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Bgcse Maths - so good

Engenharia Agronômica (Francistown Senior Secondary School)

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BGCSE

MATHEMATICS

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Table of Contents
PREFACE........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.0. NUMBERS .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.0.1. NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS ........................................................................................ 5
1.0.2. SURDS ................................................................................................................................ 10
1.0.3. PATTERNS AND SEQUENCES ....................................................................................... 12
1.0.4. ESTIMATION AND APPROXIMATION ......................................................................... 16
1.0.5. PERCENTAGES & MONEY ............................................................................................. 17
1.0.6. RATIO AND PROPORTION ............................................................................................. 20
1.0.7. INDICES ............................................................................................................................. 23
1.0.8. STANDARD FORM AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES ...................................................... 27
2.0. MEASURES ................................................................................................................................ 28
2.0.1. MENSURATION ................................................................................................................ 28
2.0.2. ESTIMATES (LIMITS OF ACCURACY) ......................................................................... 33
2.0.3. TRAVEL GRAPHS ............................................................................................................. 37
3.0. ALGEBRA................................................................................................................................... 40
3.0.1. FORMULAE ....................................................................................................................... 40
3.0.2. EXPRESSIONS ................................................................................................................... 42
3.0.3. SOLVING ALGERAIC EQUATIONS ............................................................................... 46
3.0.4. SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ........................................................................... 50
3.0.5. INEQUALITIES .................................................................................................................. 54
3.0.6. QUADRATIC GRAPHS ..................................................................................................... 59
4.0. GEOMETRY............................................................................................................................... 61
4.0.1. GEOMETRICAL TERMS AND RELATIONSHIPS ......................................................... 61
4.0.2. CIRCLE THEOREMS ........................................................................................................ 62
4.0.3. COORDINATE GEOMETRY ............................................................................................ 66
4.0.4. TRIGONOMETRY ............................................................................................................. 69
4.0.5. BEARINGS ......................................................................................................................... 71
4.0.6. SIMILARITY AND CONGRUENCY ................................................................................ 73
4.0.7. SYMMETRY....................................................................................................................... 76
4.0.8. TRANSFORMATIONS ...................................................................................................... 77
4.0.9. VECTORS ........................................................................................................................... 82
4.0.10. LOCI .................................................................................................................................. 85
5.0. PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS ........................................................................................ 89
5.0.1. PROBABILY....................................................................................................................... 89
5.0.2. STATISTICS ....................................................................................................................... 92

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PREFACE

Mathematics is the study of shapes and numbers and their relationship. It is an essential subject
as it helps us understand the world around us much easier and helps us on our daily life
activities. BGCSE Mathematics is a subject of important and applicable topics. The course is
examined after two years in three types of papers, Paper 1, 2 and 3. Paper 1 is usually simple
arithmetic which can be done without a calculator, hence the use of any calculating aid is not
allowed in the paper. The total mark for the paper is 50 which should be completed in 1 hour
30 minutes. Paper 2 contains similar topics as paper 1 but those that require the use of a
calculator and have added complexity. It is advisable to know formulas (DO NOT TO CRAM
THEM) for each topic and their applications. The total mark for this paper is 75. Paper 1 and
paper 2 are termed as core papers as they are compulsory to all students and the maximum
grade one can obtain having written all these is a C even if both papers are exceptionally
passed. Paper 3 on the other hand is termed as an extended paper because it contains extended
content and also requires the use of a calculator. The total mark for this paper is 125, and one
can obtain grades from A∗ to B. If poorly performed, paper 1 and paper 2 will be used to grade
candidates. Below are the topics that are mostly covered in the 3 examination papers.

Paper 1 Covered Topics (CORE)

Numbers, Indices, Linear Sequences, Expressions and Simple Equations, Simultaneous
Equations, Ratio and Proportion, Simple Interest, Circle Theorems, Symmetry, Quadratic
Graphs, Vectors, Loci, Simple Inequalities, Coordinate Geometry, Simple Probability,
Transformations, Travel Graphs, Directed Numbers, Standard Form, Limits of Accuracy,
Percentages excluding Compound Interest, Simple calculation of Quartiles, Mean, Mode and
Median, Bearings, Pythagoras’ Rule, Factorisation, Fractions, Decimals, Estimation and
Approximation and Time.

Paper 2 Covered Topics (CORE)

Numbers, Indices, Linear Sequences, Expressions and Simple Equations, Simultaneous
Equations, Ratio and Proportion, Simple Interest, Reversed Percentages, Compound Interest,
Circle Theorems, Symmetry, Quadratic Graphs, Vectors, Loci, Simple Inequalities, Coordinate
Geometry, Simple Probability, Transformations, Travel Graphs, Standard Form, Limits of
Accuracy, Mensuration, Bearings, Trigonometry excluding cosine rule, Factorisation,
Fractions, Decimals, Estimation and Approximation, Statistics excluding variance and standard
deviation, Binominal Products and Time.

Paper 3 Covered Topics (EXTENDED)

Numbers, Indices, Quadratic Sequences, Formulae, Expression fractions as Single fraction,
Forming and solving Simultaneous Equations, Ratio, Reversed Percentages, Circle
Theorems (calculating and stating the theorems), Forming and solving Quadratic Equations,
Symmetry, Quadratic Graphs, Trigonometry, Similarity and Congruency especially area and
volume of similar figures, Vectors, Loci, Forming and graphing Inequalities, Statistics (Data
Handling) especially mean, median, variance, standard deviation, histogram and scatter graph,
Probability, Mensuration, Travel Graphs, Transformations (graphing and describing),
Standard Form, Limits of Accuracy.

From Word Crackers Tutorials, we wish you all the best in your Mathematics course!

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1.0. NUMBERS

1.0.1. NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS

Rational (fractional) numbers: these are numbers that can be

expressed in the form of a fraction, e.g. ½, 0.7, 5, 1/6, 25

Imaginary numbers: these are numbers Real numbers: this is the set of all
4
that do not exist, e.g. −1, −7 rational and irrational numbers, e.g.
1.8, 𝜋, 12
TYPES OF
NUMBERS

Integers: these are whole numbers, i.e. both Irrational numbers: these are numbers that
positive and negative whole numbers, e.g. -2, -1, cannot be expressed in the form of a fraction, e.g.
3
0, 1, 2 𝜋, 2, 7

CLASSES OF NUMBERS

1. Prime numbers – these numbers that can be divided by one and themselves only
(except 1), e.g. the first 15 prime numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37,
41, 43, 47 …

2. Rectangle numbers – these are all counting numbers that are not prime numbers (also
excepting 1), e.g. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20 …

3. Square numbers – these are number that obtained by multiplying a number by itself,
e.g. 1 × 1 = 1, 2 × 2 = 4, 3 × 3 = 9, 4 × 4 = 16, 5 × 5 = 25 …
OR 12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25 …

4. Cube numbers – these are number obtained by multiplying a number by itself three
times e.g. 1 × 1 × 1 = 1, 2 × 2 × 2 = 8, 3 × 3 × 3 = 27, 4 × 4 × 4 = 64, 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
…
OR simply 13 = 1, 23 = 8, 33 = 27, 43 = 64, 53 = 125 …

5. Triangle numbers – these are numbers that can be arranged in the form of a triangle
e.g. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21 …

6. Multiples – these numbers that a certain number can go into without leaving a
remainder e.g. the first five multiples of 6 are; 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30.

7. Factors – numbers that can go into a certain number without leaving a remainder e.g.
factors of 6 are; 1, 2, 3, 6.

8. Reciprocals – numbers that when multiplied give a product of 1 e.g. 2 and ½, 3 and ⅓,
1.5 and ⅔, etc.

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LAWS OF DIRECTED NUMBERS

+ × += +
2× 4=8
+ ÷ += +
4÷2 =2

Multiplication
− × +=− Laws of + × −=−
−5 × 4 = −20 Directed 3× −5 = −15 Division
numbers + ÷−=− Laws of − ÷ += −
5÷ −1 = −5 Directed −3÷ 3 = −1
numbers

− × −= +
−3 × −2 = 6 −÷−= +
−6 ÷ −3
=2

The above diagrams shows the laws of directed numbers and you are advised to know them by
heart as they apply in every concept that will be covered in this book!

EXPRESSING A NUMBER AS A PRODUCT OF ITS PRIME FACTORS

To express a number as a product of its prime factors means that we are finding the prime
numbers that are factors of a certain number. When these are multiplied, the answer is the
number we are expressing. This is done by first dividing the number with the smallest possible
prime number divisor and continuing with the results using successive prime numbers. A prime
number can repeat if it can still divide the previous result. This is shown below:

EXAMPLE 1
Express 168 as a product of its prime factors.

2 168
The final answer would then be
2 84
168 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 or simply:
2 42
3 21 168 = 23 × 3 × 7
7 7
1
Method: We start off by placing the number on the
right and dividing it by 2 (the smallest possible prime
number divisor). The result is then divided by the
smallest possible prime number divisor until the last
number is a prime number which divides itself to get 1.

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FINDING THE HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR AND THE LOWEST COMMON

MULTIPLE (HCF AND LCM)

1. The Highest Common Factor (HCF)

This is the highest number that can divide two specified terms without leaving a remainder
which is common to both terms. It is obtained by expressing numbers as products of their
prime factors and identifying the expressions of prime number products which appear on both
prime factor product expressions for both terms. This is shown below.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the HCF of 24 and 16.
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
We therefore notice that the expression that is appearing on both sides is 2 × 2 × 2 and this
yields our answer which is 8.

2. The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)

This is the lowest multiple of two terms which is common to both terms. It can be obtained in
two ways i.e. by first expressing the numbers as products of their prime factors, and followed
by grouping the prime numbers into one linear multiplication which has prime numbers from
both expressions. Another simpler way is to multiply the two numbers and divide the product
with the highest common factor. This is shown below in two examples for more clarification.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the LCM of 16 and 12.
16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
12 = 2 × 2 × 3

The terms are already grouped and we now collect the like terms on both expressions as one. If
a term repeats without a duplicate in the other expression, we take it into the LCM product
expression. This is shown below:

LCM = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 Here, we see that 2 appeared twice on

both expressions, and thus we added it
LCM = 48 twice. It also appeared twice only on one
of the first expression, and thus we added
EXAMPLE 4 it. We also see that 3 only appeared only
Find the LCM of 168 and 140. on one expression once, so we add it.
168 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 7
140 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 7

In this example we will use the latter method (which is the simplest) of solving for the LCM.
First, we find the HCF and then divide the product of the numbers by this HCF. From the
expressions above, we find that HCF = 2 × 2 × 7 = 28. Thus:

168 × 140
LCM =
28
LCM = 840

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1)

1
1. 𝜋, , √25, −0.75, 3, 4⅓, 11, 0.564387, −3
8

Classify the numbers above as;

(a) Integers,
Answer (a) [2]
(b) Rational,
Answer (b) [2]
(c) Prime numbers.
Answer (c) [2]
________________________________________________________________________

2. Give the first five;

(a) Multiples of 12,

Answer (a) [2]
(b) Rectangle numbers,
Answer (b) [2]
(c) Triangle numbers,
Answer (c) [2]
(d) Cube numbers,
Answer (d) [2]
(e) Square numbers,
Answer (e) [2]
___________________________________________________________________________

3. (a) Write, in figures, the number,

Four hundred and eighty nine thousand, three hundred and forty seven.

Answer (a) [1]

(b) Write your answer to part (a) correct to the nearest ten thousand.

Answer (b) [1]

___________________________________________________________________________

4. Write the following in order of size, in ascending order (starting with the smallest).
11 111
0.525, , , 52.4%
21 211

Answer < < < [2]

___________________________________________________________________________
5. From the list below, write down irrational numbers.
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1 2
𝜋, √3, , , 3.453, −4, 57.2
8 √23

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

6. Complete the table below by writing yes or no under the columns of each type of
number. The first one has been done for you.

Natural Real Prime Rational Irrational

Number Integer
Number Number Number Number Number
2√4 yes yes yes no yes no
22
7
14𝜋
(−4)3
√9 + √16
−9
35
7

[6]
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Express the following as products of their prime factors and find the LCM and HCF of
the specified numbers.

(a) 96 (Find HCF and LCM of 96 and 24)

(b) 85 (Find HCF and LCM of 85 and 55)
(c) 115 (Find HCF and LCM of 115 and 225)
(d) 984 (Find HCF and LCM of 984 and 1024)
(e) 1024 (Find HCF and LCM of 1024 and 512)

Answers (a) [3]

(b) [3]
(c) [3]
(d) [3]
(e) [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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10

1.0.2. SURDS

These are irrational numbers expressed as square roots.

RULES FOR SURDS

1. Simplifying the square root of a number without a perfect square root (surd).

√𝒂 = √𝒃 × 𝒄 = √𝒃 × √𝒄 = 𝒅√𝒄
In the rule above, the product of 𝒃 and c are 𝒂, and b is a square number and its root is
the value of 𝒅, while 𝒄 has no perfect square root, hence it is left under the square root.
This is applicable only when 𝒂 can be expressed as a multiple of a square number. If 𝒄
can also be expressed as a multiple of a square number, the answer should be simplified
even further. This is demonstrated below:

Simplify √24 In this case, 4 is square number, having root 2

while 6 cannot be expressed as a multiple of a
= √4 × 6 square number; hence it is left under the root.
= √4 × √6
= 2 × √6 = 𝟐√𝟔 (Answer)

2. Simplifying the quotient of surds.

√𝒂 𝒂 √12 12
=√ e.g. = √ = √4 = 2
√𝒃 𝒃 √3 3

3. Simplifying the product of surds.

√𝒂 × √𝒃 = √𝒂𝒃 e.g. √8 × √2 = √8 × 2 = √16 = 4
𝒂√𝒃 × 𝒄√𝒅 = (𝒂𝒄)√𝒃𝒅 e.g. 2√3 × 5√3 = (2 × 5)√9 = 30

4. Simplifying the addition and subtraction of surds. Note that this is only applicable when
a number is appearing on both square roots. This is shown below in 2 examples.
𝒂√𝒃 + 𝒄√𝒃 = (𝒂 + 𝒄)√𝒃 e.g. 2√3 + 4√3 = (2 + 4)√3 = 6√3
𝒂√𝒃 − 𝒄√𝒃 = (𝒂 − 𝒄)√𝒃 e.g. 7√6 − 3√6 = (7 − 3)√6 = 4√6

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the following expressions. In this case, 46 does
not have a perfect
square root and
√48 √98 √112 √184 cannot be expressed
as a multiple of a
= √16 × 3 = √49 × 2 = √16 × 7 = √4 × 46 square root hence it is
= √16 × √3 = √49 × √2 = √16 × √7 = √4 × √46 left as it. is.

= 4 × √3 = 7 × √2 = 4 × √7 = 2 × √46
= 𝟒√𝟑 = 𝟕√𝟐 = 𝟒√𝟕 = 𝟐√𝟒𝟔

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11

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Write √80 + √180 in the form 𝑝√5, where 𝑝 is an integer.

Answer [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Simplify the following surds.
(a) √99 − √44 − √11
(b) √12 × √48
(c) 3√12 × √8
√300
(d)
√75
(e) √72 − √8

Answers (a) [2]

(b) [2]
(c) [2]
(d) [2]
(e) [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Use Pythagoras theorem (Page 67) to find the side 𝑥cm expressing your answer as a
surd in its simplest form. HINT: (𝑎√𝑏 )2 = 𝑎2 𝑏.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Simplify the following surd.
√26 × √3
5√2 + 7√2

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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12

1.0.3. PATTERNS AND SEQUENCES

LINEAR SEQUENCES

𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏
Where:
✓ 𝑡𝑛 is the term of a sequence.
✓ 𝑎 is the common difference between two successive terms in a sequence.
✓ 𝑛 is the position of a term in a sequence, denoted as the nth term.
✓ 𝑏 is a term before the first term in a sequence.

EXAMPLE 1
A sequence is given as follows: 9, 11, 13, 15 … , …

(a) Write the next two terms in the sequence above.

NB: To answer this, notice that to get the next term, we simply add 2 to the previous
term. Thus 2 is the common difference.

Answer (a) 17, 19 [2]

th
(b) Find an expression for the n term.

NB: To answer this, choose any term from the sequence and fit it into the linear
sequence formula with the variables we already have, i.e. in this case we will choose 9,
and 𝑡𝑛 = 9, 𝑎 = 2, 𝑛 = 1. Even if we choose 15, the answer will still be the same. The
final answer should be written in numbers instead of variables, i.e. replace 𝑎 with its
value, and also replace 𝑏 with its value and only excluding 𝑛 because we are finding the
general formula for the specific sequence above. This is shown below:

𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 or 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 therefore 𝑡𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 7
9 = 2(1) + 𝑏 15 = 2(4) + 𝑏
9=2+𝑏 15 = 8 + 𝑏
9−2=𝑏 15 − 8 = 𝑏
𝑏=7 𝑏=7
Answer (b) 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟕 [2]
NB: An expression has no equal sign.
(c) Hence find the 22nd term.

NB: To answer this, we use the expression obtained in (b) above to solve for tn
considering that we are asked to find the term number (tn) in the 22nd (n) position in the
sequence, i.e.

𝑡𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 7
𝑡22 = 2(22) + 7
𝑡22 = 51
Answer (c) 𝟓𝟏 [1]

NB: When asked to find the value of 𝑛 such that 𝑡𝑛 takes a certain value, simply equate your
expression to the value and solve algebraically.

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13

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1)

1. (a) Complete the sequence below with the next two terms.
25, 20, 15, 10, 5, … , …

Answer (a) [2]

(b) Find the expression for the 𝑛 term.
th

Answer (b) [2]

(c) Hence, or otherwise find the 50 term.
th

Answer (c) [1]

___________________________________________________________________________

2. (a) Complete the sequence below with the next two terms.
3, 0, −3, −6, −9, … , ….

Answer (a) [1]

(b) Find the expression for the 𝑛th term.

Answer (b) [1]

(c) Hence or otherwise find the position of 𝑡𝑛 = −30.

Answer (c) [1]

___________________________________________________________________________

3. The 𝑛th term of a sequence is given as 𝑡𝑛 = 6𝑛 − 3

(a) Write down the first 5 terms of the sequence.

(b) Find the position of the term 𝑡𝑛 = 93
(c) Another sequence has the common difference as +7, and the first term is −12. Find
the expression of the 𝑛th term of this sequence.

