MATH F214 / MAC F214

Elementary Real Analysis

Prof. Sangita Yadav

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan
Module 3: Sequence of Real Numbers
 Chapter 2a
Sequences
a
Kenneth A. Ross, Elementary Analysis: The Theory of Calculus,
Undergraduate text in Mathematics, Springer, 2ndnd Edition, 2013.
§7 Limits of Sequences
Definition
A sequence is a function f : N → R. We write
xn = f (n) and call xn the n-th term of the sequence.
We will usually denote f as {xn } or (xn ) or as an infinite
tuple (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . .).
Click here to plot a finite number of terms of the
sequence.
Example
√
xn = n12 , n ∈ N xn = n n, n ∈ N

n
xn = (−1)n+1 , , n ∈ N xn = 1 + n1 , n ∈ N
xn = cos nπ


3 , n ∈N xn = en
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Bounded Sequence
Definition (Bounded Sequence)
A sequence (xn ) is said to be bounded if the range
{xn : n ∈ N} is a bounded set.
The above definition is equivalent to: “(xn ) is said to be
bounded if there exists a real number M > 0 such that
|xn | ≤ M for all n.”

Example
If xn = (−1)n , then (xn ) is bounded.
If xn = (−1)n n, then (xn ) is not bounded.
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Convergence
Definition (7.1 Convergent Sequence)
A sequence (xn ) converges to a limit x if for every ε > 0
there is N ∈ N such that

|xn − x| < ε if n ≥ N. (1)

In this case, we say that (xn ) is convergent and write

lim xn = x or xn → x.
n→∞

A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge.

For geometrical view click here.
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§8 Proving Convergence

1 Scratch Work: Start with |xn − x| < ε and find n.

This will give you a N to proceed for the proof of
xn → x.
2 For actual proof, let ε > 0.
3 Let N be the value obtained from the scratch work
and assume n > N.
4 Redo the scratch work (without ε) and use the
value of N to show that |xn − x| < ε.

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 Lecture 11
August 22, 2025

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§9 Limit Theorems for Sequences

Theorem
The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.

Theorem (9.1)
A convergent sequence is bounded.
Note: Converse of the above theorem is not true, i.e.,
every bounded sequence does not converge.

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Exercises

(−1)n
1 Check whether the sequence is convergent?
n
Is it bounded?
2 Let (an ) and (bn ) be two convergent sequences such
that lim an = a and lim bn = b. If an < bn for all n,
then either prove or disprove that a < b.

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Limit Theorems
Theorem (9.2-9.6)
Let
lim xn = x and lim yn = y,
n→∞ n→∞
where x and y are finite. Then
a
lim (cxn ) = cx, where c ∈ R is a constant.
n→∞
b lim (xn + yn ) = x + y,
n→∞
c
lim (xn − yn ) = x − y
n→∞
d lim (xn yn ) = xy,
n→∞
xn x
e
lim = , if yn is nonzero for all n and y ̸= 0.
n→∞ yn y
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 Lecture 12
August 25, 2025

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Recall
(Sequence) A real sequence is a function f : N → R. It is
usually denoted as (xn ) or {xn }.
(Range) Range of the sequence (xn ) is the set {xn : n ∈ N}.
(Bounded) (xn ) is said to be bounded if there exists a real
number M > 0 such that

|xn | ≤ M for all n.

(Convergent Sequence) (xn ) converges to a limit x if for

every ε > 0 there is N ∈ N such that

|xn − x| < ε if n ≥ N.

Every convergent sequence is bounded.

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Exercises
1 Give example of
1 a sequence (χn ) of irrational numbers having a limit
lim χn that is a rational number.
2 a sequence (ψn ) of rational numbers having a limit
lim ψn that is an irrational number.
√
2 Determine
√ lim s n , where (i) s n = n2 + 1 − n (ii)
sn = n2 + n − n.
3 Let sn be a sequence of nonnegative real numbers,
and suppose that lim sn = 0. Prove that
√
lim sn = 0.
4 Let sn be a sequence of nonnegative real numbers,
and suppose√that s = lim sn . Prove that
√
lim sn = s.
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 Lecture 13
August 28, 2025

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Sequences Diverging to ±∞
Definition (9.8)
We say that
lim xn = ∞
n→∞
if for every real number M > 0, there exists N ∈ N such
that xn > M for n > N . Similarly,

lim xn = −∞
n→∞

if for every real number M < 0, there exists N ∈ N such

that xn < M for n > N . We say that {xn } diverges to
∞ (−∞) if lim xn = ∞ (−∞).
n→∞
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Theorem (9.9)
Let (xn ) and (yn ) be sequences such that lim xn = +∞
and lim yn > 0 [ lim yn can be finite or +∞]. Then
lim xn yn = +∞.

