflects the power and ingenuity of the Inca civilization.
Egyptians believed rulers became gods after death. 2. INCA CIVILIZATION
Built elaborate tombs: Great Pyramids of Giza and Valley of
The Inca Empire stretched along South America’s Pacific
the Kings.
Coastline, about 2,500 miles from Ecuador to Chile (nearly
Tombs filled with items for the afterlife.
Mummification preserved bodies for reanimation → reflects
the width of the U.S.).
3. Construction Techniques
religion and innovation.
4. MATHEMATICS & ENGINEERING 3. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Used mathematics to design large structures with precision. Built in the mid-15th century.
Created the cubit measurement system and a 365-day Constructed without mortar, using precisely cut stones that
calendar. fit tightly together.
Applied math to agriculture, building dams, canals, and Structures could withstand earthquakes by shifting and
irrigation systems. resettling into place.
5. WRITTEN LANGUAGE & COMMUNICATION 4. PURPOSE AND MYSTERY
Around 3150 BC, Egyptians developed hieroglyphics (700+ The purpose remains unknown due to lack of written
pictorial characters). records.
Later developed hieratic script, a cursive writing system. Theories: ceremonial site, military stronghold, or retreat for
Both were written on papyrus, made from the papyrus plant. nobility.
6. LEGACY & DECLINE Some structures align with astronomical events.
Papyrus improved communication, record-keeping, and 5. DISCOVERY
administration. Known locally, but unknown to the outside world until the
Despite falling to Persian and Roman invasions, Ancient 20th century.
Egypt left lasting contributions in language, mathematics, A local farmer introduced it to an American professor,
architecture, and culture. sparking international recognition.
PAPYRUS , and artistic terms have Greek roots.
was a plant that grows abundantly in along the Nile River
6. RECOGNITION AND LEGACY
in Egypt.
Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.
Processed the plant in order to make a thin sheets on
Today, it is recognized globally as a historical wonder and
which one could write.
attracts visitors worldwide.
It is lighter and thinner than clay tablet, easy to carry and
store.
INK
Combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks
of different colors it must withstand the elements of
nature since it was used to record history, culture and
law.
CLYPSEDRA (WATER CLOCK)

This device utilizes gravity that affects the flow of water

from one vessel to the other.
The water clock was widely used as a timekeeping
device during the ancient time.
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REVIEWER ANCIENT MAYA
ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

1. INTRODUCTION & ORIGINS 1. INTRODUCTION & ORIGINS

Mesopotamia is called the “cradle of civilization”, more The Maya civilization is one of the most advanced ancient
significant in early history than Egypt, Greece, or Rome. civilizations in the Americas.
Located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in present- Began around 1800 BC in present-day Mexico and Central
day Iraq, Kuwait, and Syria. America.
Its fertile land made it ideal for agriculture. 2. CLASSIC PERIOD & ACHIEVEMENTS
2. EARLY DEVELOPMENT
About 6,000 years ago, agricultural settlements grew into the During the Classic Period (250–900 AD), over 40 cities
world’s first cities. flourished with populations up to 50,000.
Between 4,000–3,100 BC, these cities became competing city- Built stone urban centers, including pyramid temples for
states. religious rituals.
Later unified under the Akkadian Empire, then split into the Agriculture was central, especially corn (maize), which had
Assyrian and Babylonian empires. both economic and religious significance.
Despite frequent warfare, Mesopotamia thrived in Made major contributions in mathematics and astronomy.
innovation and development. Developed Mesoamerica’s only writing system: hieroglyphs.
Knowledge about the Maya comes from deciphering these
3. INNOVATIONS & ACHIEVEMENTS
inscriptions on monuments and sites.
Built monumental structures: palaces and ziggurats (religious
Conflict among city-states was common.
temples).
Example: Tikal (a dominant city-state) was later overtaken
Developed advanced mathematics, including the base-60
by a rival kingdom.
system.
3. DECLINE
Babylonians:
Around 900 AD, most Maya cities collapsed.
Mapped the sky, creating the zodiac and dividing the year
Theories: warfare, volcanic eruptions, drought (debate
into 12 months.
continues as evidence emerges).
Divided the week into 7 days, each linked to a god.
Created cuneiform writing (3,200 BC), evolving from 4. LEGACY
pictographs.
Despite the fall of their cities, there are still over 7 million
Used for laws (Code of Hammurabi), trade, and
Maya people today.
communication.
They preserve traditional agricultural and ceremonial
4. DECLINE practices while also participating in modern society.
Babylon fell to Persian King Cyrus in 539 BC.
Over centuries, Mesopotamia became part of foreign
empires.
Eventually faded from prominence, its cities buried under
desert sands.
5. LEGACY
Contributions to literacy, law, math, astronomy, and
governance shaped later civilizations.
Remembered as the birthplace of writing, law, and organized
society.
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REVIEWER
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION THAT
DEFINE SOCIETY
INFLUENCES TO SCIENCE: REVOLUTION SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Science ideas The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in
Human the early 16th century up to the 18th century in Europe.
Society Scientific Revolution was the period of enlightenment when
the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics,
Variables that influence the development of science ideas,
astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed the views of
science discoveries and technology
society about nature.
CAUSES OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
The voyages of discovery and colonization
Ancient & Medieval workS translated into Latin, then
vernacular languages
New inventions & institutions that promoted sharing of
knowledge