Answer (a) [2]

Answer (b) [3]

Answer (c) [2]

___________________________________________________________________________

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14

QUADRATIC SEQUENCES
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐
Where:
✓ 𝑡𝑛 is the term of a sequence.
✓ 𝑎 is the half of the second common difference of a sequence.
✓ 𝑛 is the position of a term in a sequence.
✓ 𝑏 and 𝑐 are unknowns.

EXAMPLE 1
Given the sequence −1, 0, 3, 8, 15, 24 …,
(i) Find an expression for the 𝑛th term.
(ii) Hence or otherwise find the 10th term of the sequence.

ANSWERS
(i) −1, 0, 3, 8, 15, 24 …,
First difference
+1, +3, +5, +7, +9
Second difference
+2, +2, +2, +2

STEP 1 – SOLVING FOR 𝒂, 𝒃, AND 𝒄;

2𝑎 = 2 When solving for 𝑎, we use the formula:
𝒂=𝟏 2𝑎 = the first term of the second difference

3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1
3(1) + 𝑏 = 1
3+𝑏 =1
𝑏 = 1−3 When solving for 𝑏, we use the formula: 3𝑎 +
𝒃 = −𝟐 𝑏 = the first term of the first difference.

𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = −1
1 + (−2) + 𝑐 = −1
1 − 2 + 𝑐 = −1
−1 + 𝑐 = −1 When solving for 𝑐, we use the formula:
𝑐 = −1 + 1 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = the first term of the sequence.
𝒄=𝟎

STEP 2 – SUBSTITUTING OUR VALUES;

We then substitute the values we obtained into the expression. This is shown below:
𝑡𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐
𝑡𝑛 = (1)𝑛2 + (−2)𝑛 + 0
𝒕𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐𝒏 (Answer)
Sometimes you’re asked to find the value 𝑛 for
which 𝑡𝑛 is a certain value. To do this, you equate
(ii) 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 2𝑛 your expression to the term and solve it as a
𝑡10 = (10)2 − 2(10) quadratic equation and considering the positive
𝑡10 = 100 − 20 root of the equation. Refer to page 49 for solving
𝒕𝟏𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎equations.
quadratic

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15

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. Given the sequence of numbers 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, … find

(a) An expression for the 𝑛th term. [3]
(b) The value of 𝑛 for which 𝑡𝑛 is 9410. [2]
(c) The 20 term.
th
[1]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. A sequence of numbers is given as 11, 20, 31, 44, … find
(a) The next two terms of the sequence. [1]
(b) An expression for the 𝑛 term of the sequence.
th
[3]
(c) The value of the 17 term.
th
[1]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. A sequence is given as follows:
1, 2, 4, 7, 11
(a) Find the next 3 terms. [1]
(b) Find an expression for the 𝑛 term.
th
[3]
(c) Find the position of the term 79 in the sequence. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Given the sequence of numbers 0.8, 1.2, 2.2, 3.8, 6, … find
(a) The next 4 terms. [2]
(b) An expression for the 𝑛 term.
th
[3]
(c) The 59 term of the sequence.
th
[2]
(d) The value of 𝑛 for which the term number is 1160.2. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
5. A sequence is as follows:
−4.5, −2.5, 2.5, 10.5, …
(a) Find the next 2 terms. [1]
(b) Find an expression for the 𝑛 term.
th
[3]
(c) Find the 12 term.
th
[2]
(d) Find the value of 𝑛 for which the term number is 340.5. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Given the sequence of numbers 13, 14.2, 15.6, 17.2, … find
(a) The next 2 terms. [1]
(b) An expression for the 𝑛 term.
th
[3]
(c) The value of 𝑛 for which the term number is 91.2. [3]
(d) The 13 term.
th
[2]
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Study the pattern of squares below.

(a) Find the number of black and white

squares in D5. [2]

(b) Find an expression for the black and

white squares for the 𝑛th diagram. [4]

(c) Which diagram has 113 white

squares? [3]

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1.0.4. ESTIMATION AND APPROXIMATION

Estimation is the process of trying out of size, based on former and acquired information. In
simpler terms, it is a rough guess of a quantity or measurement. In order to find the best
estimated answer, we round off values suitably to make computations much lighter and easier.
Examples are shown below. The sign ≈ means that the value is “approximately equal to”.

EXAMPLE 1
Estimate the value of

64.791 × 39.736 65 × 40 2600

≈ ≈ ≈ 1300
1.9803 2.0 2

As seen above, we have rounded off all the value correct to two significant figures. The actual
answer is 1300.07331, hence this is the best estimated answer.

EXAMPLE 2
Estimate the value of the equation below.

3.857 × 31.7362 4.0 × 322 4096

√ ≈ √ ≈ √ ≈ √1024 ≈ 32
3.5008 4.0 4

The same method of rounding off to two significant figures to make computations easier was
also applied in the above example. The actual answer is 33.31524295.

Approximation on the other hand is the process of finding a solution to a particular degree of
accuracy. In examination questions, estimation and approximation are used simultaneously.
The methodology of solving for both is the same, just that when approximating, you then give
the estimated answer to a certain degree of accuracy as the definition has mentioned.

EXAMPLE 3
Approximate the value of the following equation to two significant figures.

49.897 × 2.897 ≈ 50 × 3.0 ≈ 150

As seen above, we have manipulated the original equation to make computations easier, hence,
our approximated answer has two significant figures as the question has stated the degree of
accuracy. The actual answer is 144.551609. Consider another example below, note that the
original values have been rounded off to two significant figures to get the best approximated
answer. Note that the actual answer is 27.71113974.

EXAMPLE 4
Approximate the value of the following equation to two significant figures.

3 3 3
44.879 × 4.987 45 × 5.0 225 3
(√ ) ≈ (√ ) ≈ (√ ) ≈ (√9) ≈ (3)3 ≈ 27
9.891 × 2.471 10 × 2.5 25

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1.0.5. PERCENTAGES & MONEY

PERCENTAGES

REVERSED PERCENTAGES
These are percentages used to find the initial quantities before being increased or decreased.
Note that this is only applicable if you are asked to find an initial. The formula used is:

100
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
100 ± 𝑅

Where:
✓ 𝑅 is the rate of increase or decrease of a value.

EXAMPLE 1
Brandiin bought a house and sold it P750 000 making a 20% profit. Calculate how much he
initially bought it for.

100
× 750 000 = 𝐏𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
100 + 20

EXAMPLE 2
Joseph bought a Mathematics book and sold it for P396 making a 10% loss. Calculate how
much he bought it for.
100
× 396 = 𝐏𝟒𝟒𝟎
100 − 10

SIMPLE INTEREST

𝑃𝑅𝑇
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
100
Where:
𝑃 is the principal as Pula,
𝑅 is the rate as a percentage,
𝑇 is the time in years.

EXAMPLE 1
Bonolo saved P300 in an account at 12% interest per annum for 2 years.

(a) Calculate the interest she earned.

𝑃𝑅𝑇
SI =
100
300×12×2
SI =
100
7200
SI =
100
SI = 𝐏𝟕𝟐. 𝟎𝟎

(b) Calculate the total money she had in her account after 2 years.

P300 + P72 = 𝐏𝟑𝟕𝟐. 𝟎𝟎

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COMPOUND INTEREST (CI)

𝑅 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 ± )
100
𝐶𝐼 = 𝐴 − 𝑃
Where:
𝐴 is the total amount accrued as Pula,
𝑃 is principal as Pula,
𝑅 is the rate as a percentage,
𝑛 is the time in years.
𝐶𝐼 is the compound interest earned as Pula.

EXAMPLE 1
Oreeditse invests P6000 in her savings account at 15% compound interest per annum for 3
years. Calculate the interest she will earn.

15 3
𝐴 = 6000 (1 + )
100
A = 6000(1.15)3
A = P9125.25
CI = A – P
CI = P9125.25 − P6000
𝐂𝐈 = 𝐏𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟓

NB: “P9125.25” is the total amount in the account while “P3125.25” is the interest she has
earned after 3 years.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Mr Mafokate saves P2000 at 15% simple interest per annum in a fixed deposit account
for 3 years, calculate the simple interest that he will earn.

Answer [2]
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Neli invests P900 at 7% compound interest for 2 years. Calculate how much interest
she will earn.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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3. Linda bought a car for P40 000, it lost 20% of its value after a year, calculate its new
value.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. T–Smile bought new shoes for P80 and sold them at 10% profit. Calculate how much
he sold them for.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Brand ~ In Suppliers provide cell phones, portable tablets and laptops to a wholesaler
every month.

(a) During March 2016, they supplied 2500 cell phones in boxes of 125.
(i) How many boxes were supplied? [2]
(ii) During April 2016, the number of boxes increased by 40%. How many cell
phones were sold to the wholesaler during this month? [3]

(b) Tablets are supplied in terms of their mass and each tablet has a mass of 120g.
During March 2016, the total mass of the tablets was 36kg.
(i) How many tablets were sold? [2]
(ii) In order to meet the demand of the customers in April 2016, the wholesaler
increased the mass ordered in March by 16%. How many tablets were
ordered? [3]

(c) During the month of May 2016, 370 laptops were supplied. This was 26% less
than the number of laptops supplied in April 2016. Calculate the number of laptops
supplied in April 2016. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
6. A new hover board costs P2500. With depreciation, its value is falling by 15% per
annum. What is the value of the hover board after 3 years?

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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1.0.6. RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ratio is the quantitative relationship between two amounts showing the number of times one
value contains or is contained within the other.

1. Simplifying Simple Ratios

These are ratios in the form 1: 𝑛. The proceeding examples show how these are simplified
(a) 0.4kg: 600g
(b) 10m: 1km

Answers:
First, convert the given units into a similar unit, i.e.

(a) 400g: 600g

2: 3
0.4 × 1000 = 400g
1 × 1000 = 1000m
(b) 10m: 1000m
1: 100

2. Sharing Using a Ratio

When sharing using a ratio, we add up all the numbers in the ratio and then multiply the total
amount of a value by a fraction of the ratio we want to obtain its share. Look at the example
below:

Three sisters, Gee, Lolo and Bino share P5000 in the ratio 2: 3: 5 respectively. Calculate each
one’s share.

Answer:

2 10 was obtained by adding the numbers in

Gee; × 5000 = P1000
10 the ratio. Note that the order of the ratio is
3
Lolo; × 5000 = P1500 determined by who was mentioned first.
10 This is always the case.
5
Bino; × 5000 = P2500
10

MAP RATIOS (SCALES)

In these ratios, we use the relationship between the map measurements and the real life
measurements to approximate or estimate the distances and areas in real life. If a scale is given
as 1: 100 000, this means that 1cm in the map represents 100 000cm (1km) in real life. Take
considerate attention to the following examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the actual distance in km of two points that are 17.5cm apart on a map that has a scale of
1: 5 000 000.

Answer (On next page)

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1: 5 000 000 17.5 × 5 000 000 = 1 × 𝑥

17.5: 𝑥 𝑥 = 87 500 000cm
87 500 000
∴𝑥= = 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝐤𝐦
100 × 1000

Here, we’ve calculated the value of 𝑥 the same way as the previous examples. We then convert
the answer which is in cm to km as the questions has requested.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the actual area in hectares of a farm which is 6cm2 on a map with a scale of 1: 50 000.

Since the scale of the map is 1: 50 000

This means if the length between two points is 1cm, then in real life it would be 50 000cm.
Hence 1cm × 1cm = 1cm2 on the map and 50 000cm × 50 000cm = 2 500 000 000cm2 in real life.
This means that 1cm2 on the map = 2 500 000 000cm2 in real life.
This means that a farm with an area of 6cm2 on the map would be equivalent to a farm with an area of
6 × 2 500 000 000 in real life which would be equal to 15 000 000 000cm2 in real life.
Now since 1cm = 0.01m, we have 1cm × 1cm = 1cm2 as 0.01m × 0.01m = 0.0001m2
This means 1cm2 = 0.0001m2 and thus 15 000 000 000cm2 × 0.0001 = 1 500 000m2
Then since 1 hectare = 10 000m2 , we have 1 500 000/10 000 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 hectares.

TYPES OF PROPORTION
1. Direct Proportion – in this type of proportion, as one quantity increases, the other
quantity increases at the same rate and as one quantity decreases, the other quantity
decreases at the same rate. The example below shows this:

E.g. Mr Brandiin can type 100 words in 60 seconds. How many words can he type in 150
seconds?

100: 60 In direct proportion, we cross

𝑥: 150 multiply to obtain the value of
the other quantity.
100 × 150 = 𝑥 × 60
15000 = 60𝑥
𝑥 = 250 words.

2. Indirect Proportion – in this type of proportion, as one quantity increases, the other
quantity decreases at the same rate and as one quantity decreases, the other quantity
increases at the same rate.

E.g. It takes 5 men 30 days to build a house, how long will it take 3 men to build the same
house?

5: 30 In indirect proportion, we
3: 𝑥 multiply linearly to obtain the
5 × 30 = 3 × 𝑥 value of the other quantity.
150 = 3𝑥
𝑥 = 50 days.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. (a) Ginosko came back from South Africa with R1500. How much will he get in Pula if
the exchange rate is R1.00: P0.87.

Answer (a) [2]

(b) Hunnet, Wame and Neli share P50 000 in the ratio 2: 4: 5 respectively. Calculate
each one’s share.

Answer (b) [3]

(c) A map has a scale 1: 1 000. Find the actual area in hectares of ground that is
8. 3cm2 on the map.

Answer (c) [3]

___________________________________________________________________________
2. 12 bags of oats will be enough for 3 donkeys for 8 days. How long will 10 bags last 4
donkeys?

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. An alloy is made of iron, copper, nickel and phosphorus in a ratio6: 4: 3: 1. Given that a
sample of the alloy has a total mass of 714g calculate the mass of each metal.

Answer [4]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. The recipe for making 8 small cakes includes 480g of flour, 720g of fat, and 2 eggs.
Find the amount of each ingredient that will be needed to make 12 small cakes.

Flour: ______________, Fat: ______________, Eggs: ______________ [4]

___________________________________________________________________________

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1.0.7. INDICES

LAWS OF INDICES

1. The Multiplication Law

When multiplying powers of the same base, the powers are added, i.e.
𝑎𝑏 × 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 +𝑐
EXAMPLE 1
84 × 82 = 84+2 = 86

2. The Division Law

When dividing powers of the same base, powers are subtracted, i.e.
𝑎𝑏 ÷ 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏−𝑐
EXAMPLE 2
84 ÷ 82 = 84−2 = 82

3. The Bracket Law

When a base in a bracket with an index (power) is raised to another power, the powers multiply
each other, i.e.
(𝑎𝑏 ) c = 𝑎𝑏×𝑐

EXAMPLE 3
(53 )2 = 53×2 = 56

4. The Zero And One Index Law

Any number to the power of zero equals to one, and any number to the power 1 is that number
itself i.e.

𝑎0 = 1 𝑎1 = 𝑎
EXAMPLE 4
150 = 1 and 3.71 = 3.7

5. The Negative Index Law

When a base is raised to a negative power, it is dropped under or raised above a fraction to
make the power positive, i.e.
𝑎
𝑎𝑏 −𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑏

EXAMPLE 5 In this case where the number appears alone, 1 is left as the
1 1 numerator. This therefore means that only the value raised to
4−2 = 2 = a negative index is translated either up or down the fraction.
4 16

6. Fraction in Bracket Law

When a fraction is raised to a power, both the numerator and the denominator are raised to the
same power, i.e.

𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
( ) = 𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
EXAMPLE 6

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2 2 22 4
( ) = ( 2) =
3 3 9

7. The Fractional Index Law

When a number is raised to a fractional power, the denominator becomes the 𝑛th root of the
number and that root is raised to the value of the numerator, i.e.

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
𝑎 𝑥/𝑦 = ( √𝑎) = √𝑎 𝑥

EXAMPLE 7
4 1
161/4 = ( √16) = 2
3 2
272/3 = ( √27) = 32 = 9

SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONAL EXPRESSIONS IN INDICES

Given a fraction in indices, you are advised to simplify it by applying the laws of indices and if
numbers are involved, simplify them also. This is shown by two examples below:

4𝑐 4 𝑑−3 × 3𝑑7 𝑐 5 4 × 3 × 𝑐 4+5 × 𝑑−3+7 12𝑐 9 𝑑4 1 × 𝑐 9−(−6) 𝑑 4−(−4)

= = =
8𝑑 −8 𝑐 × 6𝑐 −7 𝑑4 8 × 6 × 𝑐 1+(−7) × 𝑑−8+4 48𝑐 −6 𝑑−4 4

𝑐 15 𝑑8
= (𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
4

As seen above, the fractional expression is simplified by collecting like terms and obtaining
their products. You are advised to keep in mind the laws of directed numbers. As also seen,
12/48 can be simplified to 1/4. The answers must be left in positive indices (refer to the 5th
law of indices on the previous page). The following example is similar to the above one.

5𝑥 −4 𝑦 5 × 5𝑥 2 𝑦 5 5 × 5 × 𝑥 −4+2 × 𝑦 5+5 25𝑥 −2 𝑦 10 1 × 𝑥 −2−(−5) × 𝑦 10−12

= = =
25𝑥 −6 𝑦 9 × 5𝑥𝑦 3 25 × 5 × 𝑥 −6+1 × 𝑦 9+3 125𝑥 −5 𝑦12 5

𝑥 3 𝑦 −2 𝑥3
= = (𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
5 5𝑦 2

The fractional expression above is also simplified by considering the laws of indices. Note that
in the final answer, 𝑦 −2 is translated down the fraction and is multiplied by 5 and as it is
translated, the index becomes positive. Only 𝑦 −2 is translated because it has a negative index.

NB: In examinations, some questions may require you to apply all of the laws listed and
explained above. Study each law and know how to apply it. For example, considering the
examples demonstrated above, the bracket law can be added to make the question more
complex. So it is advisable to practice them frequently! Also, if an index is given as a decimal,
try to convert that decimal to a fraction, e.g. 0.5 is the same as ½ etc.

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EQUATIONS IN INDICES

These are equations in which we have to solve for unknown values using the laws of indices.
You should be able to apply all the laws in this section. The most common thing to do is to
make all the values to become the same base for easy computations. Take considerate attention
to the following examples. The indices in fractions are given in the simplest form.

EXAMPLE 8
Solve the following equation.