Theorem (9.10)
For a sequence (xn ) of positive real
 numbers,

1
lim xn = +∞ if and only if lim = 0·
n→∞ n→∞ xn

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Ratio Test for Sequence

Exercise 9.12
Assume that xn ̸= 0 for all n and lim xxn+1
n
exists. Let
xn+1
L = lim . Show that if L < 1, then lim xn = 0.
xn n→∞
Further show that if L > 1, then lim |xn | = +∞.
n→∞

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 Lecture 14
August 29, 2025

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Exercises

an
1 Show that lim = 0 for every a ∈ R.
n!
2 For a ∈ R, find lim an .
n
3 For every a ∈ R and p > 0, find lim anp .
4 Show that for every x ∈ R there exists a sequence
of rational numbers (rn ) such that rn → x.
5 If a ≥ b + ε for all ε > 0, then a ≥ b.
6 If a ≤ b + ε for all ε > 0, then a ≤ b.

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Some Basic Sequences
Theorem (9.7)
1
1 lim = 0 for p > 0.
n→∞ np
2 lim an = 0 if |a| < 1.
n→∞
3 lim (n1/n ) = 1.
n→∞
4 lim (a1/n ) = 1 for a > 0.
n→∞

Exercise
np
If a > 0 and p is real, then lim =0
n→∞ (1 + a)n

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 Lecture 15
September 01, 2025

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 §10
Monotone Sequences and Cauchy
sequences

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Monotonic Sequences
A sequence (xn ) is said to be increasing(nondecreasing)
if xn+1 ≥ xn for all n. Similarly, (xn ) is said to be
decreasing(nonincreasing) if xn+1 ≤ xn for all n.
A monotonic(monotone) sequence is a sequence that is
either increasing or decreasing.
If xn+1 > xn for all n, then {xn } is called strictly
increasing, while if xn+1 < xn for all n, {xn } is called
strictly decreasing.

Exercise
1
Show that the sequence s1 = 2 and sn+1 = 2 − ,
sn
n ≥ 1, is monotone.
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Theorem (10.2, Monotone Convergence Theorem)
Every bounded monotone sequence is convergent.
A bounded sequence may not converge (xn = (−1)n ).
A monotone sequence may not converge (xn = n).
Unbounded sequence may have limits.
Theorem (10.4)
(i)
If (sn ) is an unbounded nondecreasing sequence,
then lim sn = +∞.
(ii)
If (sn ) is an unbounded nonincreasing sequence,
then lim sn = −∞.
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 Lecture 16
September 03, 2025

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Cauchy Sequence
Definition ((10.8))
A sequence (xn ) of real numbers is called a Cauchy
sequence if for each ε > 0 there exists a number N such
that
m, n ≥ N implies |xn − xm | < ε.
For visualizing a Cauchy Sequence, see this.
Lemma (10.9)
Every convergent sequence (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.

Lemma (10.10)
Cauchy sequences are bounded.
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Subsequence
Definition (11.1 Subsequence)
Suppose (xn ) is a sequence. A subsequence of this
sequence is a sequence of the form (yk ), where for each
k there is a positive integer nk such that

n1 < n2 < . . . < nk < nk+1 < . . .

and
yk = xnk .
Thus (yk ) is just a selection of some [possibly all] of the
x′n s taken in order.

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Theorem (11.3)
If the sequence (xn ) converges, then its every
subsequence converges to the same limit.

Theorem (11.4)
Every sequence (xn ) has a monotonic subsequence.

Theorem (11.5 Bolzano-Weierstrass)

Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

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Theorem
Let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence. If there exists a
convergent subsequence of (xn ), then (xn ) is convergent.

Theorem
Every real Cauchy sequence is convergent.

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 Lecture 17
September 04, 2025

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Theorem (11.2)
Let (sn ) be a sequence.
(i)
If t is in R, then there is a subsequence of (sn )
converging to t if and only if the set
{n ∈ N : |sn − t| < ε} is infinite for all ε > 0.
(ii)
If the sequence (sn ) is unbounded above, it has a
subsequence with limit +∞.
(iii)
Similarly, if (sn ) is unbounded below, it has a
subsequence with limit −∞.
Remark In each case, the subsequence can be taken to
be monotonic.
Proof is skipped.
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Contractive Sequence
Definition
A sequence (xn ) is said to be contractive if there exists
λ ∈ (0, 1) such that
|xn+2 − xn+1 | ≤ λ|xn+1 − xn | for all n ∈ N.

