English Reviewer

Parts of Speech
Parts of Speech:
 Parts of Speech – The classification of words based on their roles or functions in a sentence.
Each word in a sentence plays a specific part that contributes to the sentence’s overall meaning
and clarity.
- These are essential in mastering grammar, constructing sentences correctly, and improving
reading and writing comprehension.
- There are eight major parts of speech: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction, and Interjection.

Noun:
 Definition – A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, quality, or event. It
answers the questions: Who? What?
 Function – Nouns serve as subjects (doers of action), objects (receivers of action), complements,
or objects of prepositions in a sentence.
 Types of Nouns:
o Proper Noun – Specific names of people, places, or things (always capitalized)
 e.g., Jamine Rosco, Asia, Coca-Cola, Mavuika
o Common Noun – General names not capitalized unless at the beginning of a sentence
 e.g., man, country, school
o Concrete Noun – Names something that can be perceived by the five senses
 e.g., table, apple, rain
o Abstract Noun – Names ideas, qualities, or feelings that cannot be seen or touched
 e.g., honesty, bravery, love
o Collective Noun – Refers to a group considered as one unit
 e.g., class, family, team
o Count Noun – Can be counted (has singular and plural forms)
 e.g., book/books, chair/chairs
o Mass Noun – Cannot be counted individually and has no plural form
 e.g., water, sugar, rice
 Examples in Sentences:
o The teacher gave a lecture on courage.
o The team celebrated its victory with a party.

Pronoun:
 Definition – A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun to avoid unnecessary repetition.
 Function – Helps create smoother and more concise sentences by substituting nouns that have
already been mentioned or are obvious from context.
 Types of Pronouns:
o Personal Pronouns – Refer to specific people or things
 e.g., I, you, he, she, it, we, they
o Possessive Pronouns – Show ownership
 e.g., mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
o Reflexive Pronouns – Refer back to the subject of the sentence
 e.g., myself, yourself, himself
 o Relative Pronouns – Introduce dependent clauses and relate to a noun
 e.g., who, which, that
o Interrogative Pronouns – Used to ask questions
 e.g., who, what, which
o Indefinite Pronouns – Refer to nonspecific people or things
 e.g., someone, anybody, few, none
o Demonstrative Pronouns – Point to specific things
 e.g., this, that, these, those
 Examples in Sentences:
o She gave the book to him.
o Someone left their umbrella in the room.

Verb:
 Definition – A verb expresses an action, condition, or state of being.
 Function – It is the heart of a sentence. Without a verb, there is no complete thought. Verbs
indicate what the subject is doing or what is happening to it.
 Types of Verbs:
o Action Verbs – Show physical or mental actions
 e.g., run, eat, think, dance
o Linking Verbs – Connect the subject to a description or condition
 e.g., is, are, become, seem
o Helping Verbs (Auxiliary Verbs) – Combine with the main verb to show tense, mood, or
voice
 e.g., has, will, can, should, must
 Tenses of Verbs:
o Present Tense – Indicates current actions (e.g., walks)
o Past Tense – Indicates completed actions (e.g., walked)
o Future Tense – Indicates actions yet to happen (e.g., will walk)
 Examples in Sentences:
o The dog barked loudly.
o She is very tired.
o They have finished their homework.

Adjective:
 Definition – An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. It provides information about
the quality, quantity, size, color, or condition of the noun.
 Function – It helps clarify and add detail to nouns and pronouns.
 Types of Adjectives:
o Descriptive Adjectives – Describe qualities (e.g., tall, bright, noisy)
o Quantitative Adjectives – Indicate quantity or amount (e.g., few, many, several)
o Demonstrative Adjectives – Point to specific nouns (e.g., this, that, these)
o Possessive Adjectives – Show ownership (e.g., my, your, his, her)
o Interrogative Adjectives – Ask questions (e.g., which, what, whose)
o Comparative/Superlative Adjectives – Show degree of comparison
 Comparative: taller, better
 Superlative: tallest, best
  Examples in Sentences:
o The red car is faster than the blue one.
o Several students joined the competition.