811/3 × 271/4 (34 )1/3 × (33 )1/4 34/3 × 33/4 34/3+3/4 325/12
= = = =
2431/40 × 9−1/48 (35 )1/40 × (32 )−1/48 31/8 × 3−1/24 31/8+(−1/24) 31/12

= 325/12−1/24 = 32 = 𝟗

As seen above, we have expressed all the values in terms of powers of 3 (thus it is the main
base) in order to make the computations easier. Take a look at another example below.

EXAMPLE 9
Solve for 𝑥.

6𝑥 × 36 6𝑥 × 62
= 610 → = 610 → 6𝑥+2−3 = 610
216 63

∴ 𝑥 + 2 − 3 = 10 → 𝑥 = 10 − 2 + 3 → 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏

In the above example, we started off by expressing all values as powers of 6. We then apply
the laws of same bases being multiplied and divided. As we proceed, we see that we are left
with an expression on the left side and is equated to a value. We then consider the two
equations so as to be equal and solve for 𝑥 algebraically. Consider one more example below.

EXAMPLE 10
Solve for 𝑥.

3 −𝑥 125 3−𝑥 125 5𝑥 125 5𝑥 53

( ) = → = → = → =
5 27 5−𝑥 27 3𝑥 27 3𝑥 33

∴𝒙=𝟑

In the above example, we applied the bracket law first, then the negative index law, then we
expressed the right side in its simplest form. Then by comparison, 𝑥 must equal to 3 in order
for the left side of the equation to be equal to the right side.

NB: In examination questions, these laws can be tested all at once or some in pairs. It is
therefore advisable that you know how to apply all of them.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Simplify the following indices;

(a) 48 × 43 (b) 7−4 ÷ 76 (c) 9−3 (d) (𝑒 4 )5

2𝑚4 × 𝑚8 2 3
(e) 𝑘12 ÷ 𝑘 7 (f) (g) ( ) (h) 810.25
3𝑚11 5
9 −3 2𝑥 −4 𝑦 8 ×3𝑥 4 𝑦 −4
(i) 160.5 (j) 40961/12 (k) ( ) (i) 3𝑦 −8 𝑥 3 ×2𝑥 12 𝑦
27
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Express the following fractional index in its simplest form, and hence find its value if
𝑥 = 3, and 𝑦 = 4.
−4
12𝑥 2 𝑦 7 × 3𝑦 −3 𝑥 −6
( 5 −6 )
5𝑦 𝑥 × 7𝑥 9 𝑦 −3

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Solve for 𝑥 in the following equations in indices.

(a) 32𝑥−1 = 27
2 −3𝑥
(b) 3𝑥 = 81
𝑥 3 ×𝑥 2
(c) 3 3 = 144
√𝑥× √𝑥2
1 −2/3
(d) ( ) =9
𝑥
(e) √5 × 𝑥1/2 = 5
Answers (a) [3]
(b) [3]
(c) [3]
(d) [3]
(e) [3]
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Evaluate the following equations without a calculator.

91/3 ×27−1/2
(a)
3−1/6 ×3−2/3
323/4 ×85/4
(b) 1283/2
27 −2/3 3 1/2 3 3/2
(c) ( ) ×( ) ×( )
64 2 2

Answers (a) [3]

(b) [3]
(c) [3]
____________________________________________________________________________

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1.0.8. STANDARD FORM AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Scientists came up with standard form so that very big numbers and very small numbers can be
written easily. These numbers are referred to as powers of 10. Numbers in standard form are
expressed as;
𝑎 × 10𝑏

Where 1 ≤ 𝑎 < 10 and 𝑏 is an integer, either positive or negative. The value of 𝑏 is negative
when we express a decimal number in standard form and is positive when we express a larger
number.

EXAMPLE 1
Write the following numbers in standard form giving your answers to two decimal places.
(a) 0. 07892345 (b) 1 237 (c) 5 070 691 (d) 7275

Answers (a) 7.89 × 10−2 [2]

(b) 1.23 × 103 [2]
(c) 5.10 × 106 [2]
(d) 7.28 × 103 [2]

DECIMAL PLACES

Decimal places are considered as the number of numbers after a decimal point. For example
the value 0. 07892345 has 8 decimal places; 10.34 has 2; 5.4007 has 4; and 1.275 has 3.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Rules of Significant Figures:

✓ All non–zero numbers are significant.
✓ Zeros between non–zero numbers are significant.
✓ Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant.
✓ Zeros at the end of a number are not significant.
✓ Zeros after a non–zero number and a decimal point are significant.

EXAMPLES
Write the following to two significant figures.
(a) 0. 07892345 → 0.079
(b) 1247.03 → 1200
(c) 15 477.00367 → 15 000
(d) 1275.3146 → 1300
(e) 1.03601 → 1.0

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2.0. MEASURES
2.0.1. MENSURATION

This is the study of the lengths, areas, volumes, mass, and densities of different solid shapes.
Mensuration means measurement.

The Circle

1. The Circumference
It is the distance around the circle, i.e. the perimeter of a circle.

𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖 × 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 = 2 × 𝑃𝑖 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑 𝑜𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟

2. The Diameter And Radius

The diameter is the straight line from one point to another passing through the center of
the circle, while the radius is half of the diameter.

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑑 = 2𝑟

3. The Arc And Sector

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑐 = × 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜃 𝜃
× 𝜋𝑑 𝑜𝑟 × 2𝜋𝑟
360 360

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜃
× 𝜋𝑟 2
360

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2

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EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the circumference of a circle with radius 7cm correct to 3 significant figures.
𝐶 = 𝜋𝑑 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
C = 𝜋 × (7 × 2)
C = 𝜋 × 14
C = 43.98229715cm
C ≈ 44.0cm

EXAMPLE 2
Calculate length of an arc with an angle of 120° and diameter 10mm.
𝜃
𝐿. 𝑂. 𝐴 = × 𝜋𝑑
360
120
L. O. A = × 𝜋 × 10
360
L. O. A = 10.47197551mm
L. O. A ≈ 10.5mm

EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the area of circle with radius 5mm.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
A = 𝜋 × 52
A = 78.53981634mm2
A ≈ 78.5mm2

EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the area of a sector with radius 11cm and angle 115°.
𝜃
𝐴. 𝑂. 𝑆 = × 𝜋𝑟 2
360
115
A. O. S = × 𝜋 × 112
360
A. O. S = 121.4312827cm2
A. O. S ≈ 121cm2

SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME OF DIFFERENT SOLIDS

Name of solid Total surface area Volume

1 2
Cone 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟𝑙 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
3
1
4 ( 𝑏ℎ) + 𝑠 2 1
Pyramid 2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
3
4 3
Sphere 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋𝑟
3

The above table is always given in the exam paper, so there is no need to memorise them but
rather know how to apply the formulas given.

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED

1. Total Surface area – this is the sum of the areas of all surfaces of a shape.
2. Volume – this is the capacity or space the prism occupies.

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CALCULATIONS INVOLVING THE THREE SOLIDS

1. The Cone:

For a cone, the volume is simply found by

the formula above. As seen on the
diagram on the left, ℎ (height), 𝑟 (base
radius) and 𝑙 (slant height) make a right
angled triangle therefore to find any of the
three values, Pythagoras theorem applies
(𝑙 2 = 𝑟 2 + ℎ2 ). The total surface area as
seen in the equation above is the area of
the circular base added to the curved
surface area.

2. The Pyramid:

As for a pyramid the equation of the

volume is also seen above. There are two
different types of pyramids, i.e. one with
a square base and one with a rectangular
base. Pythagoras theorem applies in
many of the triangles formed. The total
surface area is the addition of the areas
of the four triangles and the base which
is either a square or a rectangle.

3. The Sphere:
A sphere’s volume equation is also in the
equations on the previous page. There are
also different types of spheres. Firstly
there’s a full solid sphere (which is seen
on the left) and then we have the
hemisphere (which is half of a full sphere).
To obtain the volume of a hemisphere,
simply divide the equation above by two.
But as for the surface area, use 3𝜋𝑟 2 only
if it is a solid hemisphere. If it is a hollow
one, the volume equation is the same but
the surface area becomes 2𝜋𝑟 2 .

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PRISMS
A prism is a 3D (3 – Dimensional) shape that has equal cross–section along its length. The total
surface area of prisms is the addition of the different areas of the sides that make up the prism.
For regular prisms, the volume is obtained using the general equation:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚

DIFFERENT TYPES OF REGULAR PRISMS

1. The Triangular Prism – has a triangular cross section as seen below:

This type of prism has a triangular

cross-section. It has 5 faces, i.e. the
2 triangular surfaces and 3
rectangular surfaces.

2. The Cuboid – has a rectangular cross section as seen below:

This prism should not be confused

with the “cube” (which has equal
sides). It has 6 faces which are
rectangular.

3. The Cylinder – has a circular cross section as seen below:

For this type of prism, it has 2 circular

faces and one curved face. To obtain the
total surface area, imagine as if it has
been stripped into a rectangular shape.
The circumference would then be the
width and ℎ is the length. Hence the
formula 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ.

DENSITY, MASS AND VOLUME

Density is the mass contained per unit volume of a prism. It is obtained by the formula below:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. The diagram below shows a bullet which is made up of a right solid cone attached to a
cylinder. The radius of the base is 6cm and the height of the cylinder is 10cm. The total
height of the bullet is 18cm.

Calculate:
(a) The volume of the bullet. [3]
(b) The total surface area of the bullet. [3]
____________________________________________________________________________
2. The Earth travels in an approximately circular orbit around the sun the radius of this
circular orbit is approximately1.47 × 1011 m. One complete orbit takes 365.26 days.
(a) Write 365.26 days in seconds in standard form correct to 3 significant figures. [1]
(b) Calculate, in metres, in standard form, the distance that the earth travels in 365.26
days. (Use 𝜋 = 3.142 giving your answer to 3 significant figures.) [2]
(c) Find the average speed of the Earth in km/s, correct to the nearest 10km/s. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
3. A hemispherical egg is found to have an inner radius of 7.3mm and outer radius of
8.6mm as shown below.

(a) Calculate
(i) The capacity of the egg. [3]
(ii) The volume of the shell that makes up the egg. [3]
3
(b) The egg has a mass of 24.9g. Calculate the density of the shell in g/cm . [3]
2
(c) Show that the curved surface area is 3.35cm correct to 3 significant figures. [2]
(d) The whole egg is to be polished with vanish for decoration. Calculate the total
surface area to be polished in cm2 . [4]
____________________________________________________________________________
4. A pyramid has a square base of side 5.5cm and height 12.5cm. Given that all the faces
of the pyramid are exactly the same, find the
(a) Diagonal length of base. [2]
(b) Height of one triangle. [2]
(c) Volume of the pyramid. [3]
(d) Total surface area of the pyramid. [4]
____________________________________________________________________________

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2.0.2. ESTIMATES (LIMITS OF ACCURACY)

When a measurement such as length, mass, time etc. is taken, it is only accurate to the accuracy
of the measuring instrument being used and sometimes this leads to errors. Limits of accuracy
play a key role in making ranges (estimates) of where the true value of the measurement may
lie. This is usually termed as the upper bound and the lower bound and these suggest that the
true value of the measurement lies between those two values. The lower bound may be equal to
the true value hence the sign “less than or equal to” is used, i.e. ≤ , while the upper bound will
always be greater than the true value hence the sign “less than” is used, i.e. <.

EXAMPLE 1
The distance between Gaborone and Johannesburg is 360km correct to the nearest km.
Calculate the lower and upper bounds of the distance.

361 − 360
= ±0.5km The first step is to find the possible error which is
2 by considering the next value after the specified
U. B = 360 + 0.5 = 360.5km value and finding their difference which is then
L. B = 360 − 0.5 = 359.5km divided by 2 to get the average. And then the
lower bound is obtained by subtracting the
possible error while the upper bound is obtained
Answer: 359.5km ≤ 𝑑 < 360.5𝑘𝑚 by adding the possible error as shown.

EXAMPLE 2
The length of a pen is 12.3cm correct to one decimal place. Calculate the lower and upper
bounds of the length.

12.4 − 12.3
= ±0.05cm
2
U. B = 12.3 + 0.05 = 12.35cm
L. B = 12.3 − 0.05 = 12.25cm

Answer: 12.25cm ≤ 𝑙 < 12.35cm

EXAMPLE 3
The diameter of a chalk is 1.32mm correct to two decimal places. Calculate lower and upper
bounds of the diameter.

1.33 − 1.32
= ±0.005mm
2
U. B = 1.32 + 0.005 = 1.325mm
Answer: 1.315mm ≤ 𝑑 < 1.325mm
L. B = 1.32 − 0.005 = 1.315mm

EXAMPLE 4
The distance between Gaborone and Molepolole is 50km to the nearest 5km. Calculate the
lower and upper bounds of the distance.

55 − 50
= ±2.5km U. B = 50 + 2.5 = 52.5km L. B = 50 − 2.5 = 47.5km
2
Answer: 47.5km ≤ 𝑑 < 52.5km

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THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM POSSIBLE VALUES

Using the skills we’ve obtained of finding the upper and lower bounds, we will now look at the
process of finding the maximum and minimum possible values using these. To find the
minimum possible value, we can either use the lower bounds only if the value is dependent on
directly proportional values or both the lower bound and the upper bound if the value is
dependent on inversely proportional values. The procedure is similar when finding the
maximum possible value, with upper bounds only or upper bound and the lower bound. The
examples below will apply both methods. Note that we’ve already calculated the bounds.

EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the minimum possible area of a field which is measured 20m by 30m both correct to
the nearest meter.

Answer
The bounds of the width are 19.5m ≤ m < 20.5𝑚
And the bounds of the length are 29.5m ≤ m < 30.5𝑚
Hence to obtain the minimum possible value of the area, we will multiply the lower bounds
only in order to get the smallest value.
Therefore the smallest possible area= 19.5m × 29.5m = 𝟓𝟕𝟓. 𝟐𝟓𝐦𝟐 .

EXAMPLE 6
A bullet is shot at a speed of 63m/s correct to the nearest 1m/s. If it travelled a distance of
590m correct to the nearest 5m, calculate the maximum possible time taken by the bullet.

Answer
The bounds of the speed are 62.5m/s ≤ m/s < 63.5𝑚/𝑠.
And the bounds of the distance are 587.5m ≤ m < 592.5m.
Hence to obtain the maximum possible value of the time taken (𝑡 = 𝑑 ÷ 𝑠), we will divide the
upper bound of the distance by the lower bound of the speed in order to obtain the greatest
value.
Therefore the greatest possible time taken by the bullet = (592.5m) ÷ (62.5m/s) = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟖𝐬.

EXAMPLE 7
̂ C is 57.3° correct to one decimal place. AB = 6.9cm and BC =
In the diagram below, angle AB
8.7cm also correct to one decimal place. Calculate the minimum possible area of the triangle.
(𝐴 = ½𝑎 × 𝑏 × sin𝐶)
Answer
The bounds of the angle are 57.25° ≤ ° < 57.35°.
The bounds of AB are 6.85cm ≤ cm < 6.95𝑐𝑚.
And the bounds of BC are 8.65cm ≤ cm < 8.75𝑐𝑚.
Therefore to obtain the minimum possible area, we use
the lower bounds for each quantity, i.e.

𝐴 = ½ × 6.85cm × 8.65cm × sin57.25

𝐴 = 24.9168320578cm2
𝐴 ≈ 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝐜𝐦𝟐 (Correct to 3 s. f. )

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. (a) Calculate the upper and lower bounds of a wire that is 6cm long correct to the
nearest cm.

Answer (a) [2]

(b) The distance from Gaborone to Francistown is 430km to nearest 10km. Calculate
its lower and upper bounds.

Answer (b) [3]

___________________________________________________________________________
2. A right angled triangle is such that AB =
7.8cm and AC = 9.7cm. All measurements
are given to 1 decimal place.

(a) State the upper bound for the side AC. [1]
(b) Calculate the upper bound of the area of the triangle. [3]
(c) Calculate the minimum possible value of angle AĈB. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. The distance between Gaborone and Kasane is 930km correct to the nearest 5km. Mr
Scott is driving to Kasane at an average speed of 200km/hr correct to the nearest
5km/hr. Calculate the maximum possible time, in hours and minutes, that he would
take to arrive at Kasane.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. The distance between the Earth and planet Pluto is 7.5 × 109 km correct to 2
significant figures. An experimental satellite departed from Earth to Pluto at a speed of
2.5 × 103 km/hr, which is also correct to 2 significant figures. Calculate the upper
and lower bounds of the time in days the satellite will take to land at Pluto.

Answer [3]

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___________________________________________________________________________

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2.0.3. TRAVEL GRAPHS

These are graphs that are used to represent motion of objects. There are 2 types of travel graphs
✓ Distance/Displacement – time graph.
✓ Speed/Velocity – time graph.

1. Distance/Displacement – Time Graphs

Rules for interpreting a distance/displacement – time graph:

1. The slope or gradient of the graph represents the speed.
This means that whenever you see a straight slanting line, the speed is constant because
the gradient of a straight slanting line is the same or constant throughout.
2. A horizontal line means no speed since the graphs has no slope, therefore the moving
object is said to be at rest.
3. To calculate the speed of an object, we either use the gradient formula which will be
clarified at Coordinate Geometry or the formula below:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the speed of the body of the graph below, from (a) 0s to 10s and from (b) 25s to
60s.

For (a) since we have distance travelled and time, we use 𝑆 = 𝑑/𝑡, ∴ 𝑆 = 30/10 = 𝟑𝐦/𝐬.
For (b) we find the gradient, (We identify two distant points (25,30) and (60,0)) i.e.

0−30 −30
= = −0.857142857143m/s ∴ 𝑠 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝐦/𝐬
60−25 35

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2. Speed/Velocity – Time Graphs

Rules for interpreting a speed/velocity – time graph:

1. The slope or gradient of the graph represents the acceleration.
This means that whenever you see a straight slanting line, the acceleration is constant
because the gradient of a straight slanting line is the same or constant throughout.
2. A horizontal line means there’s no gradient hence no acceleration, therefore the
moving object is said to be travelling at a constant speed or zero acceleration.
3. The area under the graph is used to calculate the total distance travelled, so we used
the formulas for finding area of a triangle, rectangle or square depending on how the
graph looks like.
4. To calculate the acceleration of an object, we either use the gradient formula which will
be clarified at Coordinate Geometry or the formula below:

𝑣−𝑢 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑎= meaning: 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

EXAMPLE 2
In the diagram below, calculate (a) the acceleration for the first 15s, (b) the total distance
travelled.
For (a), we find the gradient, i.e.