Theorem
Every contractive sequence is a Cauchy sequence, and
therefore is convergent.

Example
Let f1 = 1 = f2 and define fn+1 = fn + fn−1 . Show that
the sequence xn+1 = fn+1 /fn+2 is contractive.
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Corollary
Let (xn ) be a contractive sequence with constant
C ∈ (0, 1). If x = lim xn , then
C
1 |xn+1 − x| ≤ |xn+1 − xn |
1−C
C n−1
2 |xn − x| ≤ |x2 − x1 |.
1−C

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Limit Superior and Limit Inferior
Let (xn ) be a bounded sequence in R. Define
uN = inf{xn : n ≥ N } and vN = sup{xn : n ≥ N }.
Observe that
u1 ≤ u2 ≤ u3 ≤ . . . and v1 ≥ v2 ≥ v3 ≥ . . . ;

We see that the limits u = limN →∞ uN and

v = limN →∞ vN both exist, and u ≤ v.
If lim xn exists then, we must have u ≤ lim xn ≤ v.
The numbers u and v are denoted lim inf xn and
lim sup xn , respectively.

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Definition (10.6)
Let (xn ) be a sequence in R. We define

lim sup xn = lim sup{xn : n ≥ N }

N →∞

and
lim inf xn = lim inf{xn : n ≥ N }.
N →∞

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Theorem (10.7)
Let (xn ) be a sequence in R.
1 If lim xn is defined (as a real number, +∞ or
−∞), then

lim inf xn = lim xn = lim sup xn .

2 If lim inf xn = lim sup xn , then lim xn is defined
and
lim xn = lim inf xn = lim sup xn .

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 Lecture 18
September 08, 2025

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Recall
1Monotonic Sequence
2 Cauchy Sequence
3 Contractive Sequence
4 lim sup and lim inf
If (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence then xn+1 − xn → 0.
Converse is not true. For an = 1 + 21 + 13 + · + n1 ,
1
an+1 − an = n+1 → 0. But (an ) is not a Cauchy
sequence.
A Cauchy sequence may not be contractive.
If |x n+2 −xn+1 |
|xn+1 −xn+2 | → C, for C ⩾ 1, then (xn ) is not
contractive.
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Exercises I
1 If lim xn and lim yn exist and xn ≤ yn for all
n ≥ N0 , then show that lim xn ≤ lim yn .
2 If xn ≤ yn for all n ≥ N0 , then show that

lim sup xn ≤ lim sup yn and lim inf xn ≤ lim inf yn .

3 (i) Let (sn ) be a sequence such that

|sn+1 − sn | < 2−n for all n > N0 for some N0 ∈ N.

Prove that (sn ) is a Cauchy sequence.

1
(ii) Let (sn ) be a sequence such that |sn+1 − sn | <
n
for all n > N0 for some N0 ∈ N. Is the sequence (sn ) a
Cauchy sequence?
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Exercises II
4 Let (sn ) and (tn ) be two sequences defined as
(sn ) = (0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, . . .),
(tn ) = (2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, . . .).
Find
(i) lim inf(sn + tn ) (iii) lim sup(sn + tn )
(ii) lim inf(sn ) + lim inf(tn ) (iv) lim sup(sn )+lim sup(tn )
5 Show that
(i) lim sup(xn + yn ) ≤ lim sup xn + lim sup yn
(ii) lim inf(xn + yn ) ≥ lim inf xn + lim inf yn .
6 (Theorem 12.1) If (sn ) converges to a positive real
number s and tn is any sequence then
lim sup sn tn = s lim sup tn .
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Exercises III
7 (Theorem 12.2) If (xn ) is a sequence of nonzero real
numbers. Then, we have
xn+1 1
lim inf ≤ lim inf |xn | n
xn
1 xn+1
≤ lim sup |xn | n ≤ lim sup
xn

xn+1
8 (Corollary 12.3) If lim xn exists (and is equal to
1
L) then lim |xn | n exists (and is equal to L).