Adverb:
 Definition – An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It provides information
about manner, time, place, frequency, and degree.
 Function – It answers questions like How? When? Where? How often? To what extent?
o Adverbs of Manner – how? (e.g., quickly, carefully)
o Adverbs of Time – when? (e.g., now, yesterday, soon)
o Adverbs of Place – where? (e.g., here, outside, everywhere)
o Adverbs of Frequency – how often? (e.g., always, never, rarely)
o Adverbs of Degree – to what extent? (e.g., very, almost, too)
 Examples in Sentences:
o She speaks fluently.
o He often visits his grandmother.
o We will leave soon.

Preposition:
 Definition – A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word
in the sentence.
 Function – It connects the noun to the rest of the sentence, usually indicating direction,
location, time, or cause.
 Common Prepositions – In, on, at, under, over, besides, behind, across, though, during, with,
without.
 Prepositional Phrase – A phrase that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
o e.g., under the table, during the meeting, with confidence
 Examples in Sentences:
o The book is on the table.
o They went through the tunnel.
o She was born in August 4.

Conjunction:
 Definition – A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.
 Function – It shows the logical relationship between sentence elements such as addition,
contrast, choice, cause/effect, or conditions.
 Types of Conjunction:
o Coordinating Conjunctions – Connect equal elements (e.g., and, but, or, so, yet)
o Subordinating Conjunctions – Connect a dependent clause to an independent clause
(e.g., although, because, while, if)
o Correlative Conjunctions – Paired conjunctions (e.g., either…or, neither…nor, not only…
but also)
 Examples in Sentences:
o I like coffee, but I prefer tea.
o We stayed home because it was raining.
o Neither the teacher nor the students noticed the mistake.
Interjection:
 Definition – An interjection is a short exclamatory word or phrase that expresses strong emotion
or reaction.
 Function – It usually stands alone or is inserted at the beginning of a sentence and is often
followed by an exclamation point.
- Common interjections are: Wow! Oh no! Yay! Oops! Aha! Ugh!
 Examples in Sentences:
o Wow! That was an amazing performance.
o Oh no! I forgot my wallet.

Common Masculine and Feminine Word Pairs:

Masculine Feminine Notes
Actor Actress "Actor" is now often used for both genders.
Waiter Waitress "Server" is the modern gender-neutral term.
Prince Princess Common royal titles.
King Queen Still widely used.
Father Mother Parental roles.
Brother Sister Sibling terms.
Boy Girl Basic gender terms.
Man Woman General adult terms.
Son Daughter Family relationship.
Nephew Niece Extended family.
Uncle Aunt Relatives.
God Goddess Religious/mythological use.

Less Common Masculine and Feminine Word Pairs:

Masculine Feminine Notes
Widower Widow Surviving spouse.
Landlord Landlady Property owners; "landlord" often used generically.
Wizard Witch / Sorceress Magic users; "witch" becoming neutral.
Monk Nun Religious roles.
Abbot Abbess Monastery/convent leaders.
Duke Duchess Noble titles.
Emperor Empress Ruler titles.
Stallion Mare Male and female horses.
Fox Vixen "Vixen" also used slangily.
Gander Goose Male and female geese.
Drake Duck Used in waterfowl.
Dog Bitch Female dog, also offensive slang.
Ram Ewe Male and female sheep.
Boar Sow Male and female pigs.
Buck Doe For deer, rabbits, antelope.
Rooster Hen Chickens.
Obscure and Archaic Pairs:
Masculine Feminine Notes
Czar / Tsar Czarina / Tsarina Russian royal titles.
Reeve Reevess Old English leadership term.
Sultan Sultana Muslim royalty.
Signor Signora Italian titles (Mr./Mrs.).
Señor Señora Spanish titles (Mr./Mrs.).
Bridegroom Bride Often shortened to “groom.”
Bachelor Spinster Outdated; "spinster" has negative connotation.

Figures of Speech
Metaphor:
 Metaphor – Is a figure of speech that compares two unrelated things by stating that one is the
other, without using “like” or “as.” It implies a shared quality or symbolic resemblance between
them. Rather than saying something is like something else, it says it is that thing
- Rules:
o Do not use comparison words like “as” or “like.”
o The comparison is implied, not stated directly.
o Should involve two distinct ideas that share a hidden similarity.
- Purpose:
o To create strong imagery or emotional impact.
o To make abstract concepts easier to understand.
- Examples:
o Time is a thief. (Time steals moments from our lives.)
o She has a heart of stone. (Emotionless or cold.)
o The classroom was a zoo. (Chaotic and noisy.)