15 − 0 15
= = 𝟏𝐦/𝐬𝟐
15 − 0 15

For (b), we calculate the area under the graph. Note that it is a trapezium which has a formula
𝐴 = ½(𝑎 + 𝑏)(ℎ), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the parallel sides and ℎ is the height, therefore;
𝐴 = ½ × (25 + 55) × 15
𝐴 = 𝑑 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝐦

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. A distance–time graph is shown below.

Calculate
(a) The speed of the body in the first 5s. [2]
(b) The speed of the body as it returns to where it came from. [3]
(c) The total distance travelled in the 40s. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
2. The diagram shows a speed–time graph of a motorcycle rider. He accelerates for 12.5s
to a speed of 25m/s. He then maintains a constant speed for 27.5s. He finally
decelerates for 10s.

(a) Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦. [2]

(b) Calculate the acceleration for the first 12.5s. [2]
(c) Calculate the total distance travelled. [3]
(d) Calculate the deceleration of the motorcyclist in the last 3s. [3]
____________________________________________________________________________

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3.0. ALGEBRA
3.0.1. FORMULAE

SUBJECT OF THE FORMULA

This is the process of rearranging an equation to obtain a formula for a specific variable in a
known equation. The same laws of directed numbers apply here. We also use the same method
to get rid of fractions, i.e. multiplying by the denominators. If there is a square root, we square
both sides to get rid of it. In general, for indices, a cube is gotten rid off by using a cube root,
and similarly, a fourth index is gotten rid off by inserting a fourth root etc.

EXAMPLE 1
Make 𝑡 the subject of the formula below.
𝑑
𝑠= To obtain the answer here, we simply divided
𝑡
𝑑 both sides by 𝑠 because we want the expression
𝑡×𝑠 = ×𝑡 for 𝑡 in terms of the other variables.
𝑡
𝑡×𝑠 =𝑑
𝑑
𝑡=
𝑠

EXAMPLE 2
Find an expression for 𝑟 in terms of 𝑡 and 𝐵 in the formula below.
𝐵 = 𝑡𝑟 2
𝐵 𝑡𝑟 2
= Here we see that 𝑟 is squared, to get rid of the index, we
𝑡 𝑡
𝐵 simply add square roots both sides. Note that the square
2
=𝑟 root covers everything on the right side of the equation.
𝑡
And there is a ± sign because − × − = +, hence this
2 𝐵 means that the answer can either be positive or negative.
𝑟 = ±√
𝑡

EXAMPLE 3
Make 𝑓 the subject of the formula below.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + → 𝑓× =𝑓× +𝑓×
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
1= + → 𝑣×1=𝑣× +𝑣×
𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢
𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑣=𝑓+ → 𝑢×𝑣 =𝑢×𝑓+𝑢×
𝑢 𝑢
𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑣𝑓 → 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑢 + 𝑣)
𝑢𝑣 𝑓(𝑢 + 𝑣)
= In this case, we started off by getting rid
(𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑢 + 𝑣) of the denominators one by one. Note that
𝑢𝑣 when the variable we want to make the
𝑓= (𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑢+𝑣 subject is multiplied by two different
variables, we factorise and divide both
sides to remain with the variable alone as
seen in this example.

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EXAMPLE 4
Make 𝑠 the subject of the formula below.
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠 Here, we translated 𝑢2 to the left side and it
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 2𝑎𝑠 changed its sign. We’re now left with 2𝑎𝑠 hence
= we divide by 2𝑎 in order to make 𝑠 the subject
2𝑎 2𝑎
2 2 as shown. Try making 𝑢 the subject.
𝑣 −𝑢
𝑠=
2𝑎

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2, 3)

1. Make 𝑦 the subject of the formula below:

3𝑦 + 𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑦

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Make 𝑟 the subject of the formula below:
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. (a) Given that 𝑝 = 17 and 𝑞 = 7, find the value of 𝑓 to 3 significant figures if:
√𝑝2 − 𝑞 2
𝑓=
2𝑝𝑞

Answer (a) [2]

(b) Express 𝑞 in terms of 𝑓 and 𝑝.

Answer (b) [3]

___________________________________________________________________________
4. Express 𝑏 in terms of 𝐾, 𝑎 and 𝑐 in the formula below.
𝑏 2 − 𝑎2
𝐾=
2𝑐

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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3.0.2. EXPRESSIONS

1. Simplifying Expressions
An expression is a combination of terms with specific names which can be altered to obtain a
simpler expression. These are shown below from a quadratic equation:

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12

In this case:
✓ 3 and 4 are known as the coefficients because they are multiplying unknown values.
✓ 𝑥 is known as the variable because its value can vary.
✓ −12 is known as the constant because it is not multiplying any unknown value.

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the following expressions:

(a) 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 (b) 8𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 (c) 5𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑥𝑦

(d) 2𝑎𝑏 2 + 5𝑎𝑏 3 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 (e) 6𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 (f) 9𝑥 – 5𝑥 – 2𝑥 + 1

Answers

(a) 6𝑥 [1] (b) 10𝑥 2 [1] (c) 12𝑥𝑦 [1]

2 3
(d) 5𝑎𝑏 + 5𝑎𝑏 [1] (e) 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 [1] (f) 2𝑥 + 1 [1]

Note that in the above examples, only terms with similar algebraic terms can be manipulated.

2. Expressing Fractional Variables As Single Fractions

The same way in which we evaluate fractions involving numbers is used to express fractions
involving variables as one fraction. This is shown below:

EXAMPLE 2 We start first by finding the LCM of

Express as a single fraction. the denominators by multiplying them.
5 3
−
5𝑝+1 𝑝+2

5(𝑝 + 2) − 3(5𝑝 + 1) We then cross multiply the fractions

(5𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 + 2) and put the sign, in this case it is −.

5𝑝+10−15𝑝−3
(5𝑝+1)(𝑝+2)

5𝑝 − 15𝑝 + 10 − 3 At this point, we simplify our

numerator by expanding the brackets
(5𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 + 2)
(applying the laws of directed
−10𝑝 + 7 numbers) and collecting like terms and
evaluating them. Note that the
(5𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 + 2)
denominator is left as it is.

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3. Factorisation
The process of factorisation is used to simplify equations with many terms.

i. Factorising By Using Common Factors

This is done by looking for a constant that can divide both terms without leaving a remainder.
If there is a variable, we also consider it. The constant and the variable are left outside of the
brackets as a product, and are used to divide the terms which would yield what our brackets
should contain. To check your answer, you simply expand the brackets mentally and if the
result is the same as the question given, then you have factorised correctly. Examples are
shown below:

(a) 2 + 8𝑥 (b) 7𝑥 + 49 (c) 3𝑥𝑦 – 9𝑤𝑥

(d) 22𝑥 3 𝑤 + 33𝑥 2 𝑤 3 (e) 18𝑏𝑐 – 12𝑐𝑑 (f) 3𝑠𝑡 – 12𝑠𝑟 – 24𝑠𝑢

Answers

(a) 2(1 + 4𝑥) [2] (b) 7(𝑥 + 7) [2] (c) 3𝑥(𝑦 – 3𝑤) [2]
2 2
(d) 11𝑥 𝑤 (2𝑥 + 3𝑤 ) [2] (e) 3𝑐(6𝑏 – 4𝑑) [2] (f) 3𝑠(𝑡 – 4𝑟 – 8𝑢) [2]

ii. Factorising Quadratic Equations

The general quadratic equation takes the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎 ≠ 0. We can therefore
factorise a quadratic equation by considering a number of steps. Firstly, we think of two
numbers which when multiplied yield the value of 𝑎 × 𝑐 in our quadratic equation and when
added they yield the value of 𝑏 in the quadratic equation. Secondly, we used these terms to
breakdown the value of 𝑏𝑥 in our equation. Thirdly, we factorise the four terms we now have
by a method called grouping which will be discussed below. The result is two brackets of two
terms being multiplied. This is demonstrated by three examples below:

(a) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 In this case, 2 × 3 = 6 and 2 + 3 = 5

= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 6
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2)
= (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
In this case, we see that 𝑎𝑐 = 5 × 3 = 15,
and 𝑏 = −16. We therefore find two
(b) 5𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 3
numbers which is −15 × −1 = 15 and
= 5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3 −15 + −1 = −16
= 5𝑥(𝑥 − 3) − 1(𝑥 − 3)
= (5𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)

(c) 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 12 In this case, we also see that 𝑎𝑐 = 3 × 12 = 36,

= 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 12 and 𝑏 = −15. Therefore −6 × −6 = 36 and
−6 + −6 = −12
= 3𝑥(𝑥 − 2) − 6(𝑥 − 2)
= (3𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 − 2)

NB: The two numbers can only be found by trying out a number of factors and applying
the laws of directed numbers.

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iii. Factorising By Grouping

This method is used to factorise terms that have different factors. It is most useful when
factorising the quadratic equation. We start off by grouping the terms with similar factors and
factorise them individually. We then find a common factor which is the brackets. Note that if
the brackets are not similar, you have not factorised correctly. This is shown below:

(a) 𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑐 + 𝑐𝑦 + 5𝑥
= 𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 5𝑐
= 𝑥(𝑦 + 5) + 𝑐(𝑦 + 5)
= (𝑥 + 𝑐)(𝑦 + 5)

(b) 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎2 − 3𝑏 2 − 1

= 2𝑎2 (3𝑏 2 + 1) − 1(3𝑏 2 + 1)
= (2𝑎2 − 1)(3𝑏 2 + 1)

iv. The Difference of Two Squares

This method of factorising is used when two values of squared terms are subtracted. It only
applies when both numbers are squared, hence if there is any number not squared, the
difference of two squares identity should not be used. This identity is shown below with
proceeding examples.

𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)

EXAMPLE 3
Factorise the following:

(a) 𝑥 2 − 16
= 𝑥 2 − 42
= (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4)

(b) 4𝑥 2 − 25
= 22 𝑥 2 − 52
= (2𝑥 + 5)(2𝑥 − 5)

(c) 27𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2

= 3𝑥(9𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
= 3𝑥(32 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
= 3𝑥(3𝑥 + 𝑦)(3𝑥 − 𝑦)

(d) 98𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2
= 2(49𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
= 2(72 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
= 2(7𝑥 + 𝑦)(7𝑥 − 𝑦)

NB: For expressions that do not seem factorable using the identity, first start by
factoring using common factors and then proceed to use the identity. This is shown in
Example 3 (c) and (d).

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 AND 3)

1. Simplify the following expressions.

(a) 7𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 4𝑎𝑏𝑐 − 11𝑎𝑏𝑐
(b) 5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 2
(c) 12𝑎𝑥 2 − 23𝑎𝑥 2 + 16𝑎𝑥 2
(d) 𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑥 2

Answers (a) [2]

(b) [2]
(c) [2]
(d) [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Factorise completely.
(a) 4𝑎 − 16𝑏
(b) 2𝑎𝑥 − 4𝑏𝑥 + 8𝑐𝑥
(c) 16𝑐𝑑 + 12𝑏𝑑 + 4𝑐𝑑 + 3𝑏𝑑
(d) 𝑥 2 − 64
(e) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
(f) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4

Answers (a) [2]

(b) [2]
(c) [2]
(d) [2]
(e) [2]
(f) [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Simplify the following by factorising.
(a) 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8
(b) 𝑘 2 𝑗 − 𝑗 3
(c) 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2
(d) 15𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 𝑦 − 12𝑥𝑦 2
(e) 125 − 5𝑥 2 𝑦 2

Answers (a) [2]

(b) [2]
(c) [2]
(d) [2]
(e) [2]
___________________________________________________________________________

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3.0.3. SOLVING ALGERAIC EQUATIONS

1. Simple (Linear) Equations

These are equations which do not involve any fraction and are solved by collecting like terms
and evaluating them. The general rule is that if a term crosses the equals sign, the sign in front
of it changes, i.e. negatives becomes positives and positives becomes negatives. When brackets
are involved, you should apply the laws of directed numbers. This is shown below:

EXAMPLE 1
Solve for x in the following equations.

(a) 2𝑥 + 4 = 6 (b) 5𝑥 − 3 = 2𝑥 + 9 (c) 2(3 − 𝑥) = 6(𝑥 − 5)

2𝑥 = 6 − 4 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 9 + 3 6 − 2𝑥 = 6𝑥 − 30
2𝑥 = 2 3𝑥 = 12 6 + 30 = 6𝑥 + 2𝑥
2𝑥 2 3𝑥 12
= = 36 = 8𝑥
2 2 3 3
𝑥=1 𝑥=4 𝑥 = 4.5

2. Fractional Equations
These are equations which involve variables in fractions. To solve for the unknown values, we
first convert the fractions to linear form. This is done by multiplying throughout by the
denominators of each fraction. When this is done, the denominators are cancelled out and we
remain with simple equations which we can manipulate as we did above. To check if your
answer is correct, substitute the value of 𝑥 in the equation to see if it is true. This is shown
below.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve for 𝑥.
CONFIRMATION:
2(𝑥−3) (𝑥−1) 2(5 − 3) (5 − 1)
1. + =2 + =2
3 6 3 6
(2𝑥−6) (𝑥−1) 4 4
2. 3 × +3× = 2×3 + =2
3 6
(3𝑥−3) 3 6
3. (2𝑥 − 6) + =6 8+4
6
(3𝑥−3) =2
4. 6 × (2𝑥 − 6) + 6 × =6×6 6
6 12
5. 12𝑥 − 36 + 3𝑥 − 3 = 36 =2
6
6. 12𝑥 + 3𝑥 = 36 + 36 + 3 2=2
7. 15𝑥 = 75
8. 𝑥=5

NB: As seen above, from steps 1 through 8, we were converting the fractional expression into
the linear form where is it simple to manipulate. Note that when multiplying by a denominator,
it multiplies only the numerator. On the right is checking if our answer is correct by
substituting it into the equation and seeing if the right side will equal to the left side and as
seen, the answer is correct.

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3. Simultaneous Equations

Simultaneous equations are those that are related by 2 similar values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and should be
solved by relating them. There are four methods of solving simultaneous equations, i.e.
elimination, substitution, graphically and by matrices. In this book, we will cover the first 3
methods. Solving using matrices is only for Additional Mathematics.

i. Solving Simultaneous Equations By Elimination

This method is only applicable when the variable we want to eliminate (get rid of) has similar
coefficients. If no variable, i.e. 𝑥 or 𝑦, has no similar coefficient, we multiply each equation by
the coefficient of the other equation. This is shown below, and in this case, we want to
eliminate the 𝑥 variable, hence we multiply the whole of the first equation by 2, and the whole
of the second equation by 4.

4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 19
2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 20

At this point after multiplying the equations, we

[4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 19] × 2
use the law of simultaneous equation that states
[2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 20] × 4
that “Different signs, Add, Same signs, Subtract.
The mnemonic is “D.A.S.S”. So in this case,
[8𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 38] both the coefficients of 𝑥 are positive, i.e. have
− the same signs, so we subtract the two equations
[8𝑥 + 20𝑦 = 80] to eliminate the 𝑥 variable to solve for 𝑦.
0 − 14𝑦 = −42
−14𝑦 = −42
𝑦=3

4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 19
4𝑥 + 3(3) = 19 After solving for 𝑦, the value of 𝑥 is obtained by using
4𝑥 + 9 = 19 one of the simultaneous equations and substituting for
4𝑥 = 19 − 9 𝑦, and solving it as a linear equation as we did in the
previous section.
4𝑥 = 10
𝑥 = 2.5

NB: To check if your answer is correct, substitute both values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in both equations to
see if they would yield the result given, if not, redo it correctly.

ii. Solving Simultaneous Equations By Substitution

In this method, as the name suggests, we substitute one of our variable with the expression for
that variable in terms of the other, e.g. if we substitute 𝑦, we make an expression for 𝑦 in terms
of 𝑥. This is most applicable when the variable has 1 or −1 as the coefficient. The result is then
a linear equation which can be solved easily. This is shown below:

3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 In this case, we make 𝑦 the subject of any formula and

𝑥 − 𝑦 = −4 substitute 𝑦 in another equation with the expression we just
created.

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From the first equation, making 𝑦 the subject of the formula yields that 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2, and
therefore we substitute 𝑦 in the second equation with this expression. This is shown below:

𝑥 − 𝑦 = −4
𝑥 − (3𝑥 − 2) = −4 As seen, we just removed 𝑦 and we inserted
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 = −4 (3𝑥 − 2) in brackets because they’re
−2𝑥 = −4 − 2 essential. The laws of directed numbers
−2𝑥 = −6 always apply hence when removing the
𝑥=3 bracket, we see −3𝑥 and +2.

3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2
3(3) − 𝑦 = 2
9−𝑦=2
9−2=𝑦
𝑦=7

iii. Solving Simultaneous Equations Graphically

In this method, we draw the graphs of each equation on the coordinate grid. The coordinates of
the point where the lines intersect (meet), i.e. in the form (𝑥, 𝑦) is the solution for both the
simultaneous equations. To draw a graph, refer to drawing graphs at Coordinate Geometry. An
example is shown below for solving 4𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 18 and 3𝑦 + 5𝑥 = 4.

Firstly we make the equations linear (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐) by making 𝑦 the subject of the formulae.
We then create a table of values and plot them to draw the straight lines. The equations in
4𝑥−18 4−5𝑥
linear form are 𝑦 = and 𝑦 = . We already have a table of values and lines drawn.
5 3
This is shown below.

As seen in the diagram above, the two lines intersect (meet) at (2,−2) hence this is the solution
is 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = −2.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Tidimalo and Moffat work for a tuition centre. The tuition center pays P𝑥 for the work
done in normal time and P𝑦 for work done in overtime.

(a) (i) Tidimalo works for 5 hours normal time and 2 hours overtime. Form an expression
in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 for his total earnings.
(ii) If his total earnings amounted to P70, write down an equation in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦
for his total earnings.
(b) Moffat works for 4 hours normal time and 3 hours overtime. Write down an equation in
terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if his total earnings amount to P77.
(c) (i) Solve the simultaneous equations obtained in parts (a) (ii) and (b).
(ii) A third employee, Bakane, works for 6 hours normal time and 30 minutes overtime.
How much does she earn?
___________________________________________________________________________
2. A parent wishes to buy rubbers and pencils for her child. A rubber costs r thebe and a
pencil costs p thebe.
(i) If 4 rubbers and 6 pencils cost a total of P3.20, form an equation in 𝑟 and 𝑝 and
show that it reduces to 2𝑟 + 3𝑝 = 160 [1]
(ii) If 3 rubbers and 1 pencil cost a total of P1.35, form an equation in 𝑟 and 𝑝.
Solve the equations in parts (i) and (ii) simultaneously. [3]
(iii) Write the cost of
(a) 4 rubbers and 6 pencils [1]
(b) 3 pencils and a rubber [1]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using the method of your choice.

