Chapter 1: CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS

1.1. Introduction.

Crop plants classification is important as they play a major role in the life of human beings as a
source of food, feed, and medicine. It is important to positively identify a particular crop so as to
manage the crop correctly during production and also to put it to its correct use. In this chapter, we
will discuss the universal botanical classification and classification of crop plants according to use.

1.2. Objectives.

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• State the importance of classifying plants

• Classify any given crop according to its botany.

• Classify crops according to use.

1.3. The importance of classifying plants

• To have universal way of naming plants.

• To identify plants that are closely related so that rotations can be wisely planned to avoid
pests and diseases carryover, and to improve soil fertility.

• To effectively plan the use of herbicides in weed management.

• To associate each plant with the correct usage.

• To effectively manage the environment by protecting soil erosion through growing

favourable crops in erosion prone areas.

1.4. Botanical classification of crop plants.

Plants are classified according to seven categories in a hieracheal manner: kingdom, division, class,
order, family, genus and species. In crop production, it is common to use the family, genus and
species. Members of the same family usually have distinct features for example the gramineae lack
the typical calyx and have three functional stamens and one functional pistil. Members of the
legume family are characterised by complete and perfect flowers with five petals and ten stamens.
The species are capable of inter breeding to produce hybrids. Vegetative traits used to identify
species include leaf shape, and presence or absence of hairs on leaves or stem.

Crop plant families

• Gramineae (poaceae):It is the most important since it constitute the staple crops of
mankind. The family is made up of grain crops which are grasses. Examples of crops found in
 the family include maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, rye, oats and millets. Other important crops
include sugarcane and pasture grasses. The family is characterised by the presence of one
cotyledon in the embryo and the leaves are usually parallel-veined with entire margins.

• Leguminosae : These plants bear pods and most of them are noted for their ability to fix
nitrogen into the soil. They are also characterised by the presence of two cotyledons in their
embryos and the leaves are net-veined and may be stalked. Their grains are rich in proteins
with a range of 16.2 t0 47.5% and oils up to 25%. These include groundnuts, soyabeans,
peas, cowpeas, and the common bean. Important fodder crops include: sunhemp, lurcene
and velvet bean.

• Malvaceae : The plant is easily recognized by the form of the flowers which are subtended
by three large bracteoles and the cup shaped calyx with five large petals. The compound
leaves are dissected between the veins. Hairs are prominent on the stems. The economic
importance of this family lies with cultivated species which provide fibre for example cotton,
and which can be used as vegetable for example okra.

• Solanaceae : Most of the members of this family are herbaceous. Near all have hispid hairs
and are strong smelling especially when bruised. The leaves are simple or compound. The
flower is tubular. The seeds are small and endospermic. This family has such crops as
tobacco, tomatoes, egg plant, potatoes and paprika.

• Compositae : Most species are herbaceous. The inflorescence is capitulum and has small
flowers called florets. The fruit in most cases is an achene. Most of the plants in the family
are flower plants. Others can be grown for oil extraction for example sunflower or can be
used for insecticides for example pyrethrum.

• Euphorbiaceae : The family has three categories of crops, the tuberous rooted for example
cassava, the oil crops for example castor bean and the rubber crops. Generally the flowers
are small, unisexual and arranged in cymose clusters. Leaf arrangement is usually alternate.
Many species contain milky latex and most species are poisonous.

1.5. Agronomic classification

Agronomic classification involves classification of crops according to their use, planting time and life
span. We will discuss these as below:

• Classification according to use.

• Grain crops: These crops are harvested for their grains for example maize, rice, wheat
and oats.

• Root tubers: these plants have edible swollen roots. Examples are carrots and irish
potatoes.

• Oil crops: Oil can be extracted from these plants especially from their seeds. The oil can
be edible or can be used for industrial purposes. Examples include groundnuts, soya
bean, sunflower, sesame, castor bean and jatropha.

• Pulses: These are grain legumes which are grown for food other than oil extraction, for
 example, common bean, mbambara nuts, and pigeon pea.

• Fibre crops: These crops are grown for their fibre which can be used in the textile
industry or for other industrial purposes. Examples are cotton and sisal.

• Beverage crops: Beverage can be produced from components of these crops, for
example, coffee, tea and grapes.

• Fruit crops: the main part consumed is the fruit. These crops include tomatoes,
cucumbers, citrus, bananas, etc.

• Ornamentals: These crops are grown for natural beauty. All flower crops and lawns fall
into this group.

• Fodder crops: These crops are grown to be used as animal feed. Examples of crops in
this group include, velvet bean, and pasture grasses.

• Classification according to length of life cycles (life span).

• Annuals: These complete their life cycles in one year or season. Examples include, maize
soya bean, groundnuts. Most crop plants are annuals.

• Biennials/biannuals: These plants finish their life cycles in two years or two seasons.
During first year, the plant will go through the vegetative growth and will have its
reproductive growth in the second year.

• Perennials: These crops live for more than two years, for example, cotton and chillies.
Once fully developed they produce seed every year.

• Classification according to region of origin.

Tropical: These are intolerant of cold temperatures, for example bananas

and mangoes.
Subtropical: These crops are generally tolerant of cold temperature but not freezing
temperature, for example granadilla and citrus..

Temperate: Are generally deciduous and require a cold period, for example, apples,
peaches, grapes, plums, apricots and pears.

1.6. Summary.

The universal way of classifying plants is the botanic classification. However, plants are also classified
according to their use. Classifying plants helps in positive identification of the same plant across all
nations and proper reference to its usage is not mistaken. Also researchers will be able to pick related
plants which they can breed to achieve desired goals. I

1.7. Activities.

a) State five major families of crops and give a specific example of a crop under each family.
b) Discuss the classification of crops according to use.

1.8. References.

• Chapman S.R and Carter L .P. (1976) Crop Production Principles and practices. Freeman and
Company, USA.

CHAPTER 2: CROPPING SYSTEMS

2.1: Introduction

A cropping system describes what crop or crops are grown in a particular location as well as how and
why they are grown, according to Chapman and Carter (1976). Cropping systems are usually designed to
achieve optimum resource utilisation, to preserve the environment by conserving rather than consuming
natural resources and to manage and control pests, weeds and diseases. In this chapter, we are going to
look at common cropping systems in crop production.

2.2. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• State different types of cropping systems.

• Explain each cropping system highlighting its advantages and disadvantages.

• Outline some factors that affect the choice of a cropping system.

2.3. Cropping systems

2.3.1. Monoculture
Monoculture refers to the growing of the same crop on the same piece of land season after season. The
choice of monoculture is mostly dependant on location, prevailing climatic conditions, type of crop, and
the available capital assets at the farm. This system has its own advantages and disadvantages as
outlined below.

Advantages of monoculture.

• It is simple and has a relatively low labour and capital requirements. The labour force will get to
know what is to be done and when using the same equipments or tools now and again.

• Improved method of harvesting, drying and storage facilities. Since only the same type of crop
will be grown, the harvesting equipment, for example combine harvester, will not be shared
among several crops which may improve its efficiency in operation. There will be no regular
adjustments to the implement/ equipment. The same storage facilities will be used season after
season.

• Reasonably profitable.

Disadvantages of monoculture.

• Yield does not increase sufficiently to maintain profits as costs rise. As the costs to manage and
control weeds, pests and diseases increases, the yield will not increase proportionally.

• There are high chances of pest and disease build up, which may increase the cost of production
in trying to protect the crop. Due to carryover of pest and diseases season after season, their
population will increase to levels that may require more frequent sprays or more costly products
at high dosage rate which will call for extra costs.

• Weeds in the same family as the crop may become a problem, especially in cereal crops, hence
increased competition resulting in low yields.

• Intercropping.

Intercropping refers to the growing of more than one crop on the same piece of land at the same time.
Examples are maize, cowpeas or maize and pigeon pea systems.

Advantages of intercropping.

• Spread the risk of crop failure. Different crop families are sensitive to drought, pests and
disease challenges at different levels. Growing two crops at the same time will allow one
crop to survive in the event of bad weather or disease challenge.

• Harvesting two crops on the same piece of land at the same time. Under good growing
conditions there are high chances of getting good yields from two crops on the same
field hence more retains per given area.

• It enhances pests and disease control. Since pests and disease are specific to particular
crop families, the growing of two different crops will provide a non-host plant to the pest
or disease hence reducing their population and control costs.
 • Improves soil fertility. The inclusion of a legume crop which fixes nitrogen will improve
soil fertility.