Metonymy:
 Metonymy – Is a figure of speech where an object or concept is referred to by something
closely associated with it, not a part of it. The substitute term suggests something broader or
more abstract.
- Rules:
o The substituted word must be closely related (not a part of it).
o Common in politics, literature, and everyday speech.
- Purpose:
o To create symbolic meaning, brevity, or familiarity.
o Often used in journalistic and poetic language.
- Examples:
o The pen is mightier than the sword. (“Pen” = writing; “sword” = warfare)
o The White House issued a statement. (White House = U.S. government)
o He drank the whole bottle. (Actually drank the liquid inside.)

Onomatopoeia:
 Onomatopoeia – Is the use of words whose sound imitates or suggests their meaning. These
words mimic natural or mechanical sounds.
 -
- Rules:
o The word must sound similar to the thing it describes.
o Common in children’s literature, poetry, and comic books.
- Purpose:
o To create a vivid, sensory effect (especially sound).
o Makes writing more lively or expressive.
- Examples:
o The bees buzzed by the flowers.
o The fire crackled in the night.
o The car zoomed down the road.

Oxymoron:
 Oxymoron – An oxymoron places two opposing or contradictory words side by side to create a
unique or paradoxical meaning.
- Rules:
o Combines contradictory terms (usually adjective + noun or adverb + adjective).
o Should form a meaningful or poetic phrase despite the contradiction.
- Purpose:
o To highlight contrast or complexity.
o Creates irony or thought-provoking imagery.
- Examples:
o Deafening silence.
o Bitter sweet.
o Seriously funny.

Paradox:
 Paradox – A paradox is a statement or situation that seems to contradict itself, yet reveals a
deeper or hidden truth.
- Rules:
o Must contain an apparent contradiction.
o Upon reflection, the contradiction makes logical or philosophical sense.
- Purpose:
o To provoke thought or highlight complexity or irony.
- Examples:
o Less is more.
o I know one thing: that I know nothing.
o This is the beginning of the end.

Personification:
 Personification – Personification gives human qualities or actions to non-human objects,
animals, or abstract concepts.
- Rules:
o The non-human subject must be described doing human-like actions or emotions.
o Should enhance imagery or emotional impact.
- Purpose:
o To humanize abstract or inanimate things.
 o Makes descriptions more relatable or vivid.

- Examples:
o The wind whispered through the trees.
o The sun smiled down on us.
o Time marched forward without mercy.

Pun:
 Pun – A pun is a play on words that exploits multiple meanings of a term or words that sound
alike for humorous or rhetorical effect.
- Rules:
o Can be based on homophones (same sound, different meanings) or wordplay.
o Must involve double meaning or twisting context.
- Purpose:
o To entertain, create wit, or add humor to writing or speech.
- Examples:
o Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana.
o I was struggling to figure out how lightning works, but then it struck me.

Simile:
 Simile – A simile is a comparison of two different things using “like” or “as.” Unlike a metaphor,
it directly points out the similarity.
- Rules:
o Use “like,” “as,” “as if,” or “as though.”
o Clearly compares two unlike things based on a shared trait.
- Purpose:
o To create clear, relatable imagery.
o Helps the reader visualize abstract ideas.
- Examples:
o Her smile was as bright as the sun.
o He fights like a lion.
o It’s soft like a cloud.

Synecdoche:
 Synecdoche – Synecdoche is when a part of something is used to refer to the whole, or vice
versa.
- Rules:
o Part-for-whole (e.g., "wheels" for car)
o Or whole-for-part (e.g., "the law" for a police officer)
o Must be literally part of the thing.
- Purpose
o To create familiar, compact expressions.
- Examples:
o All hands-on deck! (hands = people)
o He’s got a nice set of wheels. (wheels = car)
o The suits arrived at the office. (suits = business people)
Understatement:
 Understatement – An understatement intentionally makes something seem less important or
serious than it is.
- Rules:
o Often uses ironic tone.
o Common in British humor and satire.
- Purpose:
o To create irony or humor.
o Can add modesty or soften harsh truths.
- Examples:
o (After getting stabbed) “It’s just a scratch.”
o The hurricane caused a bit of trouble.
o He’s not the worst singer I’ve heard.