2𝑥 𝑦 𝑦
(a) − =1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑥 + = 2
3 2 4
(b) 3𝑧 − 4𝑤 = 18 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑧 + 𝑤 = 1
(c) −5𝑏 − 3𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8𝑏 + 5𝑎 = −1
(d) 3𝑢 + 7𝑣 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝑢 + 9𝑣 = 5
1 1
(e) 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
2 2
[15]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. The sum of two numbers is 51. Five times the larger number decreased by 7 equals one
more than eight times the smaller number. Find these two numbers.

Answer & [4]

___________________________________________________________________________

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3.0.4. SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

A quadratic equation is in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎 ≠ 0.

There are many methods of solving quadratic equations, but in this book we will look at two
simple ways of solving these equations, namely, solving by factorizing and by using the
quadratic formula which you are advised to know by heart.

i. Solving a Quadratic Equation By Factorizing

This is the simplest method of solving a quadratic equation and we are going to apply the
concepts discussed in factorizing quadratic equations in the previous sections. An example is
shown below. If you do not remember well how to factorise a quadratic equation, revisit the
algebra section in this book and see how you do it before proceeding.

Solve the following quadratic equation for 𝑥.

4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7 = 0
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥 − 7 = 0
4𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 7(𝑥 − 1) = 0
(4𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

At this point we take both brackets individually and equate them to 0 and solve algebraically.

4𝑥 + 7 = 0 4𝑥 = −7 𝑥 = −1.75
𝑜𝑟
𝑥−1=0 𝑥=1

Hence the two solutions are 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1.75

ii. Solving a Quadratic Equation Using The Quadratic Formula

In this method we use a derived formula which is the expression for 𝑥 as the subject of the
formula of the quadratic equation. This method is appropriately applicable when the quadratic
equation cannot be factored. You do not need to know how to derive it but rather know it by
heart and how to apply it. The formula is as below followed by three examples.

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

Solve for 𝑥 in the following quadratic equations.

(a) 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 = 0 (b) 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 2 = 0 (c) 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 = 0

We start off by identifying the coefficients 𝑎 and 𝑏 and the constant 𝑐 in our equations. We
take them with the signs in front of them, i.e. either positive or negative.

(a) For the first one: 𝑎 = +2, 𝑏 = +4, 𝑐 = −3

We then substitute theses into quadratic formula as they are and evaluate. Note that 2𝑎 divides
the value of −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. NEVER divide the square root only!

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−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 =
2𝑎
−(4) ± √(4)2 − 4(2)(−3)
𝑥 =
2(2)
−4 ± √16 + 24
𝑥 =
4
−4 + √40 −4 − √40
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=
4 4
𝑥 = 0.58113883 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2.58113883
𝑥 ≈ 0.58 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≈ −2.58

(b) For the second one: 𝑎 = +3, 𝑏 = −4, 𝑐 = −2, then we substitute them into our
quadratic formula as they are. DO NOT say “Because 𝑏 is already negative, then I’ll
take it as it is!” NO! Insert two negatives and it will become positive.

−(−4) ± √(−4)2 − 4(3)(−2) Notice that −(−4) gives us +4. As

𝑥 =
2(3) mentioned earlier, the laws of directed
4 ± √16 + 24 numbers apply everywhere.
𝑥 =
6
4 + √40 4 − √40
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=
6 6
𝑥 = 1.72075922 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −0.387425886
𝑥 ≈ 1.72 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≈ −0.39

(c) For the third one: 𝑎 = +2, 𝑏 = +1, 𝑐 = −5, the we substitute and evaluate. Note that
𝑥 is the same as 1𝑥, but it is never written like this so is you see 𝑥 appearing alone, the
coefficient is automatically 1 or −1, depending on the sign in front of the variable.

−(1) ± √(1)2 − 4(2)(−5)

𝑥=
2(2)
−1 ± √1 + 40
𝑥 =
4
−1 + √41 −1 − √41
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=
4 4
𝑥 = 1.350781059 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1.850781059
𝑥 ≈ 1.35 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≈ −1.85

NB: When evaluating the value of 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐, be careful to apply the laws of directed numbers.
The most common here is − × −= +. This is why our values always end up as positives. Also
note that you cannot obtain a square root of a negative number, if whatever is under the square
root is negative, you have made a mistake somewhere.

FORMING AND SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

This is whereby candidates are expected to relate to real life situations to form and solve for
quadratic equations. This is demonstrated below.

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Q: Joe and Brandiin race on a 255m road with their cars.

(a) Joe’s car speed was 𝒙m/s. Express in terms of 𝒙, the time taken by Joe’s car. [1]
(b) Brandiin’s car speed was 5m/s faster than Joe’s car.
(i) Express in terms of 𝒙, the speed of Brandiin’s car. [1]
(ii) Express in terms of 𝒙, the time taken by Brandiin’s car. [1]
(c) Given that Brandiin’s car passed the finish line 0.5s earlier than Joe’s car, form an equation
in terms of 𝒙 and show that it reduces to 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2250 = 0. [3]
2
(d) Solve the equation 𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 2550 = 0, giving answers to two decimal places. [5]
(e) Find the speed of Brandiin’s car. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
Answers

(a) To form an expression for the time taken, we should remember the equation 𝑡 = 𝑑 ÷ 𝑠.
In this case 𝑑 = 255m and 𝑠 = 𝒙, therefore the times of Joe’s car would be:
𝟐𝟓𝟓
𝒙

(b) (i) To form an expression here, we read the opening sentence and conclude that the
speed of Brandiin’s car is (𝒙 + 𝟓).
(ii) Since they are racing, the distance is the same, we form the expression similarly, ∴
𝟐𝟐𝟓
𝒙+𝟓

(c) To form the equation here, we must fully understand the opening sentence. In this case,
it means that the time taken by Joe’s car was 0.5s late than Brandiin’s car, therefore if
we subtract the time taken by Brandiin’s car from the time taken by Joe’s car, we’d
have a result of 0.5s. Therefore:
255 255
− = 0.5
𝑥 𝑥+5
We then get rid of the fraction by multiplying throughout by the denominators. Refer to solving
fractional equations. The equation will then become:

0.5𝑥 2 + 2.5𝑥 + 255𝑥 − 255𝑥 − 1275 = 0 (Collect like terms.)

0.5𝑥 2 + 2.5𝑥 − 1275 = 0 (Simplify.)

Divide throughout by 0.5 to obtain 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎 = 𝟎 (NB: Also divide 0 in workings)

(d) We then solve the equation using the quadratic formula with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, and 𝑐 =
−2550, i.e.
−(5) ± √(5)2 − 4(1)(−2550)
𝑥=
2(1)

𝑥 ≈ 𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≈ −𝟓𝟑. 𝟎𝟔

(e) We then consider the positive answer this question using our expression for Brandiin’s
time, i.e.
255 255
𝑡= ∴ 𝑡= 𝑡 ≈ 𝟒. 𝟖𝟏𝒔
𝑥+5 48.06 + 5

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Solve for x.
(a) 11𝑥 + 8 = 30
3𝑥
(b) + 1.5 = 4.5
4
(c) 4𝑥 − 6 = 2𝑥 + 5
Answers (a) [2]
(b) [2]
(c) [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula or by factorization.
(a) 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 = 0 [5]
2
(b) 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0 [5]
2
(c) 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 [5]
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Solve the following equations.
5𝑡 𝑡
(a) − =1 [2]
3 2
(b) 𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 = 6 [3]
1 2
(c)
𝑏
=2− [3]
𝑏
___________________________________________________________________________
4 3
4. Write − as a single fraction. [3]
𝑥−2 𝑥−5
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Brandiin walks 10km to work at an average speed of 𝑥 kilometres per hour.
(a) Write down in terms of 𝑥, the time taken in hours. [1]
(b) Brandiin returns from work but this time he walks at an average speed of (𝑥 + 1)
kilometres per hour. The time of the return journey is 30 minutes less than the time
of the first journey. Write down an equation in x and show that it reduces to, [3]
2
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 20 = 0
2
(c) Solve the equation 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 20 = 0, giving your answers to 2 decimal places. [5]
(d) Find the time Brandiin takes to walk to work. [1]
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Manto and Sankhuta each ran a distance of 30m.
(a) Manto took 𝑥 seconds. Express, in terms of 𝑥, his speed in m/s. [1]
(b) Sankhu took one and a half seconds more than Manto. Express in terms of 𝑡,
(i) The time he took to run the 30m. [1]
(ii) His speed in m/s. [1]
(c) Manto was 2m/s faster than Sankhuta.
(i) Write an equation for this information and show that it reduces to [3]
2
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 45 = 0
2
(ii) Solve the equation 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 45 = 0, giving your answers correct to 2
decimal places. [5]
(iii) Calculate Sankhuta’s speed. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________

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3.0.5. INEQUALITIES

Inequality Signs and Their Meanings

✓ ≤ : less than or equal to; at most;

✓ ≥ : greater than or equal to; at least;
✓ < : less than; cannot exceed; not more than;
✓ > : greater than; exceeds; more than;

1. Solving Simple Linear Inequalities

We solve these the same way we solve algebraic equations. This is shown below:

(a) 4𝑥 − 3 ≥ 9 (b) 3(𝑥 + 1) < 2𝑥 + 5 (c) 7 − 3𝑥 ≤ 10

4𝑥 ≥ 9 + 3 3𝑥 + 3 < 2𝑥 + 5 −3𝑥 ≤ 10 − 7
4𝑥 ≥ 12 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 < 5 − 3 −3𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑥≥3 𝑥<2 𝑥 ≥ −1

NB: When dividing with a negative number the inequality sign changes. This is seen at (c).

2. Solving Harder Linear Inequalities

These inequalities include two inequalities nested by two inequality signs. They are first
dissociated into two simple linear inequalities and the answers are then combined to give a
range of values solving the inequality. This is shown below:

Solve: −5 ≤ 15 − 10𝑥 < 25

−5 ≤ 15 − 10𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 15 − 10𝑥 < 25

−5 − 15 ≤ −10𝑥 − 10𝑥 < 25 − 15
−20 ≤ −10𝑥 − 10𝑥 < 10
2≥𝑥 𝑥 > −1
2 ≥ 𝑥 > −1

This means that x can take any value from 2 to 0.

3. Least (Smallest) Possible Values of Inequality Solutions

These are the smallest solutions of inequalities which satisfy an inequality. They’re found by
solving the inequality and considering the signs and coming up with a conclusion. An example
would be to find the least integer value of 𝑥 which satisfies: 2𝑥 + 3 ≤ 4𝑥 + 14.

2𝑥 + 3 ≤ 4𝑥 + 14
2𝑥 − 4𝑥 ≤ 14 − 3 NB: since −5.5 is not an integer (whole
−2𝑥 ≤ 11 number), −5 becomes the least integer
𝑥 ≥ −5.5 satisfying the equation. Hence −5 is our
𝑥 = −5 answer.

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4. Greatest (Largest) Possible Values of Inequality Solutions

These are the largest solutions of inequalities which satisfy an inequality. They’re also found
by solving the inequality and then considering the signs and ultimately coming up with a
conclusion. An example would be to find the greatest possible integer of 𝑦 for which satisfies
3𝑥 − 4 < 21 < 7𝑥 − 33.

3𝑥 − 4 < 21 𝑎𝑛𝑑 21 < 7𝑥 − 33

3𝑥 < 21 + 4 21 + 31 < 7𝑥
3𝑥 < 25 51 < 7𝑥
1 2
𝑥<8 7 <𝑥
3 7
2 1
7 <𝑥<8
7 3

Therefore the greatest integer (whole number) value for 𝑥, would be 8.

GRAPHING LINEAR INEQUALITIES

To graph linear inequalities, we use the same concepts in coordinate geometry. We then add
the concept of “shading the unwanted regions”, i.e. regions where the inequality is not true. In
order to find the unwanted region, take any points that is not in the graph and compare the
values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the equation of the line, i.e. fit the coordinates into the equation and come
up with a conclusion. The most common coordinate is (0, 0) given that the line does not pass
through the point. If the inequality has > or <, the line is broken, and if the inequality has ≤ or
≥, the line is shown in full. In the example below, we have used the inequalities 𝑦 ≥ 3𝑥 + 2
and 𝑦 < 6 − 𝑥, using the point (0, 0) to identify the unwanted regions. This is shown below.

For the inequality 𝑦 ≥ 3𝑥 + 2, substituting the values give us 0 ≥ 2 which is false, hence we
shade the side that contains the coordinate (0, 0). And as for the inequality 𝑦 < 6 − 𝑥,
substituting the values gives us 0 < 6 which is true for the side which contains the coordinate
(0, 0), hence we shade the other side of the graph as seen above.

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LINEAR PROGRAMMING

This is the forming and application of linear inequalities in solving real life problems. The
terms used refer to inequality signs mentioned earlier. We will use the following example to
demonstrate this.

Mr Phuti wants to plant thepe and rothwe plants.

(a) There are 𝑥 rothwe plants and each need an area of 0.8m2 . Write down an expression,
in terms of 𝑥, for the total area required for rothwe plants.

0.8𝑥

(b) There are 𝑦 thepe plants and each need an area of 0.5m2 . Write down an expression, in
terms of 𝑦, for the total area required for thepe plants.

0.5𝑦

(c) Mr Phuti has a plot with an area of 8m2 to use for both rothwe and thepe plants. Form
an inequality in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and show that it reduces to 8𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≤ 80.

0.8𝑥 0.5𝑦 8
+ ≤ = 8𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≤ 80
0.1 0.1 0.1

(d) A rothwe plant cost 40 thebe and a thepe plant costs 50 thebe. Mr Phuti uses at least
P5.00 to buy the plants. Form an inequality in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and show that it reduces
to 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≥ 50.

40𝑥 50𝑦 500

+ ≥ = 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≥ 50
10 10 10

(e) Mr Phuti buys at least 2 rothwe plants. Write down an inequality to show this
information.

𝑥≥2

(f) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 2 units on both axes, show, by shading the unwanted
regions, and the set of points satisfying the three inequalities in parts (c), (d) and (e).

(g) What is the greatest number of

(i) rothwe plants?
(ii) thepe plants that Mr Phuti can plant in the plot?

(h) Calculate the maximum amount of money that Mr Phuti can use to buy the plants.

NB: From this point, we plot all the inequalities and shade the untrue regions for all the
graphs we’ve plotted. It is useless to include the negative values as we are dealing with real
life situations.

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THE INEQUALITY GRAPHS

As already mentioned, we are dealing with real life situations, hence the negative axes are
excluded because we can never have negative tangible objects. The inequalities were first
changed into linear equations in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 and the points were plotted and hence
the false regions were shaded using the concepts discussed earlier. The white region below
satisfies all the 3 inequalities we have formed, thus we consider all the positive integer values
within the region. The points to be considered are shown in dots. This is shown below;

As seen above, the unshaded region satisfies all inequalities and hence we can consider any of
the points. Also note that all our lines are continuous and hence we can include the points on
the lines. If there was a broken line, the integer points would have been excluded.

To answer (g) (i), we consider the greatest value of 𝑥 in the unshaded region which would give
us the maximum number of rothwe plants. Hence the greatest 𝑥-axis value within the unshaded
region is 𝟔.

To answer (g) (ii), we also consider the greatest value of 𝑦 in the unshaded region which would
give us the maximum number of thepe plants. Hence the greatest 𝑦-axis value within the
unshaded region is 𝟏𝟐.

To answer (h), we consider the coordinate of points which will yield the greatest amount of
money. In this case, we should always look for a coordinate in which the most expensive item
has the greatest value. For this example, we have the coordinate (2, 12). We chose this point
because it has more thepe plants because they are more expensive hence will cost more money.
The money would then be (2 × 40t ) + (12 × 50t ) = 680t = 𝐏𝟔. 𝟖𝟎.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Given that 𝑥 is a square number, solve the inequality

𝑥 < 50 − 𝑥 < 4𝑥 + 12

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
1 1
2. Given that −8 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 15 , write down
4 2
(a) The largest integer value of 𝑏.
___________ [1]
(b) The smallest integer value of 𝑏.
___________ [1]
(c) The largest rational value of 𝑏.
___________ [1]
(d) The largest value of 𝑏 which is a square number.
___________ [1]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Milidzi bought pens and pencils for an examination. The number of pens he bought is 𝑥
and the number of pencils he bought is 𝑦.
(a) (i) The cost of one pen is P3.
Express in terms of 𝑥 the total cost of the pens he bought. [1]
(ii) The cost of one pencil is P2.50.
Express in terms of 𝑦 the total cost of the pencils he bought. [1]
(iii) Express in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦, the total cost of the pens and pencils. [1]
(b) The number of pens that he bought is at least 10 more than the number of pencils.
Write an inequality in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 to show this information. [1]
(c) Milidzi bought at least 10 . Write another inequality to present this information.
[1]
(d) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 2 pens and 2cm to represent 20 pencils, show, by
shading, the unwanted regions, the set of points satisfying the inequalities in (a)(iii),
(b) and (c). [3]
(e) The pens and pencils are bought in small boxes which contain either 10 pens or 10
pencils.
(i) List all the possible ways in which Milidzi can buy his stationary. [2]
(ii) Calculate the amount of money he will need to buy 5 times as many pencils as
pens. [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Solve the following inequalities, listing all the possible values of 𝑥.
(a) 23 ≥ 7 − 2𝑥 > 17
(b) −5 ≤ 15 − 10𝑥 < 25
(c) −9 < 10 − 𝑥 < −5
(d) 9 ≤ 7𝑥 + 2 ≤ 29
Answers (a) [3]
(b) [3]
(c) [3]
(d) [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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3.0.6. QUADRATIC GRAPHS

Given a table of values and a quadratic equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, a quadratic

graph can be constructed from these given values. Note that some can only have 𝑎𝑥 2 or 𝑎𝑥 2 +
𝑏𝑥 or 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 only.