• Controls soil erosion. Intercropping will improve ground cover thereby reducing soil
erosion.

Disadvantages of intercropping.

• Presents harvesting problems, for example where maize is intercropped with cowpeas.
The cowpeas will entangle the maize plant such that it will be difficult to access the cobs
or to move between crop rows.

• Limits the use of herbicides. Most herbicides are crop specific, hence the inclusion of a
different crop will not be reserved by herbicide selectivity.

• Chemical pest control might be hindered due to inadequate spray penetration.

Due to the advantages and disadvantages of intercropping, it is mostly practised in drought prone areas,
in small cropped areas and where fertility enhancement is required.

• Companion cropping.

Is the growing of non competing crops at the same time on the same land unit.

The advantages and disadvantages of companion cropping are very much related to intercropping.

• Fallow system.

The land is left un-cropped for a certain period of time usually two to four years.

[Link] Advantages of fallow system.

• Fertility enhancement. The land will get a chance to rest a gain more fertility from organic matter
decomposition and undisturbed structure.

• Soil erosion control. The absence of tillage operation which loosen the soil and make it
susceptible to erosion will enhance erosion control.

• Breaks the life cycles of pests and diseases especially where monoculture is practiced.

• Disadvantages of fallow system

• It is difficult to practise where land is limiting. It may be difficult to leave land idle for a period of
over two years.

• There benefits are not immediate as one has to leave the land idle over two years or more.
 • Rotations

Crop rotation is a cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in affixed sequence on the
same field. Alternatively, it is the growing of different crops in a more or less definite sequence on the
same field. The rotation desired is the one that gives the greatest net return over a period of time. The
most widely recommended rotations consist of a tilled crop, a small grain and a legume or grass crop in
that order so as to get the benefits of crop rotation to be discuss in this unit.

• Basic principles of developing a crop rotation.

The following are considered when developing a crop rotation:

• Select crops well suited to the soil, topography of land and climate.

• Include legumes to maintain or increase nitrogen and organic matter of the soil especially on
land grown row crops such as potatoes, tobacco, maize and cotton.

• Select crop sequences which produce the highest yields and provide the best control of weeds,
insects and diseases.

• Select crops that provide sufficient feed for livestock on the farm.

• Select crops that provide good distribution for labour.

• Grow a maximum area of the most profitable crops, provided they do not sacrifice the future
productivity of the soil. The area of the crop should be nearly the same year after year unless
need for change arises.

• Other factors include soil conservation, goals and managerial ability of the farmer, and capital
available as well as effective use of the nutrients in the soil profile.

• Duration of the rotation normally varies from two to four years.

• Types of rotations.

• Grass ley rotation: Is a rotation which includes a period in grass which is used for grazing and
conservation.

• Continuous cereal and break crops. For example; maize- soya bean – maize, cotton – maize-
cotton, tobacco – maize- maize, maize- wheat- soya bean maize, tobacco- grass- grass- grass-
 tobacco.

[Link] Benefits of crop rotations.

• Increased yield from conserved soil and improved fertility. The supply of nitrogen is increased by
the inclusion of legumes.

• The supply of organic matter is maintained or increased which is important in maintaining the
physical properties of the soil, for example water holding capacity and soil texture. The supply of
organic matter also encourages growth and development of beneficial bacteria in the soil.

• Soil nutrients are utilized more efficiently. Various crops differ in nutrient absorption and also
take up nutrients at different rooting depth.

• Erosion losses are reduced. Various crops differ in protecting soil from wind or water erosion.
The amount of nutrients removed in cropping is often small compared to that lost by erosion.
Legumes and grass are highly effective in reducing soil and nutrient losses by erosion.

• Manure and commercial fertilizers are more effectively utilized. These could be applied to high
value crops or crops that respond best to such treatments.

• Weeds, pests and diseases are better controlled. Rotation of crops will call for the use of
different herbicides to control weeds, and pesticides to control pest there by reducing resistance
built-up in pest. Also the inclusion of different plants will reduce the seed bank and pest
population or diseases as they are crop specific.

• Labour is more uniformly distributed throughout the year as the cropping will be done
throughout the year.

• Keeps the land occupied a greater part of the year with crops as one crop will be planted soon
after the other crop.

• Hazards are reduced. The risk of complete failure or poor production is usually greater with one
crop than when several crops are grown.

• Improves crop quality through timely operations like planting, reduced weed challenge and also
reduced pest and disease damage.

• Systematizes farming. The labour force would be aware of the crop to follow after harvesting
hence preparations for the next crop will be done timely. The structures established at the farm
will be used more efficiently.

• Saves on labour by growing two or more crops on one soil preparation where conservation
farming will be practiced.

• Disadvantages of crop rotation.

• It requires diverse knowledge for management of different crops.

• Requires more capital investment as same crops do not share the same equipment or structures.
• Crop relationship in a rotation.

When crops are grown in a rotation, they can have at least three relationships as follows:

• Competitive: Two crops are said to be competitive when one crop is grown at the
expense of the other.

• Complimentary: is when an increase in total output of one crop results in an increase in

total output of another crop from a fixed area or given resource.

• Supplementary: is when the crops neither add nor subtract from the output of each
other.

• Summary.

Cropping systems include monoculture, intercropping, fallow system as well as rotation. Each
system has its own advantages and disadvantages. However all systems target have the highest
possible yields in crop production in a sustainable way.

• Activities

• Explain the disadvantages of monoculture.

• Discuss the effects of practising intercropping in commercial farms.

• Outline ten reasons for practising crop rotations.

• References

• Arnon I (1972) Crop Production in Dry Regions, Volume 1, Leonard Hill, London.

• Chapman S.R and Carter L .P. (1976) Crop Production Principles and practices. Freeman and
Company, USA.
CHAPTER 3: LAND SELECTION AND PREPARATION FOR CULTIVATION OF CROPS

3.0 Introduction

Land selection and preparation are important aspects of crop production. Choosing the right land and
preparing it in the most suitable way contributes significantly to the general performance of any given
crop. In this chapter, we will look at the factors considered in land selection and the various methods of
land preparation for the purpose of growing crops.

3.1 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• State and explain the factors considered in land selection for cultivation.

• Explain the process clearing arable land.

• State and explain any two tillage methods.

3.2 Land selection for cultivation of crops.

Land selection for cultivation of crops is affected by the following factors:

• Soil inherent fertility: A soil of high inherent fertility has an advantage over a poor soil as far as
economics of production are concerned. High inherent fertility will result in lower production
costs. Usually the heavier textured soils have higher inherent fertilities when compared with the
lighter textured soils. They have lower rates of leaching because they have high cation exchange
capacities and therefore they can retain nutrients against gravity. Lower rates of fertilizer
application are used with these soils and usually one off application of fertilizers is done.
However, with continued cropping more organic matter and some fertilizers should be added to
maintain the soil fertility.

• Soil depth: This is the thickness of the top soil and represents the region from which plants can
extract nutrients and water with minimum hindrance. Generally a depth of 500mm is desirable
though some crops can do well on soils of 250mm depth.

• Soil texture: This is the fineness or coarseness of a soil or the proportion of sand, silt and clay in
a given soil. It determines water and nutrient retention capacity of a given soil. It also
 determines the drainage, permeability, capping, aeration and workability of a soil. Normally
heavy textured soils have higher clay content. They retain more moisture, are difficult to work
on when wet or too dry and they retain a lot of nutrients. Soil texture may influence the type of
crop grown, for example, groundnuts and flue cured tobacco prefer light textured soils.

• Soil structure: This is the arrangement of soil particles in any given soil. Certain arrangements
are favourable for plant production, for example, the crumb structure which is well aerated and
has high water retention. Structure-less soil is not desirable in agriculture. Soils with high level of
silt have a problem soil capping where a hard crust is formed on the surface. These soils have
problems like poor aeration, very high bulk density which may affect root penetration, poor
emergence of planted seed, reduced water infiltration leading to run-off and erosion.

• Soil permeability: Permeability of the lower subsoil should be good to prevent water logging.
Impermeable soils make it difficult for roots to grow. Common symptoms of poor permeability
are spiralled roots of plants found close to the surface and poor drought tolerance due to
shallow roots. Increased run-off rather than infiltration is another common problem in soil with
poor permeability.

• Soil salinity : Soil salinity is the concentration of salts in the soil. These soils include, nitrates,
carbonates, sulphates e.t.c. High concentration of salts are not desirable as they may negatively
affect plant growth by promoting reverse osmosis, nutrient toxicity, prevent the uptake of other
nutrients. Saline soil should be cultivated with expert advice.