Alliteration:
 Alliteration – Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of
multiple closely placed words.
- Rules:
o Applies only to consonant sounds, not just letters.
o Must be in succession or close proximity.
- Purpose:
o To create musicality, rhythm, or emphasis.
o Often found in poetry, slogans, and tongue twisters.
- Examples:
o Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
o She sells seashells by the seashore.
o Wild winds whipped wildly.

Anaphora:
 Anaphora – Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive
clauses, sentences, or lines.
- Rules:
o Must be at the start of each repeated unit.
o Often used in rhetoric, speeches, and poetry.
- Purpose:
o To emphasize a point and create rhythmic impact.
- Examples:
o Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better.
o I have a dream… I have a dream… I have a dream… – Martin Luther King Jr.

Antithesis:
 Antithesis – Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel phrases or
clauses.
- Rules:
o Must use parallel structure.
o Contrasts must be clear and direct.
- Purpose:
 o To highlight differences or show conflict.
- Examples:
o It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.
o Speech is silver, but silence is golden.
Apostrophe:
 Apostrophe – Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which the speaker directly addresses a person
who is absent, an inanimate object, or an abstract idea as if it could hear or respond.
- Rules:
o The subject being addressed is usually non-living, absent, or imaginary.
o Common in poetry, drama, and elegies.
- Purpose:
o To express deep emotion (grief, passion, love, etc.).
o To add drama or personality to writing.
- Examples:
o O death, where is thy sting?
o Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are.
o Oh, Freedom! How you elude us still!

Assonance:
 Assonance – Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words, especially in
stressed syllables.
- Rules:
o Vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u) must repeat, not necessarily the letters.
o Often used in poetry and song lyrics for musicality.
- Purpose:
o To create internal rhyming, rhythm, and fluid sound.
o Enhances the mood and tone of the text.
- Examples:
o The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.
o Go and mow the lawn.
o Try to light the fire.

Chiasmus:
 Chiasmus – Chiasmus is a rhetorical figure where words or concepts are repeated in reverse
order, in the same or a modified form.
- Rules:
o Structure: A-B-B-A pattern.
o Words or ideas must mirror each other in a crisscross pattern.
- Purpose:
o To emphasize contrast or balance.
o To create a memorable, poetic structure.
- Examples:
o Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country.
o Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.

Euphemism:
  Euphemism – A euphemism is a polite, mild, or indirect expression used in place of one that
may be harsh, blunt, or offensive.
- Rules:
o Must soften or mask the negative, unpleasant, or sensitive nature of the original
meaning.
o Common in formal or professional contexts.
Hyperbole:
 Hyperbole – Hyperbole is a deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for emphasis or comic
effect.
- Rules
o Must be an overstatement, not meant to be taken literally.
o Used in both serious and humorous contexts.
- Purpose:
o To emphasize emotion, intensity, or absurdity.
o Adds dramatic or humorous tone.
- Examples:
o I’ve told you a million times!
o I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.
o This bag weighs a ton.

Irony:
 Irony – Irony involves saying something that means the opposite of what is literally stated,
usually to highlight a discrepancy or contradiction.
- Types of Irony and Examples:
o Verbal Irony: Saying the opposite of what you mean.
 "Nice weather we're having!" (during a storm)
o Situational Irony: When what happens is the opposite of what is expected.
 A fire station burns down.
o Dramatic Irony: When the audience knows something, the character doesn’t.
 In a horror movie, the audience sees the killer hiding, but the character doesn’t.
- Purpose:
o To provoke thought, humor, or critique.
o Highlights conflict or contradiction.

Litotes:
 Litotes – Litotes is a form of understatement where a positive statement is expressed by
negating its opposite.
- Rules:
o Uses double negatives or negation of the opposite.
o Often found in formal, academic, or ironic tones.
- Purpose:
o To express modesty, subtlety, or irony.
o Makes statements softer or less forceful.
- Examples:
o She’s not unattractive. (She’s pretty.)
o That’s no small feat. (It’s a big achievement.)
o He’s not unfamiliar with the subject. (He knows it well.)
 Poetry
Poetry:
 Poetry – A “rhythmical creation of beauty in words,” according to Edgar Allan Poe, is a melodious
invention that appeals to readers through conventions like metaphors, sense impressions, and
images. Gibran’s view of poetry very interestingly associates it with the dictionary for obvious
reasons.

