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EAR 405: TELECOMMUNICATIONS

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Contents

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1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION 1

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1.1 The Significance of Human Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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1.1.1 Barriers to Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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1.1.2 Historical Evolution of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

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1.1.3 Modern Significance of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

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1.2 Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.2.1 Message Generation and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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1.2.2 Noise and Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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1.2.3 Modern Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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1.2.4 Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
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1.2.5 Communication Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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1.2.6 Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
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1.3 Types of Electronic Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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1.3.1 Simplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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1.3.2 Full Duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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1.3.3 Half Duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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1.3.4 Analog Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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1.3.5 Digital Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.4 Modulation and Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.1