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (14731543)

REVOLUTIONARY ASTRONOMER
SOME INTELLECTUALS AND THEIR
A Polish mathematician and astronomer.
REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS
developed his model of a Sun-centered universe.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL MEDIEVAL VIEW explained the daily and yearly motion of the sun and stars in
the universe Earth is no different than any other planet
ARISTOTLE & PTOLEMY FROM GREECE SUPPORTED
THE HELIOCENTRISM
Heliocentric Model
GEOCENTRIC THEORY:
The center of the solar system is not the Earth but actually
Earth was an unmoving object located at the center of the
the sun
universe the sun and planets moved around the Earth
Started the birth of modern astronomy/scientific revolution/
Religion guided views too: Christianity taught that God had
transformation of society's thoughts and beliefs
placed Earth at the center of the universe.
GEOCENTRISM JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)
The geocentric model says that the earth is at the center of Uses experiments & observations
the cosmos or universe and the planets, the sun and the Planetary movement is a mathematical formula
moon, and the stars circles around it. Planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits NOT circles
ARISTOTLE (384 BC-322 BC) GREEK Confirms Copernicus ideas
PHILOSOPHER Kepler's solar system from his Mysterium
Developed geocentric model. Cosmographicum, 1596
He is sometimes called the grandfather of science.
He studied under the great philosopher Plato and later GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)
started his own school, the Lyceum at Athens. Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician
He, too, believed in a geocentric Universe and that the who made fundamental contributions to the sciences of
planets and stars were perfect spheres though Earth itself motion, astronomy, and strength of materials and to the
was not development of the scientific method.
CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY (85AD-165AD) GREEK GALILEO-designs 1ª telescope with lens & sees movement
of stars & moons (similar to the movement of the planets)
ASTRONOMER, MATHEMATICIAN &
Gathered observational data that supported the Heliocentric
GEOGRAPHER
Model
Expanded Aristotle's geocentric theory. Galileo sparked the birth of modern astronomy with his
Ptolemy was an astronomer and mathematician. observations of the Moon, phases of Venus, moons around
He believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe. Jupiter, sunspots, and the news that seemingly countless
The word for earth in Greek is geo, so we call this idea a individual stars make up the Milky Way Galaxy.
"geocentric theory.
Introduced trigonometry methods.
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REVIEWER
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION THAT
DEFINE SOCIETY
ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727) HALCYON CLASSICS ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
every Universal law of motion object in universe attracts Populations pass through a process of natural selection in
every other object which only the fittest would survive.
First Law body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in A Organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment
motion will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by an and would gradually changed into something that would be
external force." more competitive to survive - evolution
Second Law-"The force acting on an object is equal to the THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
mass of that object times its acceleration."
Third Law-"For every action, there is an equal and opposite FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
reaction." SIGMUND FREUD
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) -
was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for
Explained gravity (what goes up must come down)
treating mental illness and also a theory which explains
Universe is a giant clock- all parts work Together but God
human behavior.
set clock in motion.
FREUD THEORY
ANDREAS VESALIUS (1514-1564)
emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on
First to dissect human bodies (even though a disapproved behavior.
practice) Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three
Wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) conflicting elements: the id, the ego, and the superego
His published observations included detailed drawings of
human orga Conscious mind (present awareness)
Preconscious mind (outside awareness but accessible)
WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657)
Unconscious mind (not accessible)
Published On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Ego (executive mediator)
Animals_(1628) Superego (internalized ideals)
Showed heart acted as a pump to circulate blood throughout Id (unconsc scious psychic ene argy)
