MATH F214 (Elementary Real Analysis)

Dr. Sangita Yadav

Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan
Module 5: Metric Spaces
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 3 / 44
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

The elements of X are called points and the

function d is called distance function or a metric.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 3 / 44
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

The elements of X are called points and the

function d is called distance function or a metric.
(X, d) is called metric space.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 3 / 44
Metric Space
A metric space is a set X together with a function
d : X × X → R such that for any elements x, y, z ∈ X,
the following properties hold:
1 d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y, while d(x, x) = 0.
2 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetry ).
3 d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) (Triangle Inequality ).

The elements of X are called points and the

function d is called distance function or a metric.
(X, d) is called metric space.
Property 1 can also be written as d(x, y) = 0 if and
only if x = y.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 3 / 44
Discrete Metric Space

Let X be a non-empty set and d : X × X → R be

defined as (
1 if x ̸= y
d(x, y) =
0 if x = y.
Then d(·, ·) is a metric on X and (X, d) is called discrete
metric space.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 4 / 44
Some other Metrics

R2 is a metric space with respect to metric defined

by
d(x, y) = |x1 − y1 | + |x2 − y2 |,
where x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ). This is called
Taxi-Cab metric.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 5 / 44
Some other metrics
Rk is a metric space with respect to the metric
defined by
d(x, y) = max |xi − yi |,
i=1...k

where x = (x1 , . . . , xk ), y = (y1 , . . . , yk )

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 6 / 44
Some other metrics
Rk is a metric space with respect to the metric
defined by
d(x, y) = max |xi − yi |,
i=1...k

where x = (x1 , . . . , xk ), y = (y1 , . . . , yk )

Let C([0, 1]) denote the set of all real valued
continuous function defined on interval [0, 1].
C([0, 1]) is a metric space with respect to the
following metric:
d(f, g) = sup{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [0, 1]},
∀f, g ∈ C([0, 1]).
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 6 / 44
Exercises

1 Let d(x, y) = (x − y)2 for x, y ∈ R. Determine

whether d(x, y) defines a metric on R or not.
|x−y|
2 Show that d(x, y) = 1+|x−y| defines a metric on R.
3 Does d(x, y) = |x2 − y 2 | define a metric on R?
s
Z 1
4 Does d(f, g) = |f (x) − g(x)|2 dx define a
0
metric on C([0, 1])?

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 7 / 44
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 8 / 44
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 8 / 44
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
If ai < bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. The k-cell is set of all
points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ Rk such that
ai ≤ x ≤ bi .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 8 / 44
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
If ai < bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. The k-cell is set of all
points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ Rk such that
ai ≤ x ≤ bi .
1-cell is an interval.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 8 / 44
A few definitions

By a segment (a, b), we mean set of all real

numbers such that a < x < b, i.e.,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
An interval [a, b] is the set of all real numbers such
that a ≤ x ≤ b, i.e., [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
If ai < bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , k. The k-cell is set of all
points x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ Rk such that
ai ≤ x ≤ bi .
1-cell is an interval.
2-cell is a rectangle.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 8 / 44
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 9 / 44
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).
If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then a closed ball with centre
x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| ⩽ r} and is
denoted by Cr (x).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 9 / 44
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).
If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then a closed ball with centre
x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| ⩽ r} and is
denoted by Cr (x).
A set E ⊆ Rk is said to be convex if
λx + (1 − λ)y ∈ E, whenever x, y ∈ E and
0 < λ < 1.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 9 / 44
A few definitions

If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then an open ball with centre

x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| < r} and is
denoted by Br (x).
If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, then a closed ball with centre
x and radius r is {y ∈ Rk : |y − x| ⩽ r} and is
denoted by Cr (x).
A set E ⊆ Rk is said to be convex if
λx + (1 − λ)y ∈ E, whenever x, y ∈ E and
0 < λ < 1.
Open and closed balls are convex.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 9 / 44
 Lecture 24
September 22, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 10 / 44
Neighborhood
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A neighborhood Nr (x0 ) of radius r > 0 around a point
x0 ∈ X is the set of all points in X whose distance from
x0 is less than r, i.e.,
Nr (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 11 / 44
Neighborhood
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A neighborhood Nr (x0 ) of radius r > 0 around a point
x0 ∈ X is the set of all points in X whose distance from
x0 is less than r, i.e.,
Nr (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}.