The Minimum and Maximum Values

✓ Given a quadratic graph with a curve (turning point) going downwards the value of x at
the turning point is substituted in the equation to find the minimum value of y.
✓ Given a quadratic graph with a curve (turning point) going upwards the value of x at
the turning point is substituted in the equation to find the maximum value of y.

Finding the Gradient (Slope) of a Curve

To find the gradient of a curve, you must draw an accurate sketch of the curve. At the point
where you need to know the gradient, draw a tangent to the curve. A tangent is a straight line
which touches the curve at one point only. You then find the gradient of this tangent which
corresponds with the gradient of the curve at that point.

EXAMPLE 1
By drawing a tangent estimate the gradient of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(5 − 𝑥) at the point
(4, 12).

To find the gradient of the curve at the point, we find the gradient of the tangent to the graph at
that point and in this case there are two coordinates of the tangent i.e. (4, 12) and (6.4, 0) and
we see that;

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 0 − 12
𝑚= 𝑚= 𝑚 = −5
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 6.4 − 4

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.

The table below shows some values of 𝑥 and the corresponding values of 𝑦 correct to 1
decimal place for the equation.
𝑦 = 3𝑥

𝑥 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

𝑦 0.2 0.3 0.6 1 1.7 3 5.2 9 𝑝

(a) Calculate the value of p. [1]

(b) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on the 𝑥-axis and 1cm to represent 1 unit on the
𝑦-axis, draw the graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 for values of x from −1.5 to 2.5. [3]
(c) On the same axes draw the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2. [1]
𝑥
(d) Hence or otherwise solve the equation 3 = 2𝑥 + 2. [2]
𝑥
(e) By drawing a tangent, estimate the gradient of 𝑦 = 3 at 𝑥 = 0.5. [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
The table below shows some values of 𝑥 and the corresponding values of 𝑦 correct to 1
decimal place for the equation.
1
𝑦 = 2+2
𝑥

𝑥 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 3 4

𝑦 8.3 4.8 3.6 3 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 𝑏

(a) Calculate the value of 𝑏 to 2 decimal places. [1]

(b) Using a scale of 4cm to represent 1 unit on the 𝑥-axis and 2cm to represent 1 unit on
the 𝑦-axis, draw the graph of 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 + 2 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4. [3]
(c) On the same pair of axes, draw the graph of 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 7. [1]
(d) Use your graph to estimate and write down the values of 𝑥, in the range 0.4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4,
satisfying both 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 + 2, and 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 7. [2]
2
(e) By drawing a tangent estimate the gradient of 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 + 2 at 𝑥 = 0.75. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
The table below shows some values of 𝑥 and the corresponding values of 𝑦 for:
𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 2 − 3𝑥 2
𝑥 −1 −0.70 0 0.28 1.30 2.40 3 3.50
𝑦 −13 −9.10 −2 0 3.33 0 −5 𝑏

(a) Calculate the value of 𝑏 to 2 decimal places. [1]

(b) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on the 𝑥-axis and 1cm to represent 1 unit on
the 𝑦-axis, draw the graph of 𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 2 − 3𝑥 2 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.5. [3]
(c) On the same axes, draw the graph of 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 = −2. [1]
2
(d) Write the values of 𝑥 such that 8𝑥 − 2 − 3𝑥 takes the same value for line in (c). [2]
(e) By drawing a tangent estimate the gradient of 𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 2 − 3𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

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4.0. GEOMETRY
4.0.1. GEOMETRICAL TERMS AND RELATIONSHIPS

Geometry is the study of regular shapes. The most common relationships in geometry are
discussed as follows and you are advised to apply them in other concepts of Mathematics, e.g.
bearings, trigonometry, circle theorems etc.

1. Angles in Parallel Lines

In the diagram:
✓ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 180° (Angles in a straight line).
✓ 𝑎 = 𝑒 (Corresponding angles).
✓ 𝑐 = 𝑓 (Alternating angles).
✓ 𝑐 = 𝑏 (Vertically opposite angles).
NB: The above 4 relationships also apply
for other angles. Identify them!

2. Angles in an Isosceles Triangle

NB: An isosceles triangle

is one which has only two
equal sides as seen on the
diagram.

✓ Base angles of an
isosceles triangle are
equal, i.e.
𝑏=𝑐
∴ 𝑎 = 180° − 2𝑏

3. Finding Sums of Interior and Exterior Angles of Regular Polygons

✓ For interior angles (i.e. those within a

regular polygon), we use the formula:
Sum of angles = 180(𝑛 − 2)
Where 𝑛 is the number of sides of the
polygon.
✓ For exterior angles (i.e. those outside the
regular polygon) the sum is always 360°.

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4.0.2. CIRCLE THEOREMS

1. The angle subtended at the centre of the circle is equal to twice the angle subtended at
the circumference.

or

2. Angles in the same segment are equal.

or

3. The angle in a semi-circle formed at the circumference is a right angle.

4. The angle between the tangent to a circle and the chord at the point of contact is equal
to the angle in the alternate segment.

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5. Tangents drawn to a circle from an outside point are equal.

6. In a cyclic quadrilateral opposite angles are supplementary (they add up to 180̊).

𝑎 + 𝑏 = 180°
𝑐 + 𝑑 = 180°

7. The angle between a tangent and a radius is equal to 90°.

NB: These are the 7 circle theorems which are always examined one question. It is therefore
advisable to know how to detect each theorem and come up with an answer. To be able to
answer other questions, try by all means to identify easy angles and move on. Examples are
shown in the following page. Try it yourself in the questions on the second following page.

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WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
̂ C = 25°, DĈB = 38°. Points A, B, C, all
In the diagram below, O is the centre of the circle. BD
lie on the circle. Calculate
(a) AB̂D ̂C
(b) BO ̂D
(c) CA ̂D
(d) BA

Answers

(a) To get this angle, we must first notice that it is in

the same segment with angle DĈA which is 38°.
Using the 2nd theorem, we conclude that angle
AB̂ D = 𝟑𝟖°.

̂C =
(b) Here, we use the 1st theorem, therefore, BO
2 × 25 = 𝟓𝟎°.

(c) Here we use the 3rd theorem and the geometrical

relationship that angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
And since AD ̂ C = 90° (3rd theorem), we have that
CÂ D = 180° − (90° + 38°) = 𝟓𝟐°.

(d) Here, we will use the addition of two angles. We have angle CA ̂ D = 52°. And to find angle
BÂ C, we find that it is the same segment with BD
̂ C = 25°. Therefore BA
̂ D = 52 + 25 = 𝟕𝟕°

EXAMPLE 2
In the diagram below, AC and CE are tangents to the circle, BĈD = 40°, BO
̂ D = 116°.
Calculate
̂B
(a) CD (b) DF̂B ̂B
(c) FG

Answers
(a) Using the 5 theorem, we find that
th

BC = CD Hence CDB is an isosceles

̂ B = (180° −
triangle and therefore CD
40)/2 = 𝟕𝟎°.

(b) Using the 1st theorem, we find that

DÔ B = 2DF̂B. Hence DF̂B = 116/2 =
𝟓𝟖°

(c) Using the 3rd theorem we find that

angle FG ̂ B has been formed in a semi-
circle, therefore it is 𝟗𝟎°.

Now it’s your chance to try them yourself on the following page!

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. The diagram below shows a circle with centre O. Angle BF̂D = 30°, AC is tangent to
the circle at B. Find the angles marked with letters, giving a reason for your answer.

____________________________________________________________________________
2. The diagram below shows a circle with centre O and the specified angles. Line TS is
tangent to the circle at F. Find the angles marked with letters giving reasons for your
answers.

____________________________________________________________________________
3. In the diagram below, O is the centre of the circle, AF̂E = 36°, EĈF = 52° and GE
̂F =
39°. Calculate the angles marked with letters giving reasons for your answers.

____________________________________________________________________________

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4.0.3. COORDINATE GEOMETRY

1. The Gradient – this represents the magnitude of the slope of a line. 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 represent
points on the 𝑦-axis and 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 represent points on the 𝑥-axis. The formula for
finding gradient (denoted as 𝑚) is:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

EXAMPLE 1
Given that coordinates (0, 8) and (3, 5) lie in the same straight line, calculate the gradient.

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 5−8 −3
𝑚= 𝑚= 𝑚= 𝒎 = −𝟏
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 3−0 3

2. The Equation Of A Line – This is an equation that relates the two axes coordinates. 𝑦 is
the 𝑦-coordinate, 𝑚 is the gradient and 𝑐 is the 𝑦-intercept (where line meets 𝑦-axis)
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of line AB given that it passes through (0, 8) and its gradient is 3.
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 8 = 3(0) + 𝑐 8= 0+𝑐 𝑐=8
Hence, we substitute the values we found and the equation is 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟖

GRAPHING LINEAR EQUATIONS

To graph a linear equation like the one above, we simply create a table of values and plot the
points and join them. This is shown below for graphing 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2.

The table of values for 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 is:

𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑦 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6

The pair of points are

then plotted as seen in
the diagram, e.g. when
𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = −8, thus
the coordinate point is
(−3, −8).

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3. Parallel Lines
Parallel lines have the same gradient.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the equation of a line parallel to 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 8 and passing through the point (5, 9).

𝑚 = 3 and therefore, since 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. The expression of our new line is:

9 = (3 × 5) + 𝑐
9 = 15 + 𝑐 ∴ Means therefore.
𝑐 = 9 − 15
𝑐 = −6
∴ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 6
4. The Midpoint of A Line
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ( , )
2 2
EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the midpoint of the straight line with points (1, 8) and (13, 12).

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 1 + 13 8 + 12
𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ( , ) = ( , ) = (𝟕, 𝟏𝟎)
2 2 2 2

5. The Distance Between Two Points

The distance between any two points, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is:

𝐷 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the distance between (1, 3) and (4, 7).

𝐷 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = √(4 − 1)2 + (7 − 3)2 = √9 + 16 = √25

𝑫 = 𝟓𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬
6. The 𝒙-Axis Intercept
For you to solve for the 𝑥-intercept, simply equate the equation of the line to 0 (meaning 𝑦 =
0) and solve it algebraically for the value of 𝑥. This is done because the coordinate at which
the line meets the 𝑥-axis has a coordinate of (𝑥, 0).

EXAMPLE 6
Find the coordinate at which the line 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 8 meets the 𝑥-axis.

Since the equation is 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 8, We have 0 = 4𝑥 − 8,

Hence 0 + 8 = 4𝑥, and 8 = 4𝑥, then divide both sides by 4, to get 𝑥 = 2.
The coordinate would then be (𝟐, 𝟎).

NB: These are the concepts you are asked about in the examination. Always remember to
always express the equations of line in the standard form which is “𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐”!

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2, & 3)

1. Line Q has points A(2, 6) and B(4, 9).

(a) Calculate its gradient.

Answer (a) [2]

(b) Hence find its equation.

Answer (b) [2]

(c) Another line P, is parallel to Q and has points (3, 7) determine its equation.

Answer (c) [2]

(d) Calculate the midpoint of line Q.

Answer (d) [2]

(e) Calculate the distance between points A and B.

Answer (e) [2]

___________________________________________________________________________
2. Line AB has the points A(10,15) and B(15,25). Find
(a) The equation of the line through A with gradient −6. [1]
(b) The coordinates of the midpoint of line AB. [2]
(c) The coordinates of the point where the line AB intersects the 𝑥–axis. [2]
(d) The length of AB, giving your answer correct to two decimal places. [3]
____________________________________________________________________________
3. The gradient of a line is −6 and passes through the points (−2,20) and (3, 𝑛). Find the
value of 𝑛.

Answer 𝑛 = [3]
____________________________________________________________________________
4. A straight line having gradient −3.5 passes through the point (5, −5). Find
(a) The equation of the line. [3]
(b) The 𝑥–intercept. [2]
(c) The value of 𝑏 if the line passes through (𝑏, 2𝑏). [3]
(d) Another line is parallel to AB, and passes through (10, −10). Find the equation
of this line. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________

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4.0.4. TRIGONOMETRY

1. Pythagoras’ Rule – this rule only applies to a right angled triangle. It is used to find
the side of the triangle. You are advised to know how to make each variable the subject
of the equation in order to find the side specified. This is shown below:

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Where;
✓ 𝑐 is the hypotenuse (the longest side of a right angled triangle).
✓ 𝑏 is the opposite side (because it is opposite the angle labelled θ).
✓ 𝑎 is the adjacent side (because it is adjacent to the angle and the hypotenuse).

EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the side marked 𝑥cm of the triangle below.

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
152 = 𝑥 2 + 122
225 = 𝑥 2 + 144
225 − 144 = 𝑥 2
81 = 𝑥 2
√81 = √𝑥 2
𝑥 = 9cm

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS (SOHCAHTOA)

These ratios are also used only for right angled triangles. They’re used to find the sides and
angles in right angled triangles. The hypotenuse is the longest side, the opposite side is never
the same, we say it is opposite only when it is opposite an angle (see diagram below). When
finding angles, we use the inverse functions of the ratios. You are advised to know them by
heart as they are not provided in the exam. The mnemonic “SOHCAHTOA”! can be used.

SOH
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
CAH
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
TOA
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
2. The Sine Rule

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This rule can be used for any triangle to find the sides and angles. It is applicable if we have
three variables, e.g. two sides and an angle or two angles and one side. This is shown below:

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 sin𝐴 sin𝐵 sin𝐶

= = 𝑜𝑟 = =
sin𝐴 sin𝐵 sin𝐶 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

3. The Cosine Rule

This rule also applies for every triangle and is also used to find sides and angles. The same
diagram above will be uses as reference of the equation. The equation is as below. Note that it
can be written in two ways, the first is for finding the side, while the second is for finding the
angle.

𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴

𝑜𝑟

𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
cos 𝐴 = (Finding anlges)
2𝑏𝑐

4. Area of Triangle
Using this equation, we can find the area of any triangle, 𝑎 and 𝑏 can also be referred to in the
above diagram. Note that you should always use two adjacent sides and the angle between
them. This equation is written as:

1 1 1
𝐴 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 × sin𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐴= 𝑏 × 𝑐 × sin𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑎 × 𝑐 × sin𝐵
2 2 2
NB: All the above equations can be required in one compound examination question (i.e. a
question that requires the use of all the equations, or just two of them). This is sometimes a
follow up question (i.e. one in which the first question’s answer is required to proceed to the
next one), hence you should use the correct equation to solve for one of the variables and use
the next one correctly also to get the next variable. Also note that for angles, if we obtain an
expression in terms of sin𝜽, cos𝜽 or tan𝜽, we must always take the inverse of these expressions
in order to obtain the size of the angle. Also remember that angles in a triangle add up to
𝟏𝟖𝟎°.

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4.0.5. BEARINGS
A bearing is the direction of one point or an object in relation to another point or object. A
bearing is always measured from the North line in a clockwise direction. A bearing is written
using three digits, e.g. if a bearing is 30° it is written as 030°. Bearings are used hand in hand
with the equations we learnt above to find the lengths, areas and angles of points in relation to
others, hence, you should know how to apply the trigonometric equations when dealing with
bearing questions.

WORKED EXAMPLE
In the diagram below, position C is due south of position A. Position B is
on a bearing of 300° from position C and the distance between A and B is
37km. Find

(a) BC
(b) AC
(c) The bearing of B from A.
(d) The bearing of A from B.
(e) The area enclosed by the 3 positions.

Answers

(a) We are to find the distance of B to C. Since we have been given information that B is on
a bearing of 300° from C, we can find angle BĈA using the fact that angles at a point
add up to 360°, and then proceed to use the sine rule. Consider the sketch on the left.

We now solve for BC using the sine rule.

sin46 sin60 37sin46
= → 37sin46 = BCsin60 → BC =
BC 37 sin60
∴ BC = 30.73301602km ≈ 𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝐤𝐦

(b) We can solve for AC the same way. Firstly though, we have to
find the angle opposite to AC, this is simply 180 − (46 + 60) =
74° and then use the sine rule and conclude that AC ≈ 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝐤𝐦.

(c) Here, we start from the north line at A going clockwise to find the
angle that is made by BA and the north line. (See diagram below).
Hence the answer is 180 + 46 = 𝟐𝟐𝟔°.

(d) To find the bearing here, we draw the north line at B and move
clockwise to the line BA. Here, we apply the relationships in
parallel lines. As seen on the diagram, the bearing is on an angle
of 46°. Hence our answer is 𝟎𝟒𝟔° (bearing notation).

(e) Here we use the formula 𝐴 = ½ × 𝑎 × 𝑏 × sin𝐶

𝐴 = ½ × 37 × 30.7 × sin74
𝐴 = 545.9485802km2
𝐴 ≈ 𝟓𝟒𝟔𝐤𝐦𝟐 (To 3 s. f. )

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. Find the side AC in the triangle below.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Calculate the side marked 𝑥cm.

Answer [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
3. A man walks on horizontal ground. From point O, he observes a point A which is 80m
from O and on a bearing of 040° from O. The diagram below illustrates this.

The man also observes a point, B, which is 90m from O and due south of point A.
Calculate,
(a) (i) The bearing of O from A. [2]
̂ A.
(ii) The angle OB [3]

(b) The point C is 100m due west of A. The man walks directly from C to A. How far does
he walk? [4]

(c) The man then walks from A to B until he reaches point P, where P is closest to C.
Calculate CP. [3]
____________________________________________________________________________

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4.0.6. SIMILARITY AND CONGRUENCY

1. Similar Triangles
These are two triangles of the same shape, e.g. ABE is similar to ACD below:

The corresponding angles in the triangles are equal. The corresponding sides are parallel i.e. CB
and DE are parallel. The sides are in the same ratio. Note that the ratios are written as fraction
and the numerators are sides are of the bigger triangle while the denominators are sides of the
smaller triangle i.e.

AC AB CB
= =
AD AE DE

EXAMPLE 1
The diagrams below show two similar triangles. Find the side marked 𝑥cm.
(NB: The corresponding sides are identified by the corresponding angles.)

20 24
= ∴ 24𝑥 = 200 𝑥 = 8.3cm
𝑥 10

2. Congruent Triangles
These are two triangles of the same size, e.g. ABC is congruent to DEF below:

The corresponding angles in the triangles are equal and hence the corresponding sides are
equal.

