MODULE 2: Minerals

Learning Outcomes: At the end, students will be able to:

• know what a mineral is, its properties, classifications and
identification.
 MINERALS
• Minerals are naturally occurring homogeneous inorganic solids with a
definite chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic arrangement.
• characteristic definition all minerals share : i) Naturally occurring ii)
Inorganic Solid iii) Crystal structure iv) Definite chemical composition

• Minerals are of inorganic label—meaning

that they do not possess carbon-hydrogen
bonds, which are characteristic of living
tissues .
• Note: A mineraloid is a substance that
satisfies some, but not all of the parts of the
definition. For example, opal, does not have
Quartz
a characteristic crystalline structure, so it is
considered a mineraloid.
Occurrence and Formation:
• Minerals form in all geologic environments and under a wide range of
chemical and physical conditions, such as varying temperature and
pressure.
• 4 ways by which minerals can form :
(1) can coalesce and crystallize in cooling magmas (eg igneous, or
magmatic minerals)
(2) solidify when bits and pieces of sedimentary rock come together under
conditions of increasing pressure (sedimentary rock minerals)
(3) arise from older minerals that undergo metamorphoses (metamorphic
minerals
(4) precipitate from the action of magma mixing with seawater and
groundwater (hydrothermal, in which minerals are chemically precipitated
from hot solutions within the Earth).
Properties of Minerals
• Every mineral has its own unique make-up, so can be identified by the
following physical properties in thin sections, classified into 3 categories
 Optical Properties

• LUSTER.
This describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its
surface. It has 2 basic categories: (i) Metallic and (ii) nonmetallic lusters.
Other nonmetallic descriptions are: vitreous or glassy, dull or earthy luster
(a dull appearance like soil), pearly luster (such as a pearl), silky luster
(like satin cloth), greasy/waxy luster (like coated in oil).
Some examples are: metallic (galena, pyrite) pearly (talc), waxy/greassy
(jasper), dull (kaolinite), vitreous (muscovite, vitreous).
• THE ABILITY TO TRANSMIT LIGHT
When no light is transmitted, the mineral is described as opaque.
When light, but not an image, is transmitted through, it is translucent.
When both light and an image are visible through the sample, the mineral is
described as transparent.
• COLOR
Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic
property of a few mineral, eg olivine and
epidote are almost always green in color.
But, for some minerals it is not at all
diagnostic because these minerals can take
on a variety of colors (allochromatic). Slight
impurities in the common mineral quartz, give
it a variety of tints including pink, purple,
yellow, white, gray, and even black.
Therefore, the use of color as a means of
identification is often ambiguous or even
misleading
• STREAK
The color of the mineral in
powdered form. Obtained by
rubbing it across a streak plate (a
piece of unglazed porcelain).
Although the color of a mineral
may vary from sample to sample,
its streak is usually consistent in
color. Metallic minerals generally
have a dense, dark streak,
whereas minerals with nonmetallic
luster typically have a light colored
streak.
 Crystalline Properties
• Crystal shape/habit
Refers to the characteristic shape of a crystal or aggregate of crystals. A few
minerals exhibit regular polygons that are helpful in their identification.
Eg magnetite crystals sometimes occur as octahedrons, garnets often form
dodecahedrons. Halite and fluorite crystals grow as cubes or near cubes.
While most minerals have only one common habit, a few have two or more
characteristic crystal shapes such as the pyrite. Basic crystal systems are:
 Strength Properties