Example
1 Let X = R. Then, segment (−1, 1) is a
neighborhood of radius 1 around 0.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 11 / 44
Neighborhood
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition
A neighborhood Nr (x0 ) of radius r > 0 around a point
x0 ∈ X is the set of all points in X whose distance from
x0 is less than r, i.e.,
Nr (x0 ) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}.

Example
1 Let X = R. Then, segment (−1, 1) is a
neighborhood of radius 1 around 0.
2 Let X = R2 . Then unit disk is a neighborhood of
radius 1 around 0.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 11 / 44
Neighborhood in R2
If x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ), then for 1 ⩽ p ⩽ ∞
( 1
(|x1 − y1 |p + |x2 − y2 |p ) p if p < ∞
dp (x, y) =
max{|x1 − y1 |, |x2 − y2 |} if p = ∞.

Here is the geometry of unit balls using different metric.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 12 / 44
Open Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition (Interior Point)
A point x ∈ X is an interior point of E if there is a
neighborhood Nr (x) of x such that Nr (x) ⊆ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 13 / 44
Open Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition (Interior Point)
A point x ∈ X is an interior point of E if there is a
neighborhood Nr (x) of x such that Nr (x) ⊆ E.

Definition (Open set)

E is open if every point of E is an interior point of E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 13 / 44
Open Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space.
Definition (Interior Point)
A point x ∈ X is an interior point of E if there is a
neighborhood Nr (x) of x such that Nr (x) ⊆ E.

Definition (Open set)

E is open if every point of E is an interior point of E.

Theorem (2.19)
Every neighborhood is an open set.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 13 / 44
Limit Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Limit Point)
A point x ∈ X is a limit point of E if every neighborhood
of x contains a point y ̸= x such that y ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 14 / 44
Limit Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Limit Point)
A point x ∈ X is a limit point of E if every neighborhood
of x contains a point y ̸= x such that y ∈ E.

Example
Let X = R.
1 Every point of the interval [−3, 3] is a limit point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 14 / 44
Limit Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Limit Point)
A point x ∈ X is a limit point of E if every neighborhood
of x contains a point y ̸= x such that y ∈ E.

Example
Let X = R.
1 Every point of the interval [−3, 3] is a limit point.
2 Limit points of (−3, 3) are all points in (−3, 3) and
−3, 3.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 14 / 44
Limit Points

Theorem (2.20)
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. If x ∈ X is a
limit point of a set E, then every neighborhood of x
contains infinitely many points of E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 15 / 44
Limit Points

Theorem (2.20)
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. If x ∈ X is a
limit point of a set E, then every neighborhood of x
contains infinitely many points of E.

Corollary
A finite set has no limit points.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 15 / 44
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Isolated Point)
If x ∈ E and x is not a limit point of E, then E is called
an isolated point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 16 / 44
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Isolated Point)
If x ∈ E and x is not a limit point of E, then E is called
an isolated point.

Definition (Closed Set)

E is closed if every limit point of E is a point of E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 16 / 44
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X.
Definition (Isolated Point)
If x ∈ E and x is not a limit point of E, then E is called
an isolated point.

Definition (Closed Set)

E is closed if every limit point of E is a point of E.

Definition (Complement)
Let (X, d) be a metric space and E ⊆ X. The
complement of E (denote by E c ) is the set of all points
x ∈ X such that x ̸∈ E.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 16 / 44
 Lecture 25
September 24, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 17 / 44
Theorem (2.22)
Let {Eα } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets Eα .
Then !c
[ \
Eα = (Eαc ).
α α

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 18 / 44
Theorem (2.22)
Let {Eα } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets Eα .
Then !c
[ \
Eα = (Eαc ).
α α

Theorem (2.23)
A set E is open if and only if its complement is closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 18 / 44
Theorem (2.22)
Let {Eα } be a (finite or infinite) collection of sets Eα .
Then !c
[ \
Eα = (Eαc ).
α α

Theorem (2.23)
A set E is open if and only if its complement is closed.