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Subsequential limit

Definition (11.6)
Let (xn ) be a sequence in R. A subsequential limit is any
real number or symbol +∞ or −∞ that is the limit of
some subsequence of (xn ).
Consider the following sequences:
1 xn = (−1)n
2 xn = (−1)n n2
3 xn = sin(nπ/3)
4 (xn ) be list of all rational numbers.

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 Lecture 19
September 10, 2025

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Theorem (11.7)
Let (xn ) be any sequence. There exists a monotonic
subsequence whose limit is lim sup xn , and there exists a
monotonic subsequence whose limit is lim inf xn .

Theorem (11.8)
Let (xn ) be any sequence in R, and let S denote the set
of subsequential limits of (xn ).
(i)
S is nonempty.
(ii)
sup S = lim sup xn and inf S = lim inf xn .
(iii)
lim xn exists if and only if S has exactly one
element, namely lim xn .
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§14 Series
If (an ) is a sequence of real numbers, the symbol
∞
X
an
n=1
is called an infinite series. We define a sequence of
partial sums (sn ) as
sn = a1 + . . . + an , n ≥ 1.
∞
X
If the sequence (sn ) converges to A, we say that an
n=1
∞
X
converges to A, and write an = A.
n=1
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Remark
∞
X
If (sn ) diverges, we say that an diverges.
n=1
In particular, if lim sn = ∞ (−∞), we say that
n→∞
X∞
an diverges to ∞ (−∞).
n=1
A divergent infinite series that does not diverge to
±∞ is said to oscillate, or be oscillatory .
While dealing with infinite series the standard
operations such as “=”, “+”, “−′′ should be
handled carefully.
Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 47 / 71
Example
(−1)n . If we write
P
Consider the infinite series
S = (−1)n .
P
S = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ...
S = 1 − S =⇒ S = 1/2

S = (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + . . .
= 0 + 0 + 0 + . . . = 0.

S = 1 + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + . . .

= 1 + 0 + 0 + . . . = 1.

Thus we see that “+” is not associative in this setting.

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Theorem (Geometric Series)
∞
X
The series arn converges if |r| < 1, and diverges
n=0
otherwise.

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Algebra of Series

Theorem
1 Let ∞ ∞
X X
an = A and bn = B,
n=1 n=1
where A and B are finite. Then, for a constant c,
∞
X ∞
X
(can ) = cA, (an + bn ) = A + B.
n=1 n=1

2 Sum of a convergent series is unique.

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Cauchy’s Convergence Criterion

Theorem (14.4)
P
A series an converges if and only if its sequence of
partial sums (sn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
P This is
equivalent to saying that a series an converges if and
only if for every ε > 0 there is an integer N such that
n
X
ak < ε if n ≥ m ≥ N.
k=m+1

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Corollary (14.5)
P
If an converges, then lim an = 0.
n→∞

Theorem (Cauchy Condensation Test)

Let (an ) be a decreasing sequence of nonnegative
P terms,
i.e., a1 ≥ a2 ≥ . . . ≥ 0. Then the series an converges
X∞
if and only if the series 2n a2n converges.
n=0

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 Lecture 20
September 11, 2025

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Theorem (15.1)
X 1
The series converges if p > 1 and diverges if
np
p ≤ 1.
∞ ∞ ∞
X 1 π2 X 1 π4 X 1 π6
2
= , 4
= , =
n=1
n 6 n=1
n 90 n=1
n6 945
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
3
≈ 1.2020569, 5
≈ 1.0369278,
n=1
n n=1
n
∞
X 1
7
≈ 1.0083493
n=1
n
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Theorem
∞
X 1
The series converges if p > 1 and diverges
n=2
n(log n)p
if p ≤ 1.

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Exercises
Discuss the convergence of the following series
∞
X 1
1
p
, p∈R
n=2
(n ln n)
∞
X 1
2 , p∈R
n=2
(ln n)p
∞ ∞
X 1 X (ln n)j
3 and , j ∈ N, p ∈ R
n=2
n(ln n)p n=2
np
∞  ∞  p
X n p X ln n
4 , p∈R and , p∈R
n=2
ln n n=2
n