• Soil pH: Soil pH is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a soil. Where soil pH is outside the
range suitable to the crop grown, apply lime especially when too acidic. If soil is too acidic most
nutrients become unavailable since they become too soluble and are easily leached. The
concentration of aluminium and manganese ions becomes very high to levels which are toxic to
plants. If a soil becomes too alkaline, there will also be problems of unavailability of nutrients
since some of the nutrients may be fixed. The major nutrients affected by low pH are nitrogen
and phosphorous.

• Slope: Gentle slopes are desirable for crop production. Very steep slopes are not desirable since
they have shallow depth, promote more run-off than infiltration, and are expensive to protect
against soil erosion. Only a few crops, for example tea, can survive on such slopes. On the other
hand very flat land has slow drainage hence water logging can be a major problem.

• Erosion: Severe erosion prevents cultivation. It removes large portions of the top soil which is
usually rich in nutrients, making the soil difficult to produce economically. Erosion also reduces
effective soil depth. Land with moderate to slight or nil erosion should be used for cultivation.

• Wetness: A farmer should select lands which are well drained. Internal and external drainage is
important. Surface drainage can be improved by the construction of storm drains and internal
drainage can be improved by the insertion of perforated drainage pipes subsurface and also
promotion of good soil structure especially the crumb structure. Poorly drained soils can be
waterlogged and nutrient uptake is affected because of the anaerobic environments that will
prevail in the soil.
3.3. Land preparation

Land preparation refers to a sequence of activities from land clearing, conservation works to tillage that
are carried on any piece of land to make a suitable environment for crop establishment and growth.

3.3.1. Land clearing

This can be done manually or mechanically. It can be referred to as stumping.

• Manual clearing: This involves stumping, tree felling and burning to free the land off debris.
Ring barking and poisoning using arboricides, for example, sodium arsenate and 2.4.5T can also
be practised. A bark 20-45cm wide is removed from the trunk of trees. The tree slowly dies,
taking 1-2years. Manual clearing is more suitable for small areas, where labour is not limiting
and is cheap. Where terrain is not suitable for movement of machinery, manual clearing is the
solution. However, this method tends to be slow.

• Mechanical clearing: This method is most suitable where large pieces of land are to be cleared.
It is fast and suitable for felling large trees like baobabs. It involves the use of bulldozers and
heavy tractors in the uprooting of trees which are subsequently piled, burnt or used as
firewood.

In both methods, plant debris has to be removed completely from the land as remains may affect tillage
operations and may be sources of diseases and pests. Land clearing is finalised by root cutting, ripping
and raking as well as removal of stones.

3.3.2. Mechanical conservation works.

Construct storm drains and contour ridges before planting any crop. These will break the slope and
intercept runoff before its volume and velocity becomes powerful enough to cause serious erosion.
These works will discharge water into safe areas.

3.4. Tillage

Tillage is the modification of soil physical structure for establishment and growth of crops. It involves the
manual or mechanical stirring actions carried on a soil for the purposes of growing crops. From the
above two definitions, it is clear that tillage refers to any disturbance of the soil surface.

3.4.1. Aims of tillage

• To loosen and break up the soil in order to increase aeration and water infiltration.

• To prepare a seedbed of suitable tilth for easy planting, good germination and emergence of
crops.

• To break hard and capped soils at the end of dry season.

• To break soil compaction cause by traffic during field operations.

 • To promote better root development and increase yield through deeper and more thorough
cultivation.

• To minimise soil erosion.

• To destroy weeds. For example perennial grasses like cynadon dactylon and cyperus spp.

• To enhance organic matter decomposition.

• To conserve moisture.

• To expose soil pest to their predators and the heat of the sun. The heat of the sun can also
desiccate soil pathogens.

3.4.2. Timing of land preparation.

Early land preparation is done soon after harvesting around March to May. It has several advantages
which include the following:

• A good tilth is achieved since the soil will be still moist.

• There is early and good burial of plant debris in moist soil which is conducive for decomposition
thereby increasing soil fertility.

• There is reduced draft power requirement since soil will still be moist compared to working on
dry soil.

• Wear and tear of implements is reduced hence reduced cost of preparing the land.

• It allows spread of operations over the entire farming season or year.

• It enhances early plantings giving crops an early start when conditions are more suitable for
plant growth.

• Assists in weeds, pests and diseases control.

Late ploughing is normally done towards or during the planting time during the period September to
November. Large clods are normally brought up and these clods need to be broken up or else the
planting, germination and emergence of crops will be affected. Disease weed and pest load is usually
higher for crops planted in late ploughed lands. There is poor moisture conservation, ploughing costs are
high, wear and tear of implements is high and labour bottlenecks are common.

3.4.3. Tillage methods

Tillage methods are large divided into two namely conventional and conservation methods.

• Conventional tillage: This involves a series of tillage operations done to achieve a desired soil
tilth, for example, rip, plough and harrow. There are two tillage categories namely primary and
 secondary which are determined by the target tillage depth, implement used and goal of tillage.

Primary tillage is tillage which cuts, inverts or shatters the soil to a depth of 15 to 36cm. It
usually leaves the soil rough. The implements used tend to be heavier and stronger than
secondary tillage. These include rippers, subsoilers, mouldboard and disc ploughs and tandem
disc harrows.

The aims of primary tillage include loosening and aerating the soil, covering plant residues, and
incorporating fertilizers and lime.

Secondary tillage is the operations that follow primary tillage in an effort to achieve a fine tilth.
It works the soil to shallower depth of 5-15cm. The implements used include disc harrow, spike
toothed harrow, roller, rigid cultivator and spring loaded cultivator.

The aims of secondary tillage include the attainment of fine tilth, weed control, firming the soil
and levelling the land.

• Conservation tillage

It is a system of farming which involves managing the land with principles of conservation. Such
a system would include contour farming, crop and pasture rotation, and soil and water
conservation. It also involves any practice which leaves at least 30% crop residue cover on the
soil surface after planting.

Advantages of conservation tillage

• It reduces soil erosion as the crop residues cushion the rain drop action.

• There is maximum use of available moisture as water run-off and evaporation are reduced
thereby improving penetration.

• There is moderation of soil temperature extremes by crop residues.

• Reduced tractor operating costs as less fuel and labour will be used, and there is reduced
wear and tear of implements.

• It enhances timely operations since the time consuming operations can be avoided.

• It improves soil structure since the built up organic matter tends to bind soil particles
together and compaction of the soil is minimised. Minimum soil disturbance results in less
 pulverisation of the soil.

Disadvantages of conservation tillage.

• There is built up of pests and diseases.

• There is poor incorporation of trash and as a result the decomposition process is slowed
down which may result in high C:N ratio that affects nutrient use by plants.

• Nutrients tend to be concentrated at the top layers of soil. Roots will not go deeper
hence lodging is common and crops are susceptible to droughts. There is difficulty in
monitoring the levels of phosphorus and soil reactions.

• Requirements of conservation tillage

Weed pressure: It is advisable to start with a lower weed pressure. Control late weeds in the
previous crop to reduce the weed seed bank for the next crop.

Soil fertility: Manage the soil fertility by ensuring that the soil has sufficient phosphorus and the
pH is well adjusted at the onset. The pH should be 5.5 and phosphorus level should be 25ppm
(25mg/kg of soil)

Compaction: Dig inspection pits and correct compact layers by ripping and sub-soiling.
Otherwise there could be problems of root penetration and water movement in the soil.

• Types of conservation tillage

• Strip tillage: It is performed through or into crop residue. A line into which seed is
planted is opened up. The most common practice is rip-on row which ensures loosening
the soil to a depth of 25-30 cm. Fertilizer is banded into the rip line in the same
operation. Planting may be done by hand or machine.

• Direct planting: Involves planting into previous crop residues without prior tillage
operation

• Zero tillage: Involves the broadcasting of seed usually cereals over previous crop
residue.

• No- till tied ridges: Planting is done on tied ridges year after year. This method
conserves moisture and soil.

3.5. Summary

Land selection and preparation are important aspects in crop production. The factors considered in land
selection include soil fertility, soil depth, soil texture and structure, soil permeability, salinity and pH as
well as the slope of the land, erosion and wetness. Depending on available equipment and other
resources as well as the crop to be established the farmer has a choice of doing conventional or
conservation tillage. Every effort should be made to get high crop yields using the most sustainable
means of production especially conserving the soil.