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AREAS OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES

If two triangles are similar and the ratio of their sides is 3⁄5 , we can find the area of the bigger
triangle if the area of the smaller triangle is 50cm2 . We use the relationship below:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑

2
3 9
( ) =
5 25
9 50
= Here, we see that the ratio of the linear
25 𝑥
measurements (sides) squared is 9/25 we therefore
9 × 𝑥 = 25 × 50
equate this ratio to the ratio of the areas, bearing in
9𝑥 1250
= mind that the smaller triangle’s ratios are the
9 9 numerators.
𝑥 ≈ 139cm2

VOLUMES OF SIMILAR SOLIDS

If the length of a prism is 15cm and its volume is 200cm3 , we can calculate the volume of a
similar prism which has length 5cm. The relationship below is used:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑑

5 3 1 3 1 Always bear in mind to equate the ratios as

( ) =( ) =
15 3 27 either (small/big) or (big/small). In this
1 𝑥 case, we used the ratio (small/big).
=
27 200
𝑥 × 27 = 1 × 200
200
𝑥=
27
𝑥 ≈ 7.41cm3

NB: In examination questions you should be able to apply all the concepts discussed in this
section all at once. If you are already given the areas or volumes, simply take the ratios and
either square root them or cube root them in order to obtain the ratios of the sides of the
diagrams. Also remember in expressing the ratios of the sides, if the numerator for one fraction
is for the small figure, then the numerator for the other fraction should be for the small figure.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. The triangles below are similar. All measurements are in centimetres, find the values of
𝑥 and 𝑦.

Answer 𝑥 = 𝑦= [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. A rectangle ABCD has area 60cm2 and side CD = 6cm. Another rectangle WXYZ is
similar to rectangle ABCD and its side WX = 3cm. Calculate the area of the rectangle
WXYZ.

Answer [3]
___________________________________________________________________________

3. The triangles below are similar, find the value of 𝑥 in the larger triangle.

𝑥 = _________________ [3]
____________________________________________________________________________
4. The cones below are similar. The total surface area of P = 24cm2 and Q = 96cm2 . The
height of P = 4cm.

(a) Calculate the height of cone Q. [3]

3
(b) Given that the volume of P = 12cm , calculate the volume of Q. [3]
____________________________________________________________________________

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4.0.7. SYMMETRY

1. The Line of Symmetry – this is a line that divides a shape into two equal parts.
2. Plane of Symmetry – this is a line that divides a prism into two equal parts.
3. Rotational Symmetry – this is the number of times a shape fits onto its original
position in one revolution. An example is shown below;

The Equilateral Triangle

This is a triangle which has equal sides and angles (60°). As seen above, it has rotational
symmetry of order 3.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. (a) Write the mathematical name of a quadrilateral with exactly with two lines of
symmetry.
Answer (a) [1]
(b) Write down the mathematical name of the triangle with exactly one line of
symmetry.
Answer (b) [1]
(c) Write down the order of rotational symmetry of a regular pentagon.

Answer (c) [1]

___________________________________________________________________________
2. Write the order of rotational symmetry for the following;
(a) Square ________________________ [1]
(b) Triangle ______________________ [1]
(c) Parallelogram __________________ [1]
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Draw the lines of symmetry and state the order of rotational symmetry for the diagrams
below: [8]

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4.0.8. TRANSFORMATIONS

1. REFLECTION
This is a transformation in which identical figures are drawn, where there is a line of reflection
(which is the mirror) in between them.

Characteristics of a Reflection
✓ Object and image are the same size.
✓ The distance of the image from the line of reflection is equal to the distance of the
object from the line of reflection.
✓ Image and object are facing opposite directions (are laterally inverted).
✓ The line joining corresponding vertices is perpendicular (90°) to the line of reflection.

Describing a Reflection
✓ To fully describe a reflection you need to state the equation of the line of reflection (the
mirror). An example is shown below:

Here, triangle A is mapped

onto B by a reflection through
the line 𝑥 = 0. The distance
from A to the line of
reflection is equal to the
distance from B to the line of
reflection.

2. TRANSLATION
In a translation, the lines joining the object points and the image points are parallel and equal.
The image and the object are equal in size and are facing the same direction. We translate using
±𝑥
vectors, ( ). If 𝑥 is positive, we move to the left and vice versa. If 𝑦 is positive, we move
±𝑦
upward and vice versa.

Describing a Translation
✓ To fully describe a translation you
need to give the vector of translation.

Here, triangle A is mapped onto

triangle B by a translation vector
5
of ( ). This means that every
2
point of triangle A moved
positive 5 steps to the right and
positive 2 steps upwards.

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3. ROTATION
This is a transformation in which a shape turns through an angle about a fixed point (centre of
rotation). This is usually through 90°, 180° and 270°.

Determining the Centre of Rotation

✓ One is to draw right bisectors of two lines joining the object points and the image
points, the point where these two right angle bisectors meet is centre of rotation.
✓ One can also use a set-square to “inspect” where the centre of rotation is. This is done
by placing the right angled side at a particular point, and if all the similar vertices of the
image and object lie on the sides of the set-square, the point where the vertex of the set-
square is, is the centre.

Describing a Rotation
✓ To fully describe a rotation you have to state the centre of rotation (a coordinate point),
the angle of rotation (90°, 180° or 270°) and the direction of rotation (i.e. clockwise or
anticlockwise). Note that 270° clockwise is the same as 90° anticlockwise and 270°
anticlockwise is the same as 90° clockwise. An example is shown below. The steps for
finding the centre of rotation were applied.

Shape A maps into

shape B by a
rotation of 90°
clockwise, about
centre (1, 1).

HOW TO ROTATE AN OBJECT

𝑥
✓ If you rotate an object 90° clockwise, find the vectors (𝑦) of the points of the object
𝑦
from the centre of rotation and invert it as ( ) and use this as a normal column vector
−𝑥
from the centre of rotation to find the position of the point on the image. In the example
−2
above the vector of the point (−1, 2) relative to the centre (1, 1) is ( ), we then
1
1 1
invert it to ( ) = ( ). After this inversion, we move relative to the centre using
−(−2) 2
this vector, hence our point on the image lies on coordinate (2, 3).

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𝑥
✓ If you rotate an object 90° anticlockwise, find the vectors (𝑦) of the points of the
−𝑦
object from the centre of rotation and invert it as ( ) and use this as a normal column
𝑥
vector.
𝑥
✓ If you rotate an object 180° (either clockwise or anticlockwise), find the vectors (𝑦) of
−𝑥
the points of the object from the centre of rotation and invert it as (−𝑦) and use this as
a normal column vector.

4. ENLARGEMENT
This is a transformation in which an object is increased in size (given that the scale factor is >
1). If we use a positive scale factor, the image formed is larger than the object and on the same
side of the object. If we use a fractional scale factor the enlarged image is smaller than the
object. But if we use a negative scale factor, the image formed is inverted (upside down) and
on the opposite side of the centre. To enlarge an object, we multiply the scale factor by the
vectors of points of the object relative to the centre of enlargement. Consider the example
below.

Q: Enlarge triangle ABC onto A1 B1 C1 through centre (4, 4) using scale factor 2.
____________________________________________________________________________
Answers
−2 −4
The vector of A(2, 3) from the centre (4, 4) is ( ). We multiply this by 2 to get ( ). We
−1 −2
then use this vector to find the position of A1 from the centre of enlargement. A1 is found to be
at coordinate (0, 2). The same method is used to identify B1 and C1 . Hence the diagram below.

Describing an enlargement
✓ To fully describe an enlargement state the scale factor and the centre of enlargement.
To find the scale factor, use;
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

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WORKED INTEGRATED EXAMPLE

Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on each axis, draw the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes for −8 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8
and −8 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 10.
(a) Draw and label triangle A with vertrices (−4, 5), (−2, 4) and (−2, 8). [1]
(b) Reflect triangle A on the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4 and label the image B. [2]
(c) Enlarge triangle A onto C about centre (−3, 3) using scale factor −2. [2]
(d) Draw and label triangle D with vertices (3, 6), (2, 4) and (6, 4). Describe fully the
single transformation that maps triangle A onto triangle D. [4]
____________________________________________________________________________
Answers

• For (a), we simply identified the points mentioned and joined them in order to form triangle A.
• For (b), we started first by drawing the line of reflection (𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4). Then we counted 𝑥 steps and 𝑦 steps of each
point on A and made a 90° turn and counted the same 𝑥 and 𝑦 steps to identify the points of image B.
• For (c) we used the point (−3, 3) as our centre of enlargement and identified vectors from the centre to the points of
triangle A, followed by multiplication of these vectors by the scale factor −2. The new vectors were then used to
identify points for image C, using the centre as the origin of the vectors.
• For (d), we simply plotted triangle D and inspected what transformation would map triangle A onto D. From the four
possible transformations, we concluded that it is a rotation. We then applied the steps of finding the centre of rotation.
Lines EF and IJ connect two similar points while lines GH and KL are their bisectors respectively. They meet at the
point, (0, 2), hence the answer is that “Triangle A maps onto D by a rotation about (0, 2), 90° clockwise.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 &3)

1. Answer the whole of this question in a graph paper.

Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on each axis, draw 𝑥 and 𝑦-axis each from −8 to 8.
(e) Draw and label triangle A with vertices at (−2, 0), (−2, 4)and (−4, 3). [1]
(f) Draw and label triangle B with vertices at (−3, −1), (−7, −1)and (−6,1). [1]
(g) Describe fully the transformation that maps triangle A onto triangle B. [2]
(h) Rotate triangle B through 90° clockwise about (−6, −4).
Label the image C. [2]
(i) Draw and label triangle D with vertices at (5, 0), (7, 1)and (7, −3). [1]
(j) Describe fully the transformation which maps triangle A onto triangle D. [2]
(k) Enlarge triangle D using scale factor −2 and centre (5, −2).
Label the image E. [2]
(l) Describe fully the transformation that maps triangle E onto triangle A. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Answer the whole of this question in a graph paper.
Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1 unit on each axis, draw the 𝑥-axis from −10 to 16 and 𝑦-
axis from −8 to 8.( NB: Use the graph paper in landscape format.)
(a) Draw the polygon ABCD, where A(−6, −4), B(−4, −4), C(−3, −1) and D(−7, −1). [1]
(b) Enlarge ABCD with (−9, −3) as the centre of enlargement and scale factor 4. Label the
new shape as EFGH. [2]
(c) What is the name of the shape? [1]
_________________________________________________________________
3. The diagram below shows triangle A. Perform the following set of transformations.
−3
(a) Translate A by vector ( ). Label it B. [2]
−1
(b) Enlarge B with (−2, 3) as the centre, using scale factor 2. Label it C. [3]
(c) Rotate A about (1, 2), 270° anticlockwise. Label it D. [3]
(d) Write down, with necessary working, the single transformation that maps triangle B
onto triangle D. [4]

____________________________________________________________________________

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4.0.9. VECTORS

A vector is a quantity having direction as well as magnitude, especially as determining the

position of one point in space relative to another.

1. Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude (length) of a vector a is denoted by | a |.
𝑥
For example, if 𝐚 = ( 𝑦 ) where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are components of the vector, then;
| a | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

2. Parallel Vectors
Parallel vectors are multiples of each other. The relationship between them is described by a
scalar multiplier. This is shown below.

3. Inverse Vectors
The inverse of a vector is a vector of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction. This is due
to a negative scalar multiplier. See the example below.

4. Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

When two vectors are added or subtracted, we obtain a third vector which is the resultant
vector. The resultant vector is marked with a double arrow head. The triangle law will be
discussed in this book as it is most applicable in all scenarios.

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The Triangle Law

To add two vectors means applying the first one followed by the next one. In diagram 1 below,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = 𝐚, and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = 𝐛, therefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = AC⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , or simply, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC = 𝐚 + 𝐛. This means that we are
travelling from A to B by vector 𝐚 then travelling from B to C by vector 𝐛, this thus gives us the
movement from A to C which is denoted as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC. In the same sense, subtracting them is the same
as adding the inverse of another one. In diagram 2, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB = 𝐚, and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CB = 𝐛, therefore ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC, which is 𝐚 + (−𝐛), or simply, AC⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐚 − 𝐛. We say ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BC = −𝐛 because it is the inverse of
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CB = 𝐛.

Diagram 1 Diagram 2

EXAMPLE 1

In the diagram, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

OX = 𝐚, and OZ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐛 and 3XY
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
YZ. Find in terms of 𝐚 and/or 𝐛, (a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
XZ, (b)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OY, giving the answer in its simplest form.

____________________________________________________________________________
Answers
⃗⃗⃗⃗ , we first travel XO
(a) To find XZ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (which the inverse of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OX) and then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OZ. Therefore we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗
XZ = −𝐚 + 𝐛 or simply 𝐛 − 𝐚.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ , we can find XY
(b) Here, we have to apply ratios. Since we already have XZ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ or ZY
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Using
any of these, we will find the same answer. The ratio we are given means that ⃗⃗⃗⃗ XY is
multiplied by 3 to obtain ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
YZ thus if we add both of these vectors we obtain 4 units of XY
which would form ⃗⃗⃗⃗
XZ. Thus XY⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ¼XZ
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Therefore we conclude that ⃗⃗⃗⃗
XY = ¼(𝐛 − 𝐚).
Finally, we can find OY⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ by travelling OX
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
XY, this is 𝐚 + ¼(𝐛 − 𝐚). Simplifying this
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐚 + ¼𝐛 − ¼𝐚 = 𝐚 − ¼𝐚 + ¼𝐛 = ¾𝐚 + ¼𝐛 = ¼(𝟑𝐚 + 𝐛)
becomes, OY
__________________________________________________________________________

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. A chess piece moves 3 squares to the right followed by 2 squares upwards from point A
3
to point B. This can be expressed by a column vector ( ).
2
The piece continues from B to C by moving 2 squares to the left followed by 3 squares
downwards.
(a) Write down ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AC as a column vector. [1]
(b) Calculate the magnitude of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB. [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. In the diagram below, O is the origin. Given that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OA = 𝐚, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB = 𝐛, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AQ = 0.5𝐚, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BR = 𝐛
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , express in terms of 𝐚 and/or 𝐛,
AP = 2BA

(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BA [2]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(b) BP [2]
(c) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
RQ [2]
(d) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QA [2]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(e) QP [2]
(f) Using the vectors for ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
RQ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
QP, show that R, P and Q lies on a straight line. [3]
____________________________________________________________________________
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟒𝐚 + 𝐛 and OB = 𝟐𝐚 − 𝟑𝐛. P is the midpoint of AB.
3. In the diagram below, OA
Express in terms of 𝐚 and/or 𝐛,

(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
AB [2]
(b) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
BP [3]
____________________________________________________________________________

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4.0.10. LOCI

A locus (plural loci) is a set of points satisfying a certain condition.

1. EQUIDISTANT POINTS
If a line AB is equidistant from two points C and D, then the distance between AB and C
is the same as the distance between AB and D as shown below;

The points on the line are equidistant from A and B.

2. CONSTRUCTIONS

(a) Constructing an equilateral triangle

Suppose you have been given a line, AB and you have to construct an equilateral triangle which
has AB as one of its sides.

STEP 1
✓ Place the compass on A and open it so that the pencil touches B. This means you have
measured the length of AB with the compass. Be careful not to open or close the
compass at all from this point. Mark a small arc at B.

STEP 2
✓ Leaving the compass on point A, draw an arc with the pencil roughly where you think
the vertex (corner) of the triangle is going to be.

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STEP 3
✓ Now move the compass point to B and draw another arc which crosses the first.

STEP 4
✓ Label the two arcs cross C. Since the length of AC and BC are both equal to AB, we
have three points all the same distance from each other. If we join them up we therefore
have an equilateral triangle.

The Midpoint of a Line Segment (Bisecting a Line)

Suppose you are given a straight line AB and you have to find its midpoint. This is the locus of
points equidistant from the ends of the line segment. The steps involved are as follows.

✓ Place the compass at one end of line segment.

✓ Adjust the compass to slightly longer than half the line segment length.
✓ Draw arcs above and below the line.
✓ Keeping the same compass width, draw arcs from the other end of the line.
✓ Place ruler where the arcs cross, and draw the line segment.

This is shown below:

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Bisecting an Angle

This is the division of an angle into two equal angles which add up to the starting angle. The
line used to bisect an angle is the locus equidistant from the line segments making up the angle.
The geometrical name for this line is the angle bisector. The steps involved in bisecting an
angle are as follows.

STEP 1
✓ Start by opening the compass to any length and drawing an arc on each line making up
the angle. Label these points A and B.

STEP 2
✓ Now leaving the length of the compasses the same, place the compass point on A and
draw an arc in the middle. Then place the compass on B and draw an arc in the middle
which crosses the first, then label the intersection C. Draw a line across C straight
through the angle such that the angle is divided into two equal angles.

NB: In examination questions, be as accurate as possible in order to construct the best lines.
Always use a sharpened pencil and avoid erasing many times to maintain neatness. In some
questions, you will be asked to measure the distances formed by different shapes, so be as neat
as possible and avoid parallax errors by viewing the rule perpendicular to your eye level.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. In this question, all construction lines must be shown.
A triangular farm PQR is such that PQ = 10.3km, PR = 7.6km, and QPR = 62°.
(a) Using a scale of 1cm to represent 1km, draw a scale diagram of the farm. [2]
(b) Use a measurement from your diagram to write down the actual length of QR. [1]
(c) A farmhouse is inside the farm such that it is same distance from P as it from Q. On
your diagram, indicate all the possible positions of the farmhouse. [2]
(d) The farmhouse is also the same distance from PQ as it is from PR.
Mark, on your diagram, the position of the farmhouse and label it 𝐺

. [1]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. In this question, all construction lines must be shown.
A triangular plot, LMN is such that LM = 575cm, LN = 450cm and NM = 375cm.
(a) Using a scale of 1: 50, make a scale diagram of the plot. [3]
(b) A garden light, X, is to be placed inside the plot such that it is 225cm from N.
(i) Draw the locus of points showing the possible positions of X. [1]
(ii) The garden light, X, is to be the same distance away from M, as it is from N. Draw
the locus of points that are the same distance away from M as they are from N. [2]
(iii) Mark and label the position of the garden light, X. [1]
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Three villages A, B and C are joined by two straight roads, AB and AC as shown below.

(a) A trench equidistant from the two roads is to be dug.