body
JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)
FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626) Uses experiments & observations
Planetary movement is a mathematical formula
English politician & writer with an interest in science.
Planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits NOT circles
Criticized ancient philosophers on how they arrived at
Confirms Copernicus ideas
conclusions.
Kepler's solar system from his Mysterium
Urged scientists to experiment in order to arrive at
Cosmographicum, 1596
conclusions
Developed Scientific Method GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)
Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD who made fundamental contributions to the sciences of
Observation Ask a question motion, astronomy, and strength of materials and to the
Research Do background research development of the scientific method.
Hypothesis Construct a hypothesis GALILEO-designs 1ª telescope with lens & sees movement
Experiment Test your hypothesis by doing an of stars & moons (similar to the movement of the planets)
Analysis experiment Gathered observational data that supported the Heliocentric
Conclusion Analyze your data and draw a conclusion Model
Report your results (Was your hypothesis Galileo sparked the birth of modern astronomy with his
correct?) observations of the Moon, phases of Venus, moons around
Jupiter, sunspots, and the news that seemingly countless
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION individual stars make up the Milky Way Galaxy.
CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882)
An English naturalist, biologist and geologist
All life is related and has descended from a common ancestor
the birds and the banaras, the fishes and the flowers all
related
Published his book. On the Ongin of Species
Complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors
naturally over time
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REVIEWER
PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH
PERSONALITY
Ego-develops out of the id in infancy
An individual's unique and relatively consistent patterns of - understands reallity and logic
thinking, feeling, and behaving - mediator between id and superego
Superego - the moral principle
PERSONALITY THEORY - internalization of society's & parental moral standards
Attempt to describe and explain how people are similar, how - One's conscience focuses on what the person "should do -
they are different, and why every individual is unique - Develops around ages 5-6. Partially unconscious
PERSONALITY PERSPECTIVES - Can be harshly punitive using feelings of guilt
Psychoanalytic - importance of unconscious processes and
childhood experiences
ID: THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE
Humanistic - importance of self and fulfillment of potential
Social cognitive - importance of beliefs about self Pleasure principle-drive toward immediate gratification most
Trait - description and measurement of personality fundamental human motive
differences Sources of energy:
Eros-life instinct, perpetuates life
SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)
Thanatos-death instinct, aggression, self-destructive actions
Founder of psychoanalysis Libido sexual energy or motivation
Proposed the first complete theory of personality
A person's thoughts and behaviors emerge from tension THE PERSONALITY
generated by unconscious motives and unresolved childhood ID: "I WANT"
conflicts SUPEREGO: "I SHOULD"
METHODS OF STUDYING THE UNCONSCIOUSNESS EGO: "I WILL"
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: FREUD'S
FREE ASSOCIATION PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
Freudian technique of exploring the unconscious mind by PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
having the pers on relax and say whatever comes to mind no In Freudian theory, the childhood stages of development
matter how trivial or embarrassing during which the id's pleasure seeking energies are focused
PROJECTIVE TESTS on different parts of the body
Tests where a patient is asked to say whatever comes to mind The stages include: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
as they view an ambiguous picture or inkblot. A person can become "fixated" or stuck at a stage and as an
DREAMS & SLIPS OF THE TONGUE adult attempt to achieve pleasure as in ways that are
equivalent t o how it was achieved in these stages
Freud said dreams were the "Road to the Unconsciousness"
You let down your guard when sleeping and unconscious ORAL STAGE (BIRTH - 1 YEAR)
wishes and desires come forth. Mouth is associated with sexual pleasure Pleasure comes from
Slips of the Tongue - accidentally say something. chewing, biting, and sucking. Weaning a child can lead to
Example: "One, two, three, four, five, SEX, I mean six!" These are fixation if not handled correctly Fixation can lead to oral
the wishes and desires of your unconscious ID activities in adulthood