3.6. Activities

a) State and explain the factors considered when selecting land for the cultivation of crops.

b) Suggest the reasons why farmers should take-up conservation tillage at the expense of conventional
tillage.

c) List the challenges likely to be met in practicing conventional tillage.

3.7. References

• Arnon I (1972) Crop Production in Dry Regions, Volume 1, Leonard Hill, London.

• Chapman S.R and Carter L .P. (1976) Crop Production Principles and practices. Freeman and
Company, USA.

CHAPTER 4: PLANTING

4.1. Introduction

Planting is the placement of propagative material (seed/cuttings or suckers) into the rooting media (soil)
to enhance germination and emergence. This is a very important part of crop production. It is important
to note that for high yields to be obtained, the farmer must plant at the right time, using the correct
plant population, depth and method, and applying the correct fertilizer type and rate as well as using the
right type of seed. In this chapter, we are going to discuss these important aspects of planting.

4.2. Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• State the importance of timely planting.

• Highlight the importance of achieving an ideal plant population.

• Discuss the various methods of planting.

4.3. Time of planting

Planting should be done when the environment is ideal in terms of such factors as temperature,
moisture and day length. Time the planting so that the crop will be ready when the conditions will be
conducive for ripening or harvesting, for example, soyabean should not be ready for harvest when it is
still raining. If it does the seed will germinate or may rot on the mother plant. For most plants of tropical
origin, one must avoid frosty periods because crops easily suffer from frost damage and chilling injury.
Other factors that determine the planting time are pest and diseases incidences, market prices, weeds
pressure and the onset of rain for summer crops. For summer crops, it is ideal to do early planting
(October- November) depending on crop and the Natural Region where production is done. The use of
irrigation can advance the planting time prior the fall of the summer rains. For most summer crops there
is yield decrease with late plantings. For most summer crops, plant early when the weeds, pests and
disease pressure is still low. If it is dryland production, the earliest you can plant crops like soyabean is
when you have receive the first effective rainfall.

4.4. Plant population

Plant population is the total number of plants per given area. It is generally expressed as plants per
hectare (plants/ha).

Factors that determine the plant population to use include:

• Type of crop and variety, for example in groundnuts the population is high when
growing the bunch type than the spreading type.

• The level of management, for example a maize crop under irrigation requires a higher
plant population compared to dryland cropping.

• Type of season, for example a predicted low rainfall season would require lower plant
population so that plants will not compete for the limited moisture available.

• The region in which the crop is grown. Low rainfall regions e.g. Region III and IV one to
use low plant populations.

• The intended use of the crop, e.g. silage maize crop should be grown at a higher plant
population compared to commercial maize.

• Time of planting. Reduce the population with delayed plantings and

• Expected yield. Go for optimum population for high yields.

For crops in rows, plant population is calculated as follows:

Plant population = 10 000 m2

Inter-row spacing (m) X In-row spacing (m)

For example: A maize crop planted spaced at 900mm X 200mm

Plant population = 10 000m2

(0,9 X 0.2)m2

= 55 555plants/ha
For crops in twin rows,

Plant population = 10 000 m2

Average inter-row spacing (m) X In-row spacing (m)

For example tobacco spaced at 1.2m x o.56m and 1.1m x0.56m

Plant population = 10 000m2

(1.15 x 0.56)m2

= 15 527plants/ha

For crops with no planting pattern, a quadrant of known dimensions is used. Choose a minimum of three
sites at random and calculate the average plants per site per quadrant.

For example: In wheat, three sites had the following plants per quadrant which is 1m2: 10; 15and 8

Therefore, plant population = 10 000 m2 X 1 m2

(10 + 15 + 8)/3

For plants on hills, sample 10 hills at random. Average the plants per hill, and calculate plant population
as for single rows.

For example, maize planted 3kernels per station spaced at 0.9m 0.3m,

Plant population = 10 000 x 3

0.9 x 0.3

= 111 111plants/ha

Advantages of an optimum plant population per hectare.

• To get optimum yields due to low competition among crops for available resources and land not
wasted.

• To get high quality produce from a crop filly benefited from resources available.
 • To provide good soil cover especially in row crops like tobacco and cotton.

• To reduce disease prevalence. This will be achieve through reduce transfer of pathogens from
plant to plant and also through good ventilation within the field.

• To help in the control of weeds especially in wheat and barley crops. Use the recommended seed
rate per hectare to achieve the desired plant population.

• To enhance efficiency execution of other operations like spraying and movement of implements
especially in crops like cotton and tobacco. Adhere to the correct inter-row spacing.

Conditions necessary to achieve optimum plant population

• Spacing: use the recommended spacing and seed rates.

• Planting depth: plant seed at the correct planting depth.

• Good seed soil contact, to ensure the seed will absorb moisture from the soil.

4.5. Types of planting

• Dry planting: is the planting of seed well in advance of the planting season. Land is fully prepared
and seed planted 2-3 weeks prior the coming of the first rain to ensure an early start to the
season and to release labour for other farm operations when the rains start. The seed must be
planted in dry soil. The dangers of dry planting include the swelling of seed and death should
there be showers before the first effective rainfall and also pest damage. The planting depth will
depend on seed size and crop.

• Water planting is a method of lengthening the growing season especially in sandy soils. The aim
is the establishment of the crop early before the first effective rains. Early plough the land and
leave it rough to facilitate water intake. Destroy all weeds activated by the last rains. Supply
adequate planting water to link with the residual soil moisture. Allow the planting water to sock
away before covering with dry soil which will act as mulch. Preferably plant socked seed.

• Rain planting: is planting after receiving good effective rains.

4.6. Planting methods

• Hand method involves the placement of seed in prepared planting holes, furrows or land in the
case of broadcasted small grains.

Its advantages include correct placement of seed, good assurance of seed placement as there
are no blockages of seed outlets, simple and easy to implement, no restrictions to seed type and
size and is possible under varied soil conditions and land forms.

However, hand method require more labour force, strict supervision on seeding and covering
and best suits small areas.
 • Mechanical planting is the use of machinery in the planting operation. Equipment commonly
used include, planters, seed drills and vicons.

Mechanical method is fast and best suits large areas. However, it tends to be affected by
weather conditions and soil conditions especially in wet soils they may skid and clog.

• A combination of the hand and mechanical, for example, furrows and fertilizer application can be
opened mechanically and the planting is down by hand.

4.7. Summary

Planting is the placement of seed in a rooting media to enhance germination and emergence. The time
of planting is determined by the climate, pest and disease incidences, weeds pressure and market prices.
It is important to achieve a desirable plant population for every crop grown. The best possible method of
planting should be opted for depending on available resources and the type of planting pursued.

4.8. Activities

• Outline the factors that determine a plant population to adopt.

• Calculate the plant population of soyabeans planted at 450mm x 75mm.

• Compare and contrast hand and mechanical methods of planting.

• Describe the method of water planting crops.

4.9. References

• Arnon I (1972) Crop Production in Dry Regions, Volume 1, Leonard Hill, London.

• Commercial Grain Producers Association (CGPA) ,(1996) Grain Handbook, Screenlitho (Pvt) Ltd,
Harare , Zimbabwe.

• Seed Co (2002) , Agronomy Manual, Seed Co Ltd, Harare, Zimbabwe.

CHAPTER 5.0. AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF ZIMBABWE

5.1. Introduction

Zimbabwe has five natural regions. These regions are divided according to the rainfall pattern of their
respective areas. In this chapter, we are going to discuss the five natural regions of Zimbabwe.

5.2. Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to;

• Define the following terms: Natural Region, Natural area, pentad, dry spell, and drought.
 • Discuss the characteristics of the natural regions of Zimbabwe.

5.3. Definition of terms

• Natural region is a relatively large area where agricultural development is and will be
conditioned by one or a few natural characteristics. The natural characteristic dominant in
Zimbabwe is rainfall hence natural regions in Zimbabwe are largely demarcated on the adequacy
and efficiency of rainfall.

• Natural areas are areas in the same natural region with varying characteristics largely soil. The
rainfall considered here is effective rainfall.

• Pentad is a five day period. A rainy pentad is a centre pentad in three consecutive pentads which
should receive at least 40mm and two of which must receive at least 8mm of rainfall. Pentads
give a clear picture of rainfall reliability by dividing the year into 73 pentads. The Zimbabwean
rainfall season runs from 1st October to 30th April and this coincides with pentad 56 to pentad 24
to give a 40pentad period.