Elements of Poetry:
 Structure – How the poem is physically and formally arranged. Structure refers to the
framework of a poem—how its lines, stanzas, and form are organized to deliver meaning. A
poem's structure helps shape flow, pacing, and emphasis.
o Form – The form of a poem is its overall shape or design, often based on traditional
conventions.
 Form – The form of a poem is its overall shape or design, often based on
traditional conventions. (Ex. Sonnet, Haiku, Free Verse)
 Stanza – A stanza is a group of lines in a poem, similar to a paragraph in prose.
Poems can have couplets (2 lines), tercets (3), quatrains (4), and more. Stanza
breaks can signal a shift in idea, emotion, or rhythm.
 Lineation – Lineation refers to the intentional arrangement of lines. Poets may
break lines in specific places for emphasis, visual design, or sound effect. This
affects how we pause or interpret meaning.
 Meter – Meter is the pattern of stressed (´) and unstressed (˘) syllables in a
line. A foot is a unit of meter. Types include:
 Lamb (˘ ´) – a-LONE
 Trochee (´ ˘) – NE-ver
 Dactyl (´ ˘ ˘) – PO-e-try
 Anapest (˘ ˘ ´) – in the NIGHT
 Rhyme Scheme – The rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming words at the end
of each line, marked with letters: (ex. AABB, ABAB, ABCB)
 Perfect Rhyme – Is when the end sounds match exactly (e.g.,
light/night).
 Slant Rhyme – Has similar but not exact sounds (shape/keep).
 Enjambment – When a sentence or phrase continues across a line break
without pause giving fluidity.
 End Stopping – Lines that conclude with punctuation, giving a clear stop and
gives finality.
 Repetition - Used to emphasize important ideas.
 Refrain – A line or phrase repeated at intervals, often at the end of stanzas, like
a chorus in a song.
o Sound – The music and acoustic effects of poetry. The sound of a poem contributes to
its mood, pace, and emotion. Poets use sound devices to make their words resonate
when read aloud.
  Rhyme – Occurs on how words transition.
 Rhythm – The natural flow or beat created by the arrangement of syllables and
words.
 Alliteration, Assonance, Consonance, Onomatopoeia.
o Sense – The meaning, message, or feeling behind the poem. Sense explores what the
poem says, how it says it, and what effect it has on the reader emotionally or
intellectually.
 Theme – The theme is the central message, subject, or insight the poem
conveys.
 Tone – Tone is the poet’s attitude toward the subject or audience.
 Mood – Mood is the emotional effect the poem has on the reader.
 Imagery – Imagery uses descriptive language to appeal to the senses:
 Visual (sight) – golden sunlight
 Auditory (sound) – a crackling fire
 Tactile (touch) – rough bark
 Olfactory (smell) – scent of jasmine
 Gustatory (taste) – bitter coffee
 Symbolism – Symbolism is the use of objects, colors, or elements to represent
ideas.
 Figurative Language - Poets often use figures of speech to deepen meaning.
 Persona or Speaker – The persona or speaker is the voice narrating the poem.

Major Types of Poetry:

 Lyric Poetry – Lyric poetry is a short, emotional, and subjective form of poetry in which the
speaker expresses personal feelings, moods, or thoughts. It doesn’t tell a story with a plot—
rather, it captures a moment, a feeling, or an idea.
 Narrative Poetry – Narrative poetry is a type of poem that tells a story using characters, conflict,
setting, and plot. It has a clear beginning, middle, and end, and it may be long or short.
 Dramatic Poetry – Dramatic poetry presents one or more characters speaking, much like in a
play or monologue. The poem may include dialogue, conflict, and dramatic tension, with little
or no input from the poet’s own voice.

Quotes of Major Poets:

 Robert Frost – “Poetry is when an emotion has found its thought and the thought has found
words.”
 Edgar Allan Poe – “Poetry is the rhythmical creation of beauty in words.”
 Khalil Gibran – “Poetry is a deal and pain and wonder, with a dash of the dictionary.”