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: ORAL FIXATION

The oral stage tends to occur between birth and around 18
FREUD'S VIEW OF THE MIND
months old, during which time the oral (feeding) needs of t
PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH
he child are either met, overstimulated, or unmet.
Conscious - all things we are aware of at any given moment
For example, Freud might suggest that if a child has issues
Preconscious - everything that can, with a little effort, be
during the weaning process, they might develop an oral
brought into consciousness
fixation.
Unconscious - inaccessible warehouse of anxiety-producing
Freud may also suggest that nail-biting, smoking, gum-che
thoughts and drives
wing, and excessive drinking are signs of an oral fixation.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE: THE ID, EGO, This would indicate that the individual did not resolve the p
AND SUPEREGO rimary conflicts during the earliest stage of psychosexual
PSYCHOANALYTIC DIVISIONS OF THE MIND development, the oral stage.
Id - instinctual drives present at birth Manifestations Obsession with food or drink
- does not distinguish between reality and fantasy Overeating Talkativeness
- operates according to the pleasure principle Smoking Gullibility
Nail-biting Dependence on others
Substance abuse
Anal Stage (1 - 3 years)
Genital Stage (puberty on)
Gratification comes from bowel and bladders functions.
Incestuous sexual feelings re-emerge but being prohibited by the
Anal Fixations
superego are redirected toward others who resemble the person's
Anal-retentive individuals: This group may have experienced
opposite sex parent.
overly strict and harsh potty training as children and may grow
to be overly obsessed with orderlines s and tidiness.
Healthy adults find pleasure in love and work, fixated adults have
Anal-expulsive individuals: On the other hand, anal-expulsive
their energy tied up in earlier stages
individuals may have experienced very relax potty training,
resulting in them being very messy and dis organized as adults.
Genital fixation
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Inability to form intimate relationships
Hoarding Messiness Fear of sex Sexual dysfunction
Perfectionism Disorganization Promiscuity Fixation on a particular sexual behavior or
Stinginess Difficulty making decisionsanized as adults. fetish
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
PHALLIC STAGE (3-5 YEARS)
UNCONSCIOUS SELF-DECEPTIONS
Focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals Sexual attraction for DEFENSE MECHANISMS
opposite sex parent
Unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to
Boys cope with incestuous feelings toward their mother and
reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
rival feelings toward their dad (Oedipus complex).
For girls it is called the Electra Complex.
Child identifies with and tries to mimic the same sex parent to REPRESSION
learn gender identity. Puts anxiety-producing thoughts, feelings, and memories
OEDIPUS COMPLEX into the unconscious mind The basis for all other defense
mechanisms
Boys feel hostility and jealousy towards their fathers but knows
th eir father is more powerful. This leads to... DENIAL
Castration Anxiety results in boys who feel their father will Lets an anxious person refuse to admit that something
punish them by castrating them. unpleasant is happening
Resolve this through Identification imitating and internalizing REGRESSION
one's father's values, attitudes and mannerisms. Allows an anxious person to retreat to a more comfort able,
The fact that only the father can have sexual relations with the infantile stage of life
mother becomes internalized in the boy as taboo against incest
in the boy's superego. REACTION FORMATION
ELECTRA COMPLEX Replacing an unacceptable wish with its opposite
Girls also have incestuous feelings for their dad and compete
PROJECTION
with their mother,
Penis Envy Little girl suffer from deprivation and loss and Reducing anxiety by attributing unacceptable impulses or
blames her mother for "sending her into the world problems about yourself to someone else
insufficiently equipped" causing her to resent her mother RATIONALIZATION
In an attempt to take her mother's place she eventually Displaces real, anxiety-provoking explanatio.... more
Identifies with her mother comforting justifications for one's actions Reasoning away
Fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in males and the anxiety-producing thoughts
need for attention or domination in females DISPLACEMENT
Shifts an unacceptable impulse toward a more acceptable or
Latency Stage (5 - puberty) less threatening object or person
Sexuality is repressed due to intense anxiety caused by Oedipus SUBLIMATION
complex A form of displacement in which sexual urges are
channeled into nonsexual activities that are valued by
Children participate in hobbies, school, and same-sex friendships society
that strengthen their sexual identity
UNDOING
Latency fixation Unconsciously neutralizing an anxiety ca using action by
Difficulty forming social relationships doing a second action th at undoes the first.
Difficulty concentrating in school
Lack of interest in activities that are appropriate for age
Regression to childhood behaviors