• Dry spell a period of 11-20 days without significant rainfall, that is, less than 25mm in heavy soils
and less than 15mm in light soils.

• Drought is a period of 21 days or more without significant rainfall.

5.4. Agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe

5.4.1. Natural Region I

It is a specialised and diversified farming region. Altitude is 1700m or more above sea level. The rainfall is
>1 000mm per year. Temperature is cool and is normally around 20oC on average. The intensive safe use
is afforestation (plantation crops) like pine and wattle trees. There is also intensive livestock production
especially dairy as well as deciduous fruit tree production. In frost free areas, there is production of
macademia nuts, potatoes, coffee and tea production. It covers less than 2% of the country. The area
stretches from Nyanga to Tamandai.

5.4.2. Natural Region II

It is a very intensive farming region. Most of the country’s maize and wheat production occurs in this
region. Most of the rainfall is confined to summer and it averages 750-1 000mm/year. It has two-sub-
regions namely IIa and IIb.

NR IIa receives an average of 18 rain pentads per season. It rarely experiences any severe dry weather.
The region is suitable for intensive crop production and also livestock production.

NR IIb receives an average of 16-18 rain pentads per year and it normally experiences severe dry spells in
the rain season and at times it may have short rain periods. Crop production may be affected in some of
the seasons but the effect is not sufficient enough to change utilization from intensive system.

5.4.3. Natural Region III

This is a semi-intensive farming area. It is involves mixed farming. It receives rainfall of about 650-
800mm a year. The region has an average of 14-16 rainy pentads per year. The region is subject to mid
season dry spells. It is suitable for livestock and fodder production. There is marginal production of
tobacco and maize. The region covers about 19% of the country.

5.4.4. Natural Region IV

The intensive safe use is semi-extensive farming. It receives 450-650mm of rainfall per year. The region
is prone to drought and severe dry spells hence not suitable for crop production. Production is mostly
livestock, natural forest and some fodder crops. It is recommended to grow small grains which are
drought resistant. The area covers about 38% of the country.

5.4.5. Natural Region V

This is an extensive farming region which receives less than 450mm rainfall per year. The rainfall is too
low and very erratic and therefore is not suitable for crop production. Crops that are grown in this region
are grown under irrigation. The region is suitable for cattle ranching and wildlife management. It covers
about 27% of the country.

5.5. Summary.

The five agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe are natural regions I, II, III, IV and V. Natural region I
receives the highest amount of rainfall greater than 1 000mm and natural region V receives the least
rainfall of less than 450mm. this rainfall amount therefore dictates the type of production in each
particular region.

5.6. Activities.

• Explain the significance of Natural regions to agriculture.

• Describe the agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe.

• Define pentad, natural area and natural region.

• Differentiate a dry spell from drought.

5.7. References

• Department of Meteorological Services (1981) Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe, Government

Printers, Harare.

• Makawa J. e.t.l (1987) School Atlas For Zimbabwe, Esselte Map Services, Stockholm, Sweden.

APPENDIX

GENERAL AGRONOMY PRACTICALS

• Clearing land for cultivation.

• Identification of tillage implements.

• Planting field crops such as maize, cotton, tobacco and groundnuts.

• Drawing a map of Zimbabwe indicating the five natural regions.

CHAPTER 6 : WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL

6.1 Introduction

Weeds are of economic importance in crop production since they can lead to yield losses in the
field, and down grading of the crop at marketing. They have their own defensive characteristics.
To be able to control weeds one needs to know the behaviour of weeds and then select the
ways which can easily counter their development. This chapter will cover the characteristics of
weeds and weed control.

6.2 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
Define a weed.
Outline the adaptive characteristics of weeds.
6.3 Definition

A weed is a plant that grows where it is not wanted. This definition includes volunteer plants. A
weed can be broad leaved or narrow leaved, annual or perennial.

6.4 Special adaptations

Special adaptations which make weeds special competitors.

Seed production

Most weeds multiply and disseminate through seed production. Weed seed can survive in very
high temperatures, drought and frost. Life cycles of weeds can be as short as 6 weeks such that
there can be several generations per season. Most weeds produce a large number of seeds per
flowering period e.g. shamva grass 10000 seeds / plant, Rapoko grass 100000/ plant , Mexican
marigold -59000/ plant. Weeds have very efficient reproductive and disseminative mechanisms
which make them strong competitors with arable crops.

6.5 Weed seed dormancy

A weed may mature and shed thousands of seeds under favourable conditions for germination.
Only a fraction germinates in the first year. Much of the seed will remain dormant and
germinate in succeeding years.

6.6 Weed control

Weed control should be done within the first 8 weeks of plant establishment (referred to as the
critical period). Weeds are easy to control in the early stages.

6.7 Techniques used in weed control

6.7.1 Hand hoeing

Hoes are used to remove or dislodge the weeds resulting in death.
Advantages of hand hoeing
• No chemical damage or toxicity to the crop.

• There is enough aeration to the soil.

• Organic matter is also added to the soil.

• Cut weeds can act as a mulch to conserve moisture

Disadvantages

• There is high labour demand during the process of weeding.

• Hand hoeing is very difficult in wet weather.

6.7.2 Mechanical cultivation

Ox drawn cultivators or tractor drawn implements can be used also to dislodge the
weeds.

6.7.3 Herbicide use

[Link] Stage and method of application of herbicides

• Pre-planting herbicides – Herbicides are applied before planting and incorporated

into the soil. Preplanting herbicides are applied 2-3 weeks before planting. If applied
earlier they lose efficiency due to volatilization, sunlight destruction or
photodecomposition. An example is Trif in cotton.

• Pre- emergence herbicides – Herbicide is applied after planting before the

 emergence of the crop. Should be applied before the emergence of weeds (3-4 day
of planting). Delay in application result in poor weed control and crop damage. An
example is Atrazine in maize.

• Post emergence herbicide – Is a herbicide applied after the crop has emerged over
the top or directed to affect only weeds under the crop. Application late in the
season is referred to as lay-by treatment. Post emergence herbicide may have
contact action7 y or translocated therefore should be applied after weed
emergence. Soil acting post emergence herbicides are applied before weed
emergence.

[Link] Selective herbicides

Selective herbicides retard or kill the weeds while the crop is tolerant. The herbicide is selective
to a particular crops within certain limits. Over application of such herbicides can affect the
crop.

Basics of selectivity of herbicides

With herbicides, several mechanisms are involved in the selectivity to crops. Selection depends
on one or more of the following:

• Genetic vigour of the crop

• High crop seed viability and low weed seed viability under herbicides.

• Physiological resistance or inherent crop tolerance with the herbicides

• Application of herbicide to avoid excessive contact with the crop.

Mechanisms can be divided into physiological and non physiological mechanisms.

Non physiological mechanisms selectivity (positional selectivity)

• Positional selectivity depends on the position of the growing point of the crop and
the weed. Broad leaved weeds have well exposed meristematic tissue while the
meristem of grass is intercalary. Each node in grass has meristematic tissue protected
by leaf tissue. Herbicides affect growing point and discriminate between the crop
and broad leaved weeds which are killed by virtue of their exposed apical meristems.
• Leaf angle -Broad leaved weeds have flat leaf surface areas therefore intercept more
herbicide than grasses or cereals which have upright leaves.

• Surface nature- Hairiness, waxiness of the leaf affects the effect of herbicide by
preventing the herbicide from adhering to the leaf therefore protecting the crop
from the herbicide.

• Different behaviour and movement of herbicide in the soil.

6.7.3. 3 Depth control

Depth control is the principle on with pre-emergence herbicide work. Selectivity

depends on the depth of the crop and weed seed in relation to the depth to which
the herbicide would penetrate. Crop seed is planted deep and herbicide with low
leachability is prayed and light irrigation is applied. Herbicide stops weed
germination in superficial layers of the soil.

Fig 1. Depth control

Herbicide
Crop seed protected by depth, seal
Therefore no contact with the herbicide ,In this case weed seed which germinate
from a depth e.g upright star bar, salt weed are difficult to control because pre-
emergence herbicide do not penetrate to that depth. Examples of pre-emergence
herbicide which work by depth control are: Metachlor (dual) , Cotogard , Sencor ,
Alachor ( lasso) ,Planavin ,Trifluralin, Igran.

Depth control in orchards

Deep rooted crops such as fruit trees are depth protected by using a low solubility
 herbicide which is highly adsorbed by soil colloids and will form a layer which will
prevent weed growth in that layer.