• TENACITY
This describes a mineral’s toughness, or its resistance to breaking or
deforming. Minerals that are ionically bonded, such as fluorite and halite,
tend to be brittle and shatter into small pieces when struck. Minerals with
metallic bonds, such as native copper, are malleable, or easily hammered
into different shapes. Minerals, including gypsum and talc, that can be cut
into thin flakes are described as sectile. Tenacity can expressed as:
 Brittle - Breaks or powders easily.
 Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets.
 Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.
 Ductile – stretches easily and does not return to its original shape.
 Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape.
 Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape.
• HARDNESS
Is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching.
It is determined by rubbing a mineral of unknown hardness against one of
known hardness, or vice versa.
All minerals are compared to a standard scale called the Mohs scale of
hardness, which consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 1 (softest) to
10 (hardest).
In the laboratory, other common objects eg human fingernail, (2.5), a copper
penny (3.5), and a piece of glass (5.5) can be used to determine the
hardness of a mineral.
The mineral gypsum, which has a hardness of 2, can be easily scratched
with a fingernail. The mineral calcite, of hardness 3, will scratch a fingernail
but will not scratch glass.
Diamonds, hardest of all, scratch anything, including other diamonds.
• Cleavage
The ability of a mineral to consistently break along some parallel or flat
surfaces of weak bonding. Some minerals have excellent cleavage in one,
two, or more directions, whereas others exhibit fair or poor cleavage, and
still others have no cleavage at all. When minerals break evenly in more
than one direction, cleavage is described by the number of cleavage
directions and the angle(s) at which they meet. Cleavage quality is
described as perfect, good, or poor. Minerals with a perfect or excellent
cleavage break easily along flat surfaces and are easy to spot. Minerals
with good cleavages do not have such well-defined cleavage planes and
reflect less light. Poor cleavages are the toughest to recognize, but can be
spotted by small flashes of light in certain positions.
Types of cleavages:
•Basal cleavage: exhibited on a
horizontal plane of the mineral by way
of its base. The minerals can sometimes
be "peeled". Eg: the mica minerals.
•Cubic cleavage: exhibited on minerals
of the cubic isometric crystals. In this
case, small cubes evenly break off of an
existing cube. Eg Galena.
• Octahedral cleavage: exhibited on
minerals of the octahedron isometric
crystals. In this case, flat, triangular
"wedges" peel off an existing
octahedron. Eg Fluorite.
•Prismatic cleavage: exhibited on
some prismatic minerals in which a
crystal cleaves as thin, vertical,
prismatic crystals off of the original
prism. Eg: Feldspar
•Rhombohedral cleavage: exhibited on
minerals crystallizing in the
hexagonal/trigonal crystal system as
rhombohedrons, in which small
rhombohedrons break off of the
existing rhombohedron. Eg Calcite.
• FRACTURE.
The property of a mineral to break along random, irregular surfaces.
Minerals having chemical bonds that are equally/nearly equally strong in all
directions exhibit this property. When minerals fracture, most produce
uneven surfaces and are described as exhibiting irregular fracture.
However, some minerals, such as quartz, break into smooth, curved
surfaces resembling broken glass. Such breaks are called conchoidal
fractures. Still other minerals exhibit fractures that produce splinters or
fibers that are referred to as splintery and fibrous fracture, respectively.
•Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved surfaces.
•Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood breaks.
•Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges.
•Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces.
• Density and Specific Gravity
Density: a property of matter, is defined as mass per unit volume.
Mineralogists often use a related measure called specific gravity to describe
the density of minerals.
Specific gravity: is a number representing the ratio of a mineral’s weight to
the weight of an equal volume of water.
Most common rock-forming minerals have a specific gravity of between 2
and 3. Eg, quartz (2.65).
By contrast, some metallic minerals such as pyrite, native copper, and
magnetite have more than twice the specific gravity as quartz.
Eg: Galena, an ore of lead, has 7.5, whereas 24-karat gold is approximately
20.
• Other properties of Minerals
Magnetism: is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel
other magnetic materials.
Diamagnetic minerals- minerals not attracted by a magnet.
Paramagnetic minerals - minerals attracted by a magnet. Magnetite
(Fe3O4) – strongly magnetic. Ilmenite (FeTiO3) – can be weakly magnetic.

Effervescence: Ability to effervesce (bubble)

when dilute hydrochloric acid is applied to the
surface. Characteristic of those minerals
containing the carbonate anion
CaCO3 + 2HCl ‡ Ca2+ + H2O + 2Cl- + CO2
(gas). The amount depends upon how soluble
the mineral is (calcite vs. dolomite)
Taste: Applied to those minerals which are soluble. Note, for some minerals
contain arsenic, lead, and other toxic elements.
•Acid or sour: sulfuric acid, indicates the presence of sulfur
•Alkaline: potash
•Astringent: (puckering) Alum
•Bitter: Epsom or bitter salts
•Cooling: saltpeter (NaNO3)
•Metallic: decomposed FeS2, brassy taste
•Saline: Salty, NaCl
Double Refraction: When a transparent
piece of calcite is placed over printed
text, the letters appear twice. This special
optical property is known as double
refraction
Fluorescence: Ability to emit visible light when activated by invisible
ultraviolet light (UV), X-rays and/or electron beams. Eg Gypsum
Phosphorescence : is the ability of a mineral to glow after the initial
activating ultraviolet light is removed. Eg Fluorite
Thermoluminescence: Ability to glow when they are heated. Eg Calcite
Triboluminescence: Ability to glow when crushed, struck, scratched or
even rubbed in some cases. Eg Calcite and Fluorite

Striations: Plagioclase feldspar can

be positively identified and
distinguished from potassium feldspar
by the presence of very thin, parallel
grooves (striations). Present on only
one of the two sets of cleavages and
best seen with a hand lens.
Mineral Identification
Earth is made of rocks, and rocks of minerals. Some mineral samples may
also be considered as rocks if they are aggregates of crystals of the mineral
rather than single crystals. Minerals are identified as follows: i) rock forming
minerals, ii) minor and accessory minerals and iii) ore minerals
• Rock forming minerals: most abundant minerals found in rocks at
the Earth's surface.
• Minor and Accessory minerals: Minor minerals may be important
constituents of certain rocks, but they are not common in most
rocks, while the accessory minerals are commonly present in rocks,
but generally in only small amounts.
• Ore minerals: Have economic value when concentrated and are
mined for the elements they contain.
Elements and Chemical Composition
Periodic Table of the Elements
Composition of Elements