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Comparison Test
Theorem (14.6)
P
Let an be a series such that an ≥ 0.
P
1 If an converges and suppose that there exists
N ∈ N such that
|bn | ≤ an , n ≥ N,
P
then bn converges.
P
2 If an diverges and suppose that there exists
N ∈ N such that
bn ≥ an , n ≥ N,
P
then bn diverges.
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Examples
X cos2 n ∞
1 3
X 2 + cos n
∞
n2 3n
X 1 n=2
2 X  nπ 
ln n 4 sin
n=2 9
Homework
P
1 Prove that if an is a convergent series
P ofp
nonnegative numbers and p > 1, then an
converges.
P P
2 Show that if an and bn are
P√ convergent series
of nonnegative numbers then an bn converges.
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Limit Comparison Test

Theorem
Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ∈ N.
an P P
1 If lim = c > 0, then an and bn both
bn
converge or both diverge.
an P P
2 If lim = 0 and bn converges, then an
bn
converges.
an P P
3 If lim = +∞ and bn diverges, then an
bn
diverges.

Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 59 / 71
Absolutely Convergent
Definition
P
A series an is said to
Pbe absolutely convergent or to
converge absolutely if |an | is convergent.

Example
X (−1)n X sin( nπ )
6
and are absolutely
n2 n6
convergent.
X (−1)n X
and (−1)n n are not absolutely
n
convergent.

Theorem (14.7)
Every absolutely convergent
MATH F214 series
/ MAC F214 is convergent.
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Ratio Test

Theorem (14.8)
P
A series an of nonzero terms
an+1
1 converges absolutely if lim sup < 1,
an
an+1
2 diverges if lim inf an > 1,
3 otherwise lim inf aan+1
n
≤ 1 ≤ lim sup an+1
an and
test gives no information.

Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 61 / 71
Root Test
Theorem (14.9)
P 1
Let
P a n be a series and α = lim sup |a n | n . The series

an
1 converges absolutely if α < 1,
2 diverges if α > 1,
3 otherwise α = 1 and test gives no information.
Remark Root Test is superior to the Ratio Test. For the
∞
n
X
series 2(−1) −n , Ratio Test gives no information but
n=0
the series is convergent by Root Test.
Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 62 / 71
 Lecture 21
September 12, 2025

Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 63 / 71
§15 Alternating Series

Theorem (15.3)
If a1 ≥ a2 ≥ . . . ≥ an P
≥ . . . ≥ 0 and lim an = 0, then
the alternating series (−1)n+1 an converges.

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Integral Test

Theorem (Exercise 15.8)

Let (an ) be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that
an = f (n), where f is a continuous, positive, decreasing
function of x for all x ≥ N (N is a positive integer).
X∞ Z ∞
Then the series an and the integral f (x)dx both
n=N N
converge or both diverge.

Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 65 / 71
Power Series
Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers. Then, the series
∞
X
an x n
n=0

is called a power series. an are called coefficients of

series. ∞
X
Given a power series an xn , put
n=0
1 1
α = lim sup |an | n , R = .
α
∞
X
Then an xn converges if |x| < R, and diverges if
n=0
|x| > R. R is called radius of convergence.
Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 66 / 71
Theorem (Riemann)
P
Let an be a series of real numbers which converges,
but not absolutely. Suppose

−∞ ≤ α ≤ β ≤ ∞.
P ′
Then there exists a rearrangement an with partial
′
sums sn such that

lim inf s′n = α, lim sup s′n = β.

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Decimal Form

Definition
A nonnegative decimal form is an infinite series of the
form
a1 a2 an
a0 + + 2 + ... + n + ...,
10 10 10
denoted by a0 .a1 a2 a3 . . . , where a0 is a nonnegative
integer and 0 ≤ ai ≤ 9 is an integer for each i = 1, 2, . . ..

Theorem
Every nonnegative decimal form converges to a
nonnegative real number.

Prof. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F214 / MAC F214 September 12, 2025 68 / 71
Remark
Similarly, we can define a non-positive decimal form and
show that it converges to a non-positive real number.

Theorem
Every nonnegative real number has a nonnegative
decimal representation.

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Theorem
A real number x has exactly one decimal expansion or
else x has two decimal expansions, one ending in a
sequence of all 0’s and the other ending in a sequence of
all 9’s.

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Repeating Decimal
An expression of the form

K.d1 d2 · · · dℓ dℓ+1 · · · dℓ+r

represents the decimal expansion in which the block

dℓ+1 · · · dℓ+r is repeated indefinitely:

K.d1 d2 · · · dℓ dℓ+1 · · · dℓ+r dℓ+1 · · · dℓ+r dℓ+1 · · · dℓ+r · · ·

We call such an expansion a repeating decimal.

Theorem (16.5)
A real number x is rational if and only if its decimal
expansion is repeating.
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