Fig 2. Diagramatic Illustration of Depth control in orchards

Herbicide layer, low solubility and

high adsorption, e.g. Diuron.

Weed seed will not germinate

Fig 3 Prevention of excessive contact of herbicide with crop

 Spray boom
Dropper

Boom shield flood jet nozzle

Selective and non selective herbicides can be directly applied to hit weeds and avoid
excessive contact with the crop using flat jet nozzles or shielded sprayers. The crop must
be taller than the weeds within the rows.

[Link] Physiological selectivity mechanisms

Differential absorption of herbicides

Weeds with certain morphological and anatomical characteristics e.g. permeable

cuticles, and large stomatal apertures absorb folia sprays, thus the weed absorb more
herbicide than the crop and is controlled.

Differential Translocation of herbicide

Differences in the ability of translocation of herbicide in the phloem and xylem between
the weed and the crop forms the basis of selectivity.

Enzymatic activation

In some plants enzymes are capable of converting non toxic compounds into toxic
compounds as is the case with many weeds while monocots are unable to do so e.g
 m.c.p.a.

[Link] Persistence of herbicides in the soil

Persistence is the period a herbicide remains active in the soil to affect a subsequent
crop. Persistence determines the period of weed control achieved. A herbicide should
not persist in a subsequent crop. Herbicides like atrazine are generally used in maize. It is
selective and cheap but persists for a long period. It affects any broad leaf crops which
follow the maize. Persistence affects rotations.

[Link] Factors that affect persistence of herbicides

Physical factors and chemical properties of herbicides.

• Water solubility

Water solubility influence movement of herbicides in the soil, and very soluble
herbicides move faster downwards than less soluble herbicides.

• Alkalinity

Alkalinity determine the degree to which the herbicide is positively charged and
therefore its likely wood to be adsorbed to the cation exchange sites. Under alkaline
conditions more of the cations are adsorbed to soil colloids. Most herbicides emit
positively charged hydrogen ions to soil colloids and the positively charged herbicides is
coupled by soil colloids and is leached therefore persistence is reduced.

• Volatility

Herbicides evaporate at certain temperatures and lost as a volatile gas. Herbicides with
high vapour pressure are highly volatile therefore must be protected immediately after
application to avoid loss due to vapourisation. Highly volatile herbicides include
perbulate , litraline, and trif.

Soil type
Adsorption on soil colloids
 • Strongest adsorption occurs in soil of high organic matter or high clay content.
For herbicides to be effective they must be in soil solution to be taken up by the
plant. Herbicides adsorbed in clay particles is not readily available to plants.
Dosage rates are higher in clay soils than sand soils to compensate for the higher
adsorption power of clays. Persistence is higher in strongly adsorptive soils e.g.
clays.

• Leaching is the down ward movement of chemical substances in solution through

the soil. The degree of leaching is determined by the chemical solubility,
movement of water, and amount of herbicide adsorbed by soil colloids.

• Photo-decomposition

When a soil applied herbicide is exposed to light gradual photo-decomposition

takes place. This effect is minimized if rain or irrigation follows within a few days
after application. In prolonged dry weather shallow incorporation will reduce
photo-decomposition.

• Chemical decomposition

Organic compounds when applied to the soil are decomposed by micro-organisms

and reserve the energy. Many herbicides are organic compounds and are broken
down by micro-organisms. This process is facilitated by warm moist conditions in
well aerated soils

Examples of persistence of herbicide

Herbicide persistence (weeks)

Simazine, durone,flomethrone 12-25

Atrazine, trif , nitraline 8-18

[Link],alachloa, linurone, cynazine ,terbutryne,

naphthalin,DNCP. 6-12

24D,MCPD 4-8
6.8 Summary

The use of herbicides is an important and easy approach towards the control of weeds, this
method is less labour intensive as compared to hand weeding. The different modes of action of
different herbicides in conjunction with different means of selectivity help in the control of
different weed species.

6.9 Activities

• How does weed dormancy influence the survival of the weed?

• With the aid of diagrams explain the herbicide control mechanisms employed in the
control of weeds.

• Define herbicide persistence. Explain how persistence affects crop succession in the
lands?

6.10 References
CHAPTER 7. CROP PESTS

7.1 Introduction

Pests are of great importance in the crop production as they reduce crop productivity. In this
unit you will general information about their classification and control.

7.2 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define a pest.

• Differentiate the categories of pests.

• Identify the damage caused by pests.

7.3 Definition

Pest – Any form of plant or animal life or any pathogenic agent injurious or potentially injurious
to plants, plant products, livestock or man.

Following this definition pests include insects and other arthropods, vertebrates, weeds and
micro-organisms e.g. fungi, fungi, bacteria and viruses.

7.4 Categories of pests

7.4.1 Key or major pests

This refers to the insect pests which occur perennially and cause serious and persistent
economic damage in an ecosystem in the absence of effective control measures. An example is
the cabbage webworm in brassicas in Zimbabwe.

7.4.2 Minor pests

These are pests whose populations under normal conditions do not cause economic damage.

7.4.3 Occasional pests

These are insects whose population build up would reach an economic injury level to the plants.
An example is the increase in the Lepidoptera populations which lead to heavy leaf defoliation
to affect the crop yield.

7.4.4 Potential pests

Potential pest refers to insect species with the potential to develop into major pest depending
on the situation present.

7.4.5 Migrant pests

These are insect pests which move from one area (zone) to another to cause an economic
damage. Examples are the red locust, armyworm.

7.4.6 Disease vectors

These are insects that transmit diseases to plants making them important to agriculture.
Examples are white fly which transmits tobacco and a cotton leaf curl virus, aphids transmits
groundnut mosaic virus, and leaf hopper which transmits maize streak virus. It is important to
note that very low populations of disease vectors can lead to serious crop damage.

7.5 Pest damage

Pests can cause plant damage in different ways. This can be through biting and chewing, piecing
and sucking and can be vectors of pathogens.

7.5.1 Pests with biting and chewing mouthparts

These are insects which feed by biting pieces of plant material and chewing. Very good
examples of such pests are: locusts, crickets, caterpillars and beetles.

Damage caused by biting and chewing pests

Losses in plant yield can be brought about in different ways by biting and chewing pests as
indicated below:

1. During feeding some pests produce substances which irritate the host plant leading to
proliferation and gall formation.

2. Loss of photosynthesis tissue due to the eating away of the leaf lamina of the plant and leaf
drop, e.g. by leaf worm
3. There is destruction of seedlings and young plants, e.g. vegetable seedlings can be destroyed
by cutworm.

4. Feeding of pests from the growing points lead to the destruction of buds and shoots e.g. the
bud worm in tobacco.

5. Some pests feed by boring and tunneling the stems interfering with the movement of sap up
and down the plant and weakening of the plant, e.g. maize stalk borer in maize.

6. During feeding the pests destroy flowers, seed and fruits there by significantly reducing fruit
production, e.g. cape mounted rifle beetle in sugar bean.

7. Tubers and roots can be bored or eaten by pests in the soil leading to reduced yields, e.g.
potato tuber moth in potatoes.

7.5.2 Pests with piercing and sucking mouthparts

Pests in this category have part or all of the mouthparts modified into piercing proboscis. They
suck sap from the xylem or phloem tissues of the plant. Examples of such pests are from the
order Acarina, homoptera and thrips.

7.5.3 Pests that are vectors of pathogens

These are insects that transmit diseases to plants making them important to agriculture.
Examples are fruit fly which transmits tobacco and cotton leaf curl viruses, aphids transmits
groundnut mosaic virus, and leaf hopper which transmits maize streak virus. It is important to
note that very low populations of disease vectors can lead to serious crop damage.

7.6 Pests life cycles

Pests go through different developmental stages during their life. Some go through complete
metamorphosis and some incomplete metamorphosis.

With most insects growth is limited to immature stages. Insects develop from stage to stage and
the change from one stage to the next is through moulting (ecdysis). The change in appearance
of the insect due to moulting is referred to as metamorphosis.
7.6.1 Complete metamorphosis

In complete metamorphosis insects go through the four stages of development which are as in
the figure 4 below.

Fig 4 Complete metamophosis

(Embryonic development) (Internal wing pads)

Egg Larva

Adult Pupa (External wing pads)

(Reproduction dispersal
and sometimes feeding)

The four stages are mostly exhibited by holometabobla insects like the American boll worm
(Heliothis armigera), maize stalk borer (Bassiola fusca). In the complete metamophosis group of
pests there are four instars, a modified larval or pupal instar and the adult phase.