• Atomic structure
• Central region called the nucleus
– Consists of protons (positive charges) and
neutrons (neutral charges)
• Electrons
– Negatively charged particles that surround the
nucleus
– Located in discrete energy levels called shells
Idealized structure of an atom
Bonding between atoms/elements

• Chemical bonding

• Formation of a compound by combining two or more elements

• Ionic bonding

• Atoms gain or lose outermost (valence) electrons to form ions

• Ionic compounds consist of an orderly arrangement of

oppositely charged ions

Halite (NaCl)- Eg of
Ionic Bonding
• Covalent bonding

• Atoms share electrons to achieve electrical neutrality

• Covalent compounds are generally stronger than ionic bonds

• Both ionic and covalent bonds typically occur in the same compound
(bonds are seldom 100% ionic or covalent in character)

Covalent bonding
– sharing of
valence electrons
 • Metallic bonding
– Valence electrons are free to migrate among atoms
– Weaker and less common than ionic or covalent bonds

Classification of Minerals on Chemical Composition

They are divided into classes according to their dominant anion or anionic group
(e.g., halides, oxides, and sulfides).
The different groups are: i) native elements (ii) sulfides (iii) sulfosalts (iv) oxides
and hydroxides (v) halides (vi) carbonates (vii) nitrates (viii) borates (ix) sulphates
(x) phosphates (xi) silicates
• Native Elements A native element is a chemical element that may occur
in nature uncombined with other elements. The group of native elements
does not include those that occur as atmospheric gasses. Of the 92
chemical elements found in nature only 19 are known to occur as
minerals. These native elements are commonly divided into three
groups—namely, metals (platinum, iridium, osmium, iron, zinc, tin, gold,
silver, copper, mercury, lead, chromium); semimetals (bismuth,
antimony, arsenic, tellurium, selenium); and nonmetals (sulfur, carbon)..
• Sulfides This important class includes most of the ore minerals. The
similar but rarer sulfarsenides are grouped here as well. Sulfide
minerals consist of one or more metals combined with sulfur;
sulfarsenides contain arsenic replacing some of the sulfur. Sulfides are
generally opaque and exhibit distinguishing colours and streaks. The
non-opaque varieties (e.g., cinnabar, realgar, and orpiment) possess
high refractive indices, transmitting light only on the thin edges of a
specimen. Ionic and covalent bonding are found in many sulfides, while
metallic bonding is apparent in others as evidenced by their metal
properties.
• Sulfosalts The sulfosalts differ notably from the sulfides and
sulfarsenides with regard to the role of semimetals, such as arsenic
(As) and antimony (Sb), in their structures. In the sulfarsenides, the
semimetals substitute for some of the sulfur in the structure, while in the
sulfosalts they are found instead in the metal site. For example, in the
sulfarsenide arsenopyrite (FeAsS), the arsenic replaces sulfur in a
marcasite- (FeS2-) type structure.
• Halides: Members of this class are distinguished by the large-sized
anions of the halogens chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine. Pure
ionic bonding is exemplified best in the isometric halides, for each
spherical ion distributes its weak electrostatic charge over its entire
surface. These halides manifest relatively low hardness and moderate-
to-high melting points. In the solid state they are poor thermal and
electric conductors, but when molten they conduct electricity well.
• Carbonates: They contain the anionic complex (CO3)2-, which is
triangular in its coordination—i.e., with a carbon atom at the centre and
an oxygen atom at each of the corners of an equilateral triangle. These
anionic groups are strongly bonded, individual units and do not share
oxygen atoms with one another. Carbonates are frequently identified
using the effervescence test with acid.
• Nitrates: The nitrates are characterized by their triangular (NO3)-
groups that resemble the (CO3)2- groups of the carbonates, making the
two mineral classes similar in structure.
• Borates: These contain boron-oxygen groups that can link together, in
a phenomenon known as polymerization, to form chains, sheets, and
isolated multiple groups.
• Sulfates: This class is composed of a large number of minerals, but
relatively few are common. The most frequently occurring sulfates
are anhydrite, gypsum, and members of the barite group (barite,
celestite, and anglesite). All contain anionic (SO4)2- groups in their
structures
• Phosphates: Although this mineral class is large (with almost 700
known species), most of its members are quite rare. The members
of this group are characterized by tetrahedral anionic (PO4)2-
complexes, which are analogous to the (SO4)2- groups of the
sulfates.
• Silicates : The silicates, owing to their abundance on the Earth,
constitute the most important mineral class. Approximately 25 percent
of all known minerals and 40 percent of the most common ones are
silicates; the igneous rocks that make up more than 90 percent of the
Earth’s crust are composed of virtually all silicates. The terrestrial
crust is held together by the strong silicon-oxygen bonds of these
tetrahedrons. Approximately 50 percent ionic and 50 percent
covalent, the bonds develop from the attraction of oppositely charged
ions as well as the sharing of their electrons.