Corollary
A set F is closed if and only if its complement is open.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 18 / 44
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 19 / 44
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α
T
2 For any collection {Fα } of closed sets, Fα is
α
closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 19 / 44
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α
T
2 For any collection {Fα } of closed sets, Fα is
α
closed.
3 For any finite collection G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn of open
n
T
sets, Gi is open.
i=1

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 19 / 44
Union and Intersection
Theorem (2.24)
S
1 For any collection {Gα } of open sets, Gα is open.
α
T
2 For any collection {Fα } of closed sets, Fα is
α
closed.
3 For any finite collection G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn of open
n
T
sets, Gi is open.
i=1
4 For any finite collection F1 , F2 , . . . , Fn of closed
n
S
sets, Fi is closed.
i=1
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 19 / 44
 Lecture 26
September 25, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 20 / 44
Closure
Definition
If (X, d) is a metric space, if E ⊆ X, if E ′ denotes set of
all limit points of E, then the closure of the set E is the
set Ē = E ∪ E ′ .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 21 / 44
Closure
Definition
If (X, d) is a metric space, if E ⊆ X, if E ′ denotes set of
all limit points of E, then the closure of the set E is the
set Ē = E ∪ E ′ .

Theorem (2.27)
If (X, d) is a metric space and E ⊆ X, then
1 Ē is closed,
2 E = Ē if and only if E is closed.
3 Ē ⊆ F for every closed set F ⊆ X such that
E ⊆ F.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 21 / 44
Theorem (2.28)
Let E be a nonempty subset of real numbers which is
bounded above. Let y = sup E. Then y ∈ Ē. Hence
y ∈ E if E is closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 22 / 44
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 23 / 44
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Remark (2.29)
Suppose E ⊆ Y ⊆ X, where (X, d) is a metric space. To say
that E is open subset of X means that to each point x ∈ E
there exists r > 0 such that y ∈ X and d(x, y) < r imply that
y ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 23 / 44
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Remark (2.29)
Suppose E ⊆ Y ⊆ X, where (X, d) is a metric space. To say
that E is open subset of X means that to each point x ∈ E
there exists r > 0 such that y ∈ X and d(x, y) < r imply that
y ∈ E.
Since (Y, d) is also a metric space, we can also define open
subsets of Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 23 / 44
Induced Metric
Let (X, d) be a metric space. If Y ⊆ X, then (Y, d) is
also a metric space.

Remark (2.29)
Suppose E ⊆ Y ⊆ X, where (X, d) is a metric space. To say
that E is open subset of X means that to each point x ∈ E
there exists r > 0 such that y ∈ X and d(x, y) < r imply that
y ∈ E.
Since (Y, d) is also a metric space, we can also define open
subsets of Y.
We say that E is open relative to Y if for each x ∈ E, there
exists r > 0 such that “ y ∈ Y and d(x, y) < r ⇒ y ∈ E.”
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 23 / 44
Example (Relative openness)
Let X = R2 with usual metric and Y = R × {0}.
Then E = (−3, 3) × {0} is open relative to Y but
not open relative to R2 .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 24 / 44
Example (Relative openness)
Let X = R2 with usual metric and Y = R × {0}.
Then E = (−3, 3) × {0} is open relative to Y but
not open relative to R2 .
Let X = R with usual metric. Then [−3, 3] is not
open relative to R but it is open relative to
Y = [−3, 3] ⊆ R.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 24 / 44
Example (Relative openness)
Let X = R2 with usual metric and Y = R × {0}.
Then E = (−3, 3) × {0} is open relative to Y but
not open relative to R2 .
Let X = R with usual metric. Then [−3, 3] is not
open relative to R but it is open relative to
Y = [−3, 3] ⊆ R.

Example (Relative Closedness)

If X = R and Y = [0, 2) , then E = [1, 2) is closed
relative to Y but not closed relative to X.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 24 / 44
 Lecture 26
September 25, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 25 / 44
Theorem (2.30)
Suppose Y ⊆ X. A subset E of Y is open relative to Y
if and only if E = Y ∩ G for some open subset G of X.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 26 / 44
Compact Set
Definition (Open Cover)
By an open cover of a set E in a metric space X, we
meanSa collection {Gα } of open subsets of X such that
E ⊆ α Gα .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 27 / 44
Compact Set
Definition (Open Cover)
By an open cover of a set E in a metric space X, we
meanSa collection {Gα } of open subsets of X such that
E ⊆ α Gα .

Definition (Compact Set)

A subset K of a metric space X is said to be Compact if
every open cover of K contains a finite subcover, i.e., if
Gα is an open cover of K, then there are finitely many
indices α1 , α2 , . . . , αn such that

K ⊆ Gα1 ∪ . . . ∪ Gαn .
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 27 / 44
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 28 / 44
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.
Singletons are compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 28 / 44
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.
Singletons are compact.
Every finite subset of X is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 28 / 44
Examples

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then, empty set ϕ is

compact.
Singletons are compact.
Every finite subset of X is compact.
Let (X, d) be a discrete metric space. E ⊆ X is
compact if and only if E is finite.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 28 / 44
 Lecture 27
September 29, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 29 / 44
Theorem (2.33)
Suppose K ⊆ Y ⊆ X. Then K is compact relative to X
if and only if K is compact relative to Y.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 30 / 44
Theorem (2.33)
Suppose K ⊆ Y ⊆ X. Then K is compact relative to X
if and only if K is compact relative to Y.

Theorem (2.34)
Compact subsets of metric spaces are closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 30 / 44
Theorem (2.35)
Closed subsets of compact sets are compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 31 / 44
Theorem (2.35)
Closed subsets of compact sets are compact.

Corollary
If F is closed and K is compact, then F ∩ K is compact.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 31 / 44
 Lecture 28
October 01, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 32 / 44
Theorem (2.36)
If {Kα } is a collection of compact subsets of a metric
space X such that the intersection of every finite
subcollection of {Kα } is nonempty, then ∩α Kα is
nonempty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 33 / 44
Theorem (2.36)
If {Kα } is a collection of compact subsets of a metric
space X such that the intersection of every finite
subcollection of {Kα } is nonempty, then ∩α Kα is
nonempty.
Corollary
If {Kn } is a sequence of nonempty compact sets such
that Kn+1 ⊆ Kn (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 Kn is not
empty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 33 / 44
Theorem (2.36)
If {Kα } is a collection of compact subsets of a metric
space X such that the intersection of every finite
subcollection of {Kα } is nonempty, then ∩α Kα is
nonempty.
Corollary
If {Kn } is a sequence of nonempty compact sets such
that Kn+1 ⊆ Kn (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 Kn is not
empty.
Theorem (2.37)
If E is an infinite subset of a compact set K, then E has
a limit point in K.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 33 / 44
Theorem (2.38)
If {In } is a sequence of closed intervals in R, such that
In+1 ⊆ In (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 In is not empty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 34 / 44
Theorem (2.38)
If {In } is a sequence of closed intervals in R, such that
In+1 ⊆ In (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 In is not empty.

Theorem (2.39)
Let k be a positive integer. If {In } is a sequence of
k-cells such that In+1 ⊆ In (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then ∩∞
n=1 In
is not empty.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 34 / 44
 Lecture 30
October 03, 2025

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 35 / 44
k-cell is compact I
Theorem (2.40)
Every k-cell is compact.

Proof: Let I be a k-cell, consisting of all points

x = (x1 , . . . , xk ) such that
aj ≤ xj ≤ bj (1 ≤ j ≤ k). Put
( k ) 21
X
δ= (bj − aj )2 .
j=1

Then |x − y| ≤ δ, if x ∈ I, y ∈ I.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 36 / 44
k-cell is compact II
For a contradiction, suppose there exists an open
cover {Gα } of I, which contains no finite subcover
of I.
Put cj = (aj + bj )/2.
The intervals [aj , cj ] and [cj , dj ], then determine 2k
k-cells Qi whose union is I.
At least one of these sets Qi , call it I1 , cannot be
covered by any finite subcollection of {Gα },
otherwise I would be covered for a finite
subcollection.
We next divide I1 and continue this process.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 37 / 44
k-cell is compact III

We obtain a sequence with following properties:

1 I ⊇ I1 ⊇ I2 ⊇ I3 ⊇ . . . ;
2 In is not covered by any finite subcollection of {Gα }.
3 If x ∈ In and y ∈ In , then |x − y| ≤ 2−n δ.
By (1) and “Nested k-cell theorem”, there is a point
x∗ which lies in every In .
Since {Gα } is a cover for I, x∗ ∈ Gα for some α.
Since Gα is open, there exists r > 0 such that
Nr (x∗ ) ⊆ Gα . If we choose n large enough such
that 2−n δ < r, then In ⊆ Gα , which contradicts (2).

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 38 / 44
Definition (Bounded Set)
E is bounded if there is a real number M and a point
y ∈ X such that d(x, y) < M for all x ∈ E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 39 / 44
Definition (Bounded Set)
E is bounded if there is a real number M and a point
y ∈ X such that d(x, y) < M for all x ∈ E.

Theorem (2.41)
If a set E in Rk has one of the following three properties,
then it has other two:(The following are equivalent)
a
E is closed and bounded.
b E is compact.
c
Every infinite subset of E has a limit point in E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 39 / 44
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 40 / 44
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.
If (b) holds, then we have proved that (c) holds by
Theorem 2.37.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 40 / 44
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.
If (b) holds, then we have proved that (c) holds by
Theorem 2.37.
Next, we show that (c) implies (a). If E is not bounded,
then E contains points xn with |xn | > n, n = 1, 2, . . . .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 40 / 44
Proof: If (a) holds, then E ⊆ I for some k-cell. Since I
is compact and E is closed, E is compact by Theorem
2.40 and Theorem 2.35.
If (b) holds, then we have proved that (c) holds by
Theorem 2.37.
Next, we show that (c) implies (a). If E is not bounded,
then E contains points xn with |xn | > n, n = 1, 2, . . . .
Then S = {xn : n ∈ N} is an infinite subset of E and it
has no limit points in Rk , hence has none in E. Thus E
is bounded.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 40 / 44
Continued
If E is not closed.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 41 / 44
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 41 / 44
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 41 / 44
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.
Let S be the set of these points xn .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 41 / 44
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.
Let S be the set of these points xn .
Then S is infinite, otherwise |xn − x0 | would have a
constant positive value for infinitely many n which
is impossible due to Archimedean property.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 41 / 44
Continued
If E is not closed.
Then there is a point x0 ∈ Rk which is a limit point
of E but not in E.
Since x0 is a limit point, there exist points
xn ∈ E (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) such that |xn − x0 | < 1/n.
Let S be the set of these points xn .
Then S is infinite, otherwise |xn − x0 | would have a
constant positive value for infinitely many n which
is impossible due to Archimedean property.
S has a limit point x0 . As for every r > 0, by
Archimedean property there exists n0 ∈ N such that
n0 r > 1 or 1/n0 < r, i.e., |xn0 − x0 | < 1/n0 < r, so
xn0 ∈ Nr (x0 ) ∩ S.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 41 / 44
Continued
Next, we show that S does not have any other limit
point.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 42 / 44
Continued
Next, we show that S does not have any other limit
point.
Let y ∈ Rk , y ̸= x0 , then

|xn − y| = |xn − x0 + x0 − y|
≥ |x0 − y| − |xn − x0 |
1
≥ |x0 − y| −
n
1
≥ |x0 − y|
2
for all but finitely many n, as is will be true for all n such
that n1 ≤ 12 |x0 − y|.
Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 42 / 44
If, we consider r = 21 |x0 − y|, then Nr (y) ∩ S contains
only finitely many points. Thus, y is not a limit point of
S.

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 43 / 44
Theorem (2.42)
Every bounded infinite subset of Rk has a limit point in
Rk .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 44 / 44
Theorem (2.42)
Every bounded infinite subset of Rk has a limit point in
Rk .

Proof.
Let E be an bounded infinite subset of Rk . Since E is
bounded, E ⊆ I for some k-cell I ⊆ Rk .

Dr. Sangita Yadav (BITS Pilani) MATH F241 (Elementary Real Analysis) October 1, 2025 44 / 44
Theorem (2.42)
Every bounded infinite subset of Rk has a limit point in
Rk .

Proof.
Let E be an bounded infinite subset of Rk . Since E is
bounded, E ⊆ I for some k-cell I ⊆ Rk . Since I is
compact, E has a limit point in I.

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