7.6.2 Incomplete metamorphosis

In this case insects go through three stages of development which are: as illustrated in the in
the figure 5 below.

Fig 5 Incomplete metamophosis

Embryonic development

Egg
 Adult Nymph (Larva)
Sexually mature 1st instar no wings
and winged 2nd to 5th instar is sexual immaturity
External wing pads

Insects falling under this group belong to the Homimetabola.

In incomplete metamorphosis group of pests, wings appear as external wing pads in the second
instar and they are fully formed after the fifth moult e.g. grass hoppers and locusts.

7.7 Pest control methods

Pest control can be achieved using different means. The approaches to pest control are: cultural
method, natural control, mechanical, and chemical control.

7.7.1 CULTURAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

These approaches to pest control reduce pest populations rather than completely
destroying the pests. The advantage of using cultural control measures is that there are
no hazards to the user unlike with chemicals. The different cultural approaches to pest
control are explained below:

7.7.1.1Crop rotation

Rotating crops of different families one after the other breaks the lifecycles of some
pests. For example if a maize crop is grown following a cabbage crop, pests like cabbage
webworm (Helulla hundalis) and diamond back moth (Plutella zylostella) lifecycles are
broken leading to a reduction in the pest populations. This implies that if a four year
rotation is strictly followed the method becomes effective. Another example is the
growing of Katambora Rhodes grass after tobacco leading to the control of the root knot
nematode. This is because the grass is non host to the nematode hence it dies from
starvation resulting in a decrease in the populations of the nematode.

[Link] Tillage

Tillage mechanically damage the pests and their stages, burry or expose the
developmental stages of the pests, increase the growth vigour of the crops, eliminates
the alternative host plants, and changing the physical conditions of the soil e.g.
moisture, oxygen concentration and soil pH resulting in the death of most pest hence
the reduction of pest populations.

[Link] Trap crops

With this approach, a susceptible crop is grown close to the major crop to attract the
pests and protect the major crop. The accumulated pests are then destroyed either
chemically or by tillage or any other suitable means.

[Link] Growing tolerant varieties

Some plants have the ability to recover from pest damage due to some tolerance in
them. Plants with low or no levels of tolerance cannot recover pest damage as a result it
leads to economic damage.

[Link] Use of manure and fertilizer

Healthy plants are produced through proper manure application and fertilization.
Healthy plants can better withstand pest attack.

[Link] Pruning and thinning

Healthy and pest resistant new shoots can develop on the plant if the plant is
occasionally pruned; hence it is advisable to remove old branches from the plants.

[Link] Crop location

Pests may not move from one field to the other in adjacent fields if the crops in the
adjacent fields are deferent. This minimizes the spread of pests and keeps the pest
populations lower.

[Link] Crop residue destruction

Burning of crop residues destroy the pests which overwinter in the crop residues e.g.
maize stalk borer, and cotton ball worms.

[Link] Alternating the planting times

By changing the planting periods one can avoid the infestation times of a particular pest
there by reducing pest infestation to the crop.

7.7.2 Natural control

[Link] Climatic factors

Populations of pests and their host plants are directly affected by humidity, temperature,
and day length. The changes in climate also limits the dispersal of pests.

[Link] Natural barriers

Features like mountain ranges, large water bodies and deserts limits the spreading of
pests through migration. Hence reduce the spread of some pest species.

[Link] Natural enemies

Most of the vertebrates feed on insects and keep insect populations low. Within the
insect group are predator species that capture and feed on insect pests or lay their eggs
inside on or in the body of other insects (parasitoids) for the newly born parasitoids to
get readily available food.

[Link] Diseases

Plant pests like any other living organisms are attacked by diseases e.g. the semi-looper
is affected by the virus , plusia nuclear poly hydrosis virus.

7.7.3 Mechanical methods

Where manual and devices and machines are used to control pests this is referred to as
the mechanical methods of pest control. Following are some of the mechanical practices
used in the control of insect pests.

[Link] Shaking or beating of branches

Kerosinised water in a tub may be placed under the plant which is shaken or beaten with
a stick to drop the pests into the tub.
 [Link] Wire gauge screens

Borers can be prevented from attacking plants by surrounding the stems and fruits of
the plants with wire gauge screens.

[Link] Hand picking

Insects can be handpicked and crushed to death e.g. beetles and caterpillars which are
easily picked by hand.

[Link] Banding

Trees can be banded to prevent insects from climbing up the plant to damage the top
parts of the plant. E.g. sticky materials can be painted on the tree or on waxed paper.

[Link] Traps

Different traps can be used to trap different insects due to different behaviour. Examples
of traps used in the control of pests are:

Light traps, pheromone traps, vacuum traps, sticky traps and sound traping.

7.8 Summary

Pest management is involving quite a good number of approaches for successful crop
production. It was revealed in this chapter that different pests damage crops differently
depending on the mode of feeding of individual pests, hence different modes of control become
applicable.

7.9 Activities

• Define a pest.

Make a list of pests and classify them in any of the categories explained before

Compile a list of pests in your locality and classify them according to their mode of feeding.

Differentiate between complete metamorphosis and incomplete metamorphosis giving

examples of pests.

Explain the approaches to pest control with reference to particular crops.

7.9 References

CHAPTER 8. CROP DISEASES

8.1 Introduction
Crop diseases cause heavy losses in crop production if left unchecked. There are many causes of
different diseases e.g. fungi, virus, and bacteria. Different causative agents cause different forms
of damage to the crop resulting in different symptoms to different diseases.

8.2 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define a disease.

• List the general and specific signs and symptoms of crop diseases.

• Explain how diseases are transmitted from one plant to the other.

• Identify the most suitable control measures for crop diseases.

8.3 Definition of disease

Any deviation from the normal functioning of the plant structure.

8.5 Groups of diseases

8.5 .1 Parasitic diseases

These are caused by fungi, virus, or bacteria.

Signs of parasitic diseases

• Spot diseases
Are generally caused by fungi or bacteria. They characterized by spots. E.G bacteria spots in
sunflower and ground nuts. Cercospora leaf spot, alternaria, wildfire and angular spot in
tobacco.
• Blight diseases
Blights kill large areas of tissue e.g. potato blight, leaf blight in maize
• Wilts
These are characterized by total wilting of leaves due to infection of roots or vascular system
e.g. bacterial wilt in potatoes and tomatoes.
• Canker
Is a disease of woody tissue which causes shrinking and cracking of bark e.g. bacterial canker in
tomatoes.
• Damping off
 Affects seed and seedlings. The pathogen attacks seed in the ground or seedlings at ground
level causing seedlings to fall over as in tomatoes, and tobacco by Soreshin (Rhizoctonia solani).
• Rots
Are characterized by rapid disintegration of tissues of plant organs e.g. cob rots in maize.
• Mildews
Powdery mildew – is characterized by white powdery coating on leaves and stems e.g. in wheat
and peas.
Downy mildew – is caharacterised by bluish gray mouldy growth usually on the underside of
the leaf e.g. in brassicas, sorghum etc.
• Rust
This disease appear on the leaves and stems and produce pustules which are rust coloured (red
brown to orange) e.g. rust in wheat.
• Smuts
Appear as powdery masses on cereals e.g. head smut on maize.
• Mosaics
Mosaics are viral diseases. Indicated by paten of light and dark coloured portions on the leaves
e.g. cucumber mosaic virus.
• Stunting disease
Caused by virus e.g. Rosette virus in ground nuts.

8.9 Transmission of diseases

1. Wind
2. Water (splash rain)
3. Insect pests
4. Soil (soil borne)
5. Seed (seed borne)
5. Men
7. Implements
Diseases can also be caused by nutrient deficiencies, Dodders and cuscutas (parasitic plants)

8.10 Diseases control methods

8.19.1 Cultural control method
Rotations – break cycle of diseases
Ploughing in and destroy trash except soil borne pathogens
Weed control – relate to insect transmitted diseases
 Use of certified seed
Time of planting – diseases avoided by growing crops when conditions are unfavourable to
diseases e.g. bush top is not common in early planted crops
Hygiene- avoid taking the disease by washing equipment
Selection of healthy seedlings
Spacing
Fertilizer application - apply correct levels , over application stimulate rank growth which affect
micro-climate
Use resistant varieties
Legislation- e.g. cotton and tobacco
a. Legislation that stipulates eradication with varieties e.g. moniclar potatoe
b. Notifiable diseases e.g. virus Y in potatoes
c. Time of planting is stipulated
d. Quarantine – applied to imports
3. Agricultural services – Use research findings on the crop. Use set light or photo to identify the
diseases.