(i) On the diagram above, showing all construction lines, construct a line to show
the position of the trench. [2]
(ii) What is the geometric term of the line you constructed?
Answer (a) (ii) [1]
(b) Another trench equidistant from villages A and C is to be dug.
On the same diagram above, showing all construction lines, construct a line to show
the position of the second trench. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
4. An isosceles triangle ABC is such that AB = 12cm, CA ̂ B = 45° and AC = BC.
(a) On a clean space, construct triangle ABC. [2]
(b) Measure and write down the length of BC. [1]
√2
(c) Given that sin45° = 2
, find the area of the triangle, without using a calculator
using sides AB and BC. [2]

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5.0. PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

5.0.1… PROBABILY
This is the measure of the extent to which an event is likely to occur, measured by the ratio of
the favourable cases to the whole number of cases possible.

Rules of Probability
✓ Probability can never be more than 1.
✓ Probability can be expressed as a decimal, fraction or percentage.
✓ When an event is sure to happen, its probability is 1.
✓ When an event is impossible to happen, its probability is 0.
✓ The probability of events in a given situation all add up to 1.

SIMPLE PROBABILITY

number of outcomes of the event

Probability =
total number of outcomes

NB: If you are to express the probability as a fraction, you must express it in its lowest terms.
Examples are shown below;

EXAMPLE 1: Monamati has 9 fruits in a basket, 2 are apples, 3 oranges and 4 are pears. He
picks one fruit at random, what is the probability that he picks
(a) an orange = 3⁄9 = 1⁄3
(b) an apple = 2⁄9
(c) a pear = 4⁄9

TREE DIAGRAMS
If you have two similar pens with different inks, blue and black, in a pencil case, the
probability of picking any of them is ½. This can be represented by a tree diagram below:

The outcomes are

written at the end of the
branches.

If there are more than two outcomes, more branches are drawn with the outcomes at the end of
the branches. This is shown below for the probabilities of EXAMPLE 1 above.

Note that the outcome

probabilities add up 1. This
should always be the case.

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If we were to continue the tree diagram above for

a second pick, the number of total outcomes
would reduce to 8 if the first fruit that was
picked was not replaced, therefore the
probabilities will change because we have
removed one of the possible outcomes. Note that the second pick also has three possible
outcomes since we still have 3 types of fruits remaining, and all the probabilities along (down)
a tree are added to get 1, while the probabilities across the tree are multiplied to get the
probability of obtaining the outcomes. This is shown below:

EX
AMPLE 2

A bag contains 3 blue bubble gums and 5 green bubble gums. Bolokang picks two bubble
gums at random without looking and without replacing. Find the probability that he picks
(a) one green bubble gum and one blue bubble gum.
(b) two blue bubble gums
(c) at least one green bubble gum.
Answers

(a) As seen above we have two ways in which this is possible, i.e. (B, G) and (G, B)
therefore, we add theses probabilities to obtain the answer as 𝟏𝟓/𝟐𝟖.
(b) From the diagram, there is only one possible way to obtain (B, B) hence the probability
is (3/8) × (2/7) = 𝟑/𝟐𝟖.
(c) In this case, we are looking for an outcome with one or more green bubble gums and
we add the probabilities. These are (B, G), (G, B) and (G, G), hence we have

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(15/56) + (15/56) + (5/14) = 𝟐𝟓/𝟐𝟖

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 1, 2 & 3)

1. A card game uses of set of picture cards consisting of Jack, Queen and King from each
of clubs, diamonds, hearts and spade.
(a) How many cards are used in the game? [1]
(b) A player draws a card from the set without looking.
What is the probability that the card drawn is diamond? [1]
The card is returned to set.
(c) Another player draws a card and replaces it. She then draws a second card.
What is the probability that the first card is a diamond and the second one is the King of
spades? [2]
(d) In another game, one card is drawn but is not replaced. A second card is then drawn.
What is the probability that
(i) both cards are Jacks, [2]
(ii) neither card is a Jack, [2]
(iii) at least one of the cards is a Jack? [2]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. A bag contains the letters WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS printed on similar papers.
Sidd picks two letters randomly without looking, one after the other. Find the
probability of obtaining
(a) a W and a C. [2]
(b) an R and a T. [2]
(c) a letter that comes before K in the alphabetical order and a W. [3]
(d) a letter that comes after K in the alphabetical order and a C. [3]
(e) an I and a L. [2]
____________________________________________________________________________
3. A bag contains 4 yellow small balls, 7 green small balls and 8 blue small balls. Mr Diin
picks two small balls at random, one after the other without looking and without
replacement. Find the probability that
(a) the balls are both green. [2]
(b) the balls are yellow and blue. [2]
(c) there is at least one yellow ball. [3]
(d) there is at least one green ball. [3]
(e) there is a black ball. [1]
____________________________________________________________________________
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4. In a classroom of 12 boys and 17 girls, 7 boys and 11 girls attend a Chemistry class
and the remaining students attend a Physics class. Two students are required to submit
to the school office immediately, so they’re chosen at random from both the Chemistry
and Physics classes. Calculate the probability that
(a) it is a boy and a girl from either classes. [2]
(b) one student is from Chemistry and the other is from Physics. [2]
(c) a girl from Chemistry and a boy from Physics are chosen. [3]
(d) two boys from Chemistry and Physics are chosen. [3]
(e) a boy and a girl from Chemistry are chosen. [3]
(f) two girls are chosen from Physics. [2]
(g) at least one of them is a boy from either classes. [4]
(h) if three students are chosen, at least two of them are girls from either classes. [4]

5.0.2. STATISTICS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. A Distribution: this is a sequence of numbers which are not related by any equation.

2. The Mean, 𝒙 ̅: this is the average of a number (𝑛) of terms (each as 𝑥) in a distribution.
It is obtained by adding all values and dividing them by their number, i.e.
∑𝑥
Mean = 𝐍𝐁: the symbol Ʃ means "summation".
𝑛
3. The Mode: this is the number that appears the most. It is also called the frequency. The
term frequency can also be used to describe a number appears in a distribution.

4. The Median: this is the number in the middle of a distribution after arranging numbers
in a distribution in ascending or descending order.

5. Range: this is the difference between the largest and smallest terms in a distribution.

6. The Lower Quartile (Q1): this is the 25th number in an ordered distribution

7. The Upper Quartile (Q3): this is the 75th number in an ordered distribution.

8. The Inter-Quartile Range (I.Q.R): this is the difference between the lower quartile
and upper quartile. i.e. I. Q. R. = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1

WORKED EXAMPLE
Given a distribution: 11, 2, 5, 5, 4, 8, 7, 9, find
(a) The mean:
(11 + 2 + 5 + 5 + 4 + 8 + 7 + 9)/8 = 48/8 = 𝟔

(b) The mode:

As seen in the distribution, 𝟓 appeared twice hence it is the mode (the most appearing).

(c) The median: (NB: Firstly, arrange the distribution starting with the smallest number.)

2, 4, 5, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11
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Then locate the middle number. But in this case, we have two terms. We therefore obtain
the average of these two to obtain the median, i.e. (5 + 7)/2 = 𝟔.

NB: Sometimes when solving for the mean, the formula ∑(𝑓 × 𝑥)/ ∑ 𝑓 is used. This applies to
data in a frequency table. Consider the example below for calculating the mean:

Marks Frequency In this example, the Marks are the values (𝑥) and the frequency (𝑓) is
63 6 the number of times the Marks would appear if written down in linear
59 4 form. Hence we calculate the mean using the formula written above to
(63×6)+(59×4)+(78×8)
78 8 ̅=
obtain 𝒙 (6+4+8)
≈ 𝟔𝟖. 𝟖 (To 3 s. f. )

THE ESTIMATED MEAN

Sometimes data is grouped in classes which have a range of values. For example, the numbers
2, 3, 4, 7, 9 would lie on a class of 2 − 9. We can therefore find an estimated value of the mean
from a frequency table by considering the midvalue of each class and multiplying it by the
frequency and ultimately dividing by the total frequency. The midvalue is obtained by adding
the two numbers of a class and dividing by two, e.g. the midvalue of 2 − 9 is (2 + 9)/2 = 5.5.
This relationship is shown by the equation (Ʃ𝑓𝑚)/(Ʃ𝑓). This is demonstrated below.

Q: Calculate the estimated mean for the following grouped data of ages in a hotel for a night.

Age (𝒙) Frequency (𝒇) Midvalue (𝒎) 𝒇×𝒎

1−7 12 4 48
8 − 10 37 9 333
11 − 13 48 12 576
14 − 19 21 16.5 346.5
118 1303.5

Therefore we have the value of Ʃ𝑓𝑚 which is 1303.5 and the value of Ʃ𝑓 which is 118, our
estimated mean will therefore be (1303.5/118) = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎 correct to 3 significant figures.

LINEAR INTERPOLATION (FINDING THE EXACT MEDIAN)

To find the exact median from a frequency table of grouped data without drawing a cumulative
frequency curve, we use the formula:

(𝑛/2 − 𝑐𝑓𝐴)
LB + × (UB − LB)
𝑓𝑚

Where; LB and UB are the lower and upper bounds of the class interval, 𝑛 is the total
frequency, 𝑐𝑓𝐴 is the cumulative frequency at the class in which the median lies and 𝑓𝑚 is the
frequency of the median class. Consider the example below.

Q: Find the exact median for the following frequency table.

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Class 𝒇
10 − 20 2 To find the position of the median,
20 − 30 3 we use the formula Ʃ𝑓/2.
30 − 40 3 Therefore we have (2 + 3 + 3 +
40 − 50 5 5)/2 = 6.5th position

Here, the position of the median is found to lie on the class 30 − 40 which has the 6.5th value.
We then use our formula above to find the value of the median.

(6.5 − (2 + 3))
Median = 30 + × (40 − 30) = 𝟑𝟓
3

The answer is then found to be 35, which is our exact median.

THE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE

The cumulative frequency curve is a simpler way of estimating the median, the quartiles and
any other data from a grouped data table. To obtain cumulative frequency, we add the
successive frequencies from the grouped data table. We then graph these points using the
extremities of the classes. The same formulas are then used to calculate any required value.
This is shown below:

Q: Construct a cumulative frequency curve for the group of ages below and estimate the (a)
median, (b) 65th percentile, (c) the 3rd decile and (d) the inter–quartile range.

Ages (𝒙) Frequency (𝒇) Cumulative Frequency (𝒄𝒇)

1−5 25 25
6 − 10 45 25 + 45 = 70
11 − 15 125 25 + 45 + 125 = 195
16 − 20 340 25 + 45 + 125 + 340 = 535
21 − 25 75 25 + 45 + 125 + 340 + 75 = 610
26 − 30 25 25 + 45 + 125 + 340 + 75 + 25 = 635
31 − 35 5 25 + 45 + 125 + 340 + 75 + 25 + 5 = 640
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Answers
•
The curve is then plotted using the extremities of=the
For (a), we simply divide 𝑐𝑓 by 2, i.e. 640/2 320. We then
classes trace𝑥–axis
on the the value 320
andofthe from the 𝑦-axis to
cumulative
the curve and trace own to the 𝑥-axis. Our median therefore is 𝟏𝟕.
frequency on the 𝑦–axis, e.g. for the first class we plot the point (5, 25), then (10, 70)
• For (b) percentiles are calculated by multiplying 𝑐𝑓 by the percentile over 100 and tracing to find the
followed by (15, 195) and so on. These are then connected by free hand. This is shown below.
corresponding 𝑥 value, i.e. (65/100) × 640 = 416 and therefore our answer is 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 while for (c), we
multiply 𝑐𝑓 by the decile over 10, i.e. (3/10) × 640 = 192 and therefore as traced, our answer is 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖
• For (d) we find the quartiles first by (3/4) × 640 = 480, therefore Q 3 = 19.2 and (1/4) × 640 = 160,
and hence Q1 = 13.5, hence the I. Q. R = 19.2 − 13.5 = 𝟓. 𝟕.

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HISTOGRAMS

These are similar to bar charts. The difference is the thickness of the bars. Histograms are used
to demonstrate data in grouped frequency tables. In histograms, the axes are ordered using
appropriate scales, and the bars are drawn on each class interval starting with the lower bound
of the interval and extending up to the lower bound of the next class so that there’s no space in
between bars. The areas of the bars are equal to the frequency of the class.

To draw a histogram, we need to find the frequency density which will be plotted on the 𝑦-
axis. The frequency density is found by 𝑓𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠. The
interval of the class is found by 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠. If the upper
bound of a class is equal to the lower bound of the next class, then proceed with calculations of
the frequency densities. On the other hand, if the upper bound of a class is not equal to the
lower bound of the next one, then we need to close the boundaries by making the upper bound
of a class equal the lower bound of the next class. For example, if two classes are 15 ≤ 𝑥 < 20
and 21 ≤ 𝑥 < 26, these can be made to become 14.5 ≤ 𝑥 < 20.5 and 20.5 ≤ 𝑥 < 26.5.
consider the following example.

Q: Draw a histogram for the following frequency table.

Ages (𝒙) Frequency (𝒇)

10 ≤ 𝑥 < 14 5
15 ≤ 𝑥 < 19 7
20 ≤ 𝑥 < 29 15
30 ≤ 𝑥 < 45 21
____________________________________________________________________________

Ages (𝒙) Frequency (𝒇) Interval (𝑰) Frequency Density (𝒇𝒅)

9.5 ≤ 𝑥 < 14.5 5 5 1
14.5 ≤ 𝑥 < 19.5 7 5 1.4
19.5 ≤ 𝑥 < 29.5 15 10 1.6
29.5 ≤ 𝑥 < 45.5 21 15 1.4
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As seen above, the class bounds have been made similar so that there is no space between the
bars. We then draw the histogram using the 𝑦-axis for the frequency density and the 𝑥-axis for
the classes.

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SCATTER GRAPHS

Scatter graphs are used to compare two sets of data. The dependent variable is drawn on the 𝑦-
axis and independent variable is drawn on the 𝑥-axis.

The Line of Best Fit

This is a line drawn between points and is used to determine a relationship. In the diagram
below, the line of best fit passes through the points such that equal number of points are on
both sides of the line.

Types of Correlation

• Positive Correlation • Negative Correlation

This is whereby points on the graph This is whereby points on the graph slope

slope
upw
ard.

dow
nwar
d.

• Zero/No Correlation • Perfect Correlation

This is whereby points are scattered This is whereby all points lie on the
on the graph. line of best fit.

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VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

The variance of a distribution is the mean of the squares of the deviations of the scores from
the mean. In an equation it is written as;

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
Variance = or
𝑛 ∑𝑓

To calculate the variance of a distribution, the best way is to construct a table and deal with the
computations easily. Consider the example below.

Q: Find the variance of the frequency table below.

Ages (𝒙) 𝒇
35 2 NB: If the data is grouped, find the
46 4 midvalue, 𝑚, and use it as 𝑥.
59 5
63 3
____________________________________________________________________________
Answers

Ages (𝒙) 𝒇 ̅) 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅) 𝟐
𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒙
35 2 313.29 626.58
46 4 44.89 179.56
59 5 39.69 198.45
63 3 106.09 318.27
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟔

Here, since we have a frequency table, we will use the second formula to find the variance. We
started first by finding the mean using the formula Ʃ𝑓𝑥/Ʃ𝑓. The mean was found to be 52.7 to
1 decimal place. We then computed the value of (𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅)𝟐 . We then found the value of
𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒙̅)𝟐. To find the variance, we now divide the sum of the squares by the total frequency,
i.e. Variance = 1322.86/14 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟓.

STANDARD DEVIATION

The standard deviation is simply the measure of spread or variability about the mean. It is
found by square rooting the variance, i.e.

Standard Deviation = √Variance

For the example above, the standard deviation would be √94.5 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟐 correct to 3 significant
figures.

NB: These are the concepts of statistics and data handling. In examination questions, you
should be able to apply all the steps and showing your workings in order to obtain marks. Even
if you fail to obtain the correct answer, showing workings will score you method marks.

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS (PAPER 3)

1. Answer the whole of this question in a sheet of graph paper.

The length of 47 steel nails was measured to nearest millimetre and the results are shown in the
table below.
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐦𝐦) 39 – 44 45 – 50 51 – 53 54 – 56 57 – 65
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐧𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐬 10 12 9 7 9
(a) The boundaries for the first two classes are 38.5 – 44.5 and 44.5 – 50.5 respectively.
Write down the boundaries for the next three classes. [1]
(b) Draw a histogram such that the lengths of the nails range 39 – 44cm are represented by
a rectangle of width 2cm and height 5cm. [4]
(c) The longest 38% of the nails are rejected. Estimate the length of the longest nail that is
acceptable. [3]
___________________________________________________________________________
2. The table below shows marks obtained by students at Word Crackers Tutorials and the
frequency of each mark. Use the data given to calculate the
(a) mean [3]
(b) variance [4]
(c) standard deviation [1]
𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬 54 65 70 82 90
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 7 6 10 5 2
___________________________________________________________________________
3. The table below shows the masses of a group of 220 students. Use the data provided to
calculate
(i) an estimate of the mean mass of a student. [3]
(ii) the variance [4]
(iii) the standard deviation [1]
(iv) On a square grid, draw a histogram for the data given. [3]
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐦) 𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐠 35 ≤ 𝑚 < 40 41 ≤ 𝑚 < 46 47 ≤ 𝑚 < 55 56 ≤ 𝑚 < 70
𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 40 120 31 29
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
The table below shows the heights, ℎ cm, and the corresponding masses, 𝑚 kg, of 6 atheletes.
Height (𝒉 𝐜𝐦) 165 156 150 170 145 162.5
Mass (𝒎 𝐤𝐠) 76 71.5 70 78.5 66.5 76
(c) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 5 units on each axis, draw a horizontal axis for 140 ≤
ℎ ≤ 180 and a vertical axis for 55 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 85. Plot the scatter graph of ℎ against 𝑚. [3]
(d) Describe the correlation between the heights, ℎ, of the athletes and their masses, 𝑚. [1]
(e) Draw the line of best fit. [1]
(f) (i) Calculate the gradient of the line of best fit. [1]
(ii) What does the gradient represent? [1]
(iii) Find the equation of the line of best fit. [2]
(e) Using the line of best fit or otherwise, estimate the mass of an athlete whose height is
158cm. [1]
____________________________________________________________________________

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MISSION

UNLEASHING POTENTIAL

VISION

WE AIM TO RAISE LEARNERS WHO KNOW THEIR PURPOSE AND PROVIDE AN

ENVIRONMENT FOR NURTURING TALENTS, SKILLS, GIFTS AND ABILITIES.

CONTACT 3114821 or CELL/WHATSAPP 73573143

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