Sonnet 18:
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Form:
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:  Shakespearean Sonnet
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,  14 lines
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:  Rhyme scheme: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG
 Meter: Iambic pentameter
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimmed; Meaning (Sense):
And every fair from fair sometime declines,  Shakespeare begins by asking if he should
By chance or nature’s changing course compare the subject to a summer’s day.
 untrimmed;  He then says the subject is more lovely
and more consistent than summer, which
But thy eternal summer shall not fade, is too short and often harsh.
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;  While beauty fades in nature, the
Nor shall Death brag thou wander’st in his shade, subject’s beauty is eternal, preserved in
the "eternal lines" (this poem).
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st:  The final couplet declares that as long as
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, humans read these lines, the subject will
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. live forever through poetry.
- William Shakespeare's Sonnet 18 is a love poem that explores themes of the fleeting nature
of beauty and the power of poetry to preserve it. The speaker acknowledges that natural
beauty changes with the seasons and eventually fades.
- However, he finds comfort in the belief that poetry can preserve his beloved’s beauty and
prevent it from disappearing with time. The poem expresses the idea that love is stable and
that true affection can immortalize a person through words.
- The poem begins with the famous question, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?". It
uses figurative language, including personification, metaphor, and hyperbole, to paint a vivid
image of a summer day.
- In the first eight lines, the speaker compares his beloved to summer, noting both its beauty
and its imperfections. In the ninth line, he declares that his beloved’s beauty is eternal. The
final six lines make the case that it is the poem itself that will preserve the beloved’s eternal
beauty.
- Sonnet 18 is considered one of Shakespeare’s most famous sonnets, and possibly the most
famous lyric poem in the English language.

William Shakespeare:
- William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon and died on April 23,
1616, at the age of 52.
- His father, John Shakespeare, was a glove maker and merchant.
- William attended grammar school, where he studied Latin and read classical literature,
including mythology.
- In 1582, he married Anne Hathaway, who was 26 years old at the time; Shakespeare was only
18.
- They had three children: Susanna, and twins named Judith and Hamnet. Sadly, Hamnet died in
1596 at the age of 11.
- Shakespeare moved to London sometime between 1585 and 1591.
- He became a member of an acting troupe called The Lord Chamberlain’s Men, which later
became known as The King’s Men.
- Over his lifetime, Shakespeare wrote 37 plays and 154 sonnets.
- His plays are categorized into four genres: Histories, Tragedies, Comedies, and Tragicomedies.

Structure of a Shakespearean Sonnet:

 Quatrain – This refers to the first three stanzas found in a sonnet, with each stanza consisting of
four lines.
 Couplets – This refers to the last two lines found at the end of each sonnet.
 Persona – This denotes the one speaking in the poem
 Addressee – This pertains to the one being spoken to in the poem.
 Short Story
Short Stories:
 Short Stories – Fictional narratives that communicate enduring themes throughout civilization.
They are built upon essential elements that make up their structure, such as character, setting,
plot, theme, and conflict. These texts also use rhetorical devices, including figures of speech
and sound devices, to achieve a particular effect on the readers. Despite being unique, these
elements and devices must work cohesively to provide the text with its organic unity.
 Organic Unity – A concept introduced by many classical theories such as Plato and Aristotle.
Works of art, including poetry and prose literature, are believed to possess a natural, organic
form that provides its parts or elements with consistency.

Elements of a Short Story:

 Character – This element pertains to the ones who are either actively or passively involved in
the story. The story usually revolves around the circumstances of the characters involved. There
are two (2) major types of characters: the protagonist and the antagonist.
o Protagonist – The main character in the story
o Antagonist – The villain or adversary of the main character
 Setting – This is the "when" and the "where" of the story. Settings usually possess their own
character. It helps to look at the climate. Is the story a backdrop of war? Is the weather sunny,
rainy, gloomy, or festive? Is it a place that is progressive or futuristic? Does it bind its people to
certain cultural practices?
 Plot – This is the sequence of events in the story. The sequence is usually chronological,
following the linear order of things, but some plots are nonlinear or complex plots that do not
begin where they naturally begin. This means that the plot may be using certain techniques that
disrupt the logical flow of the story, such as flashbacks and flash-forwards. However, the
sequence may be, plots would ordinarily include the following: exposition, rising action, climax,
falling action and resolution or denouement.
 Conflict - This is the element that tackles the struggle between the protagonist and the
antagonist. Conflicts are important because they move the story forward. To the readers, the
conflict usually communicates contexts that are relatable and reveals attitudes that are either
worth emulating or worth questioning. Conflict may be internal, where the character is having
issues with himself/herself. It could also be external, where the character has to contend with
society. This includes conflicts with nature, technology, and other people.
 Theme – Stories are often understood in terms of their theme, or the universal, driving message
behind the story. It is not always shown in plain sight. Sometimes readers need to search the
text’s nook and cranny to assert its theme.
 Style – This refers to the techniques, devices, and diction employed in the text. In most cases,
the writer's voice can be heard if the style is effective. Writers usually employ linguistic choices
that provide a layer of complexity, as well as flavor and identity in a given work. Haruki
Murakami’s style is not the same as Kazuo Ishiguro’s, in much the same way that Shakespeare’s
style differs in every drama he wrote.
 Modals
Functions of Modals:
 Definition – Modal verbs (also called modal auxiliaries) are auxiliary verbs that express meanings
like ability, possibility, necessity, permission, obligation, and probability.
 Function – They never standalone — they must be followed by the base form of a main verb
(without to, except for ought to).
- Main modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to

Main Characteristics of Modals:

 Cannot stand alone – a modal must always be followed by the base form of a main verb.
o Correct: She can sing.
o Wrong: She can. (incomplete)
 No -s form in the third person singular – unlike regular verbs.
o Correct: He can play the piano.
o Wrong: He cans play.
 No infinitive or participle forms – you cannot say to can, canning, or canned (except in the food
context).
 Do not use “do” for questions or negatives – instead, the modal itself changes position.
o Question: Can you help me?
o Negative: You cannot (can’t) help me.

Main Modal Verbs in English:

 Can – Ability, Possibility, Permission (I can swim fast.)
 Could – Past Ability, Possibility, Politeness (This could be dangerous.)
 May – Possibility, Permission (You may enter now.)
 Might – Weaker Possibility (She might come later.)
 Shall – Future Intention, Suggestion/Offer (We shall meet again.)
 Should – Advice, Obligation, Probability (You should study harder.)
 Will – Future Certainty, Willingness (He will travel tomorrow.)
 Would – Politeness, Past Habit, Hypothetical (I would help if I could.)
 Must – Necessity, Strong Probability (You must wear a seatbelt.)
 Ought to – Advice, Moral Duty (You ought to respect your parents.)

Form in Sentences:
 Affirmative: Subject + modal + base verb
o She can sing.
 Negative: Subject + modal + not + base verb
o He cannot swim.
 Question: Modal + subject + base verb
o Can you swim?

If-Then Conditionals:
 If-Then Conditional – An if–then conditional is a sentence structure used to describe a condition
(something that must happen first) and a result (what happens if the condition is true).
If + condition , then+result
 o Zero Conditional – Facts which are generally true of scientific facts. (Present Simple +
Present Simple)
 If you stand in the rain, you get wet.
o First Conditional – A possible situation in the future (Present Simple + Will/Won’t +
Verb)
 If it rains, we will cancel the trip.
o Second Conditional – Hypothetical or unlikely situations. (Past Simple + Would + Verb)
 If I won the lottery, I would travel a lot.
o Third Conditional – The person imagining a different imaginary situation that did not
happen. (Past Perfect + Would Have + Past Participle)

Great Expectations Characters:

 Pip – Protagonist and narrator, an orphan boy raised by his sister and bro-in-law Joe in the
marshes of Kent. He is passionate, romantic, unrealistic, and has high expectations for himself.
Pip has a strong conscience and wants to improve morally and socially.
 Estella – Miss Havisham’s ward and Pip’s unattainable love. She is beautiful but cold, cruel, and
not interested in Pip. She repeatedly says she has no heart, yet Pip loves her deeply.
 Miss Havisham – A wealthy eccentric old woman living in Satis House. She was abandoned on
her wedding day, wears a faded wedding dress, and surrounds herself with clocks stopped at
8:40. She raises Estella as revenge against men, training her to break hearts.
 Abel Magwitch (The Convict) – A criminal who escapes prison and meets Pip as a child. Pip’s
kindness makes a deep impression. Magwitch later becomes Pip’s secret benefactor, using his
fortune from Australia to fund Pip’s education and gentleman lifestyle through Jaggers.
 Uncle Pumblechook – Pip’s pompous uncle-in-law, a merchant obsessed with money. He
arranges Pip’s first meeting with Miss Havisham. Later, he takes credit for Pip’s social rise,
though the true benefactor is Magwitch.
 Joe Gargery – Pip’s bro-in-law and a village blacksmith. Married to Mrs. Joe (abusive) but stays
out of love for Pip. He is good, kind, uneducated, humble, and one of the most sympathetic
characters. Despite Pip treating him coldly, Joe remains loyal and forgiving.

Charles Dickens:
- Was a British author, journalist, editor, illustrator, and social commentator who wrote the
beloved classics Olive Twist, A Christmas Carol, and Great Expectations.
- His books were first published in monthly serial installments, which became a lucrative source of
income following a childhood of abject poverty.
- Dickens wrote 15 novels in total, including Nicholas Nickleby, David Copperfield, and A Tale of
Two Cities.
- His writing provided a stark portrait of poor and working-class people in the Victorian era that
helped to bring about social change.
- Dickens died in June 1870 at age 58 and is remembered as one of the most important and
influential writers of the 19th century.

Types of Adverbs:
Type Adverbs Example
Adverbs of Frequency always, sometimes, often, usually, • She normally eats three meals
frequently, rarely/hardly ever, never, a day.
 • I usually buy all my vegetables
generally, etc.
at the market.
• The children were playing
cheerfully, efficiently, painfully, carefully, happily with their toys.
Adverbs of Manner
slowly, badly, easily, well, quickly, etc. • The police dealt with the
incident very efficiently.
• She’d already gone when we
now, yesterday, soon, later, yet,
got there.
Adverbs of Time tomorrow, already, tonight, today, then,
• I’m going to hang out with my
last month/year, etc.
friends tomorrow.
• His children go everywhere
off, above, abroad, far, on, away, back,
with him.
Adverbs of Place here, out, outside, behind, in, down,
• Let’s open the box and see
downstairs, etc.
what’s inside it.
• I’m not absolutely certain I
quiet, too, entirely, very, extremely,
posted it.
Adverbs of Degree rather, almost, absolutely, just, barely,
• He was quite agreeable to
deeply, etc.
accepting the plan.
• David is clearly unhappy to be
apparently, clearly, fairly, frankly,
here.
Adverbs of Evaluation fortunately, honestly, hopefully,
• Frankly, I think the Internet is
carelessly, etc.
overrated.
• I don’t want to go; besides,
accordingly, besides, equally, further,
I’m too tired.
Conjunctive Adverbs hence, namely, next, now, additionally,
• Furthermore, they had not
etc.
consulted with her.

Etymology:
 Etymology – Is reasoning (-ology) of the true (etym) meaning and sense of words, via identifying
their origins, denotative meanings, and the various shades of meaning applied over time. It is a
broad concept/topic that includes:
o Phonetics: Analysis of the sounds of which words are comprised.
o Morphology: The study of morphemes, the smallest unit of language that carries
meaning (think prefix, root, and suffix)
o Semantics: The meaning of words, particularly based on context; also, analyzing how
meanings change over time.
o Syntax: Grammar! How are the words supposed to be used?
o Transliteration: How words change in form over time.

Borrowing:
 Borrowing – Is the taking over of words from other languages. It is the transmission of forms
from one language to another. Borrowing is another source of word formation in English.
o For example: sofa (Arabic), tycoon (Japanese), yogurt (Turkish).
 o English economic, technical analysis and some particular domains rely heavily on
loanwords.
 For example: garage (French), concerto (Italian), Kantoor (Dutch).
o English has become an important borrowing source in more recent times, particularly for
Middle East countries.

Blending:
 Blending – A blend may be defined as a new lexeme built from parts of two (or more) words or a
word plus a part of another word.
o Example: brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog).
o Words formed in this way are called blends.
o Blending = clipping + compounding.