8.10.2 Agrochemicals
• Pesticide formulation
Dusts
Granules
Sprays
Aerosols
Fumigants
• Dusts- active ingredient is mixed in inert carrier e.g. lime- not mixed with water. Apply
when calm to avoid breathing in.
• Granules- formulated as granules to lessen health hazards. – are very easy to apply ,
need no water e.g. Dipterex
• Sprays – Wetable powders are sprayed with a wetting agent but still need constant
agitation. Disposal powders have finer particles than WP used with ULV spray.
Emulsions are suspensions of oil droplets in water. Pesticide dissolves in oily organic solvents
together with emulsifying agent. Agrochemicals are sold as concentrates therefore have to be
diluted before use. Agrochemicals are very expensive. Emulsions break down quicker than
powders, less easily washed by rain and suitable for ULV spray.
• Aerosoles – smokes and fogs. Are not for agricultural use Used on shelter places e.g.
houses
 • Fumigants - act in gaseous form. Fumigants are usually used for soil pests or stored
products. Used on confined space
• Types of pesticides
Plant derivatives – pyrethrum
Inorganic - lead arsenate
Organo clorine -DDT , Aldrin
Organo phosphate - malathion
Carbonates - larvin , carbaryl
Benzilic acid compounds
Amadines - kelthin , acricide ,morocide
Pyrethroids – karate , marvirik , agrithrin
8.10.2 Colour coding - show the level of toxicity of a chemical
Green - is a safe chemical
Amber - dangerous
Red - very dangerous
Purple- extremely dangerous (lethal)

8.10.3 Modes of functions of pesticides

• Four ways
Stomach poisons – have to be ingested
Contact poisons – act by direct contact
Systemic chemicals – are stomach poisons absorbed through the plant.
Fumigants - act by inhalation contact

• Use of pesticides
Used as seed dressings
Used as baits – most suitable for small scale orchards
Used as sprays –most common and effective method.
Full cover or wet spray – used for non mobile insects e.g. scales
Soil sprays – are systemic pesticides – do not affect innocent insects
8.11 Summary

The use of agrochemicals in the control of pests should come in as the last option in pest
control. For you to choose a chemical to use on a particular pest you should be able to identify
the pest, know the mode of feeding of the pest and be able to choose the correct chemical for
the pest to be controlled.
8.12 Activity

Identify the crop diseases in the farms around your area and categorize them accordingly in any
one of the above categories.

Briefly explain how each of the diseases listed in activity 3.2 can be transmitted from one crop
to the other and how best it can be controlled.

Using the pests identified in unit two select the chemicals suitable for the control of each pest.

CHAPTER 9. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

9.1 Introduction
IPM is much a clean approach to pest and disease control which is environmentally friendly. The
implementation of IPM produces crops which contain the least chemical residues. Its
implementation to pests and diseases reduces the costs of production significantly, hence the
need for consideration.
9.2 Objectives of the unit
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Define IPM.
• Define the components of IPM
• List the cultural practices used in IPM
• Identify the precautions one should observe when handling chemicals
9.3 Definition
Integrated pest management is an integrated approach to the management of pests (insect
pests, diseases, animals and weeds) in a sustainable manner. The approaches include biological,
cultural, physical and chemical approaches.

9.4 .1 IPM practices leading to sustainable pest conntrol

Identify pests and asses pest levels in the field.
Know the pest history, development and the factors which influence its availability.
Keep low levels of pests in the field as this ensures that natural enemies are always available.
The main objective of IPM is to keep and maintain low levels of pests and make sure that they
are always below the economic injury level.
9.4.2 Principles of integrated pest management
Ensure healthy plants at all times
Conserve natural enemies
Chemical control should be taken as the last option in pest and disease control
9.4. 3 Components of IPM
• Monitoring
Involve operations like scouting to detect, identify and determining the pest levels in the fields.
• Forecasting
Is the prediction on the development of the pest to economic injury level depending on the
environmental conditions.
• Thresholds
Thresholds refer to the pest levels at which economic losses are realized. Threshold levels are
also used to estimate the severity of the pest observed. Some control measures should be taken
at this level.
9.4.4 Management tactics in IPM
[Link] Cultural
- Crop rotations are planned in such a way that they reduce the buildup of pests and diseases.
- Avoid planting susceptible plants in areas where particular pests are known too be
problematic.
- Destroy plant residues in order to remove overwintering conditions for the pests.
- High relative humidity should be avoided at all costs to minimize the development of some
pests and diseases.
- Winter ploughing exposes some pest species to natural enemies and reduces pest pressure.
- Planting times should be such that they avoid the peak periods of particular or known pests
during the vulnerable stages of the crops.
- Proper fertilization of crops ensures high growth vigour to avoid stress that may predispose the
crop to diseases.
- Farmers should plant disease free seed to avoid early disease attacks.
- practicing good sanitation.
- Good weed control practices to avoid seeding reduce pressure to crops and promote plant
growth and it also reduces host plants to pests and diseases.
- Tap crops are also very useful in reducing pest pressure on the major crop.
- Proper irrigation scheduling reduces continuously humid conditions which favour the
development of most fungal diseases.
[Link] Physical and mechanical control
- Hand picking of pests can be used on some pests e.g. cape mounted riffle beetle.
- Use of traps for flying insects and sticky boards for crawling pests.
- Barriers prevent pests from reaching the crop.
[Link] Biological control
- Use of predators reduces pest populations significantly.
- Conserve natural enemies to keep pest populations low.
- Use of cultured bacteria to control some pest species is also effective.
[Link] Chemical control
Chemical control should be regarded as the last option in choosing control measures for pests
and disease control.
The right chemical should be chosen for the right pest at the right time, applied at the correct
rate, distributed correctly to ensure efficiency of the chemical used.
[Link] Legislation
Legislated planting and destruction dates should be observed as they minimize the spread of
pests e.g. in cotton and tobacco.

9.4.5 Safe use of pesticides

Get any chemical containers with amber, green, red and purple triangles to identify the
precautions to follow when using each chemical.
[Link] Pesticide transport
During packaging avoid packing pesticides together with food staffs and avoid transporting
pesticides together with human food.
Also avoid transporting pesticides in the passenger compartment in any vehicle.
[Link] Storage of pesticides
The store room should be well ventilated, kept under lock.
Only enough pesticides for the season should be bought.
Pesticides should be stored out of reach of children and apart from feed and food staffs.
[Link] Chemical hygiene
After applying chemicals remove protective clothing, wash hands and face with soap and clean
water, wash the used equipment avoiding the contamination of public water and destroy empty
containers. Do not recycle or put the empty containers to other uses.

[Link] Registration
Chemicals selected for use in any one crop should be registered. They should posses the
registration number and a colour triangle. It is advisable that one should buy originally packed
chemicals from the suppliers and avoid buying repacked chemicals.

9.4.5 What should you do to use chemicals safely?

First of all read and understand the instructions and all other information given on the label
All chemicals should be equally regarded as potentially dangerous
Chemical users should wear protective clothing whenever chemicals are to be used.
Pesticides should be used only when necessary.
Recommended rates should always be used to maintain the efficiency of the chemicals.
Over application of the chemical may lead to crop damage and over accumulation of crop
residues beyond the limit and under application may lead to ineffective pest control.
Pre-harvest intervals should be observed where crop consumption is direct.

• Factors to consider when choosing a pesticide for use

The use of chemicals should always be the last option after all other possible measures have
been exhausted.
The choice of the chemical should depend on the following
Choose the right chemical for the right pest to be controlled.
Chemicals should be used when the pest level reaches the economic threshold level.
Choose the least dangerous chemical, but the chemical should be effective against the problem.
Choose a chemical that can be safely applied with the available equipment.
Choose affordable and available chemicals.
9.5 Summary

The way a farmer protects the crop from planting to harvesting from all the possible factors
which lead to the reduction in yield can lead to a sustainable yield. Integrated pest management
practices involve different means of pest control. The use of different methods of pest control
reduces the risk of chemicals to human beings.

9.6 Activity

Define IPM and make a list of the cultural practices used in IPM in your area.

What are the precautions one should observe during the use of pesticides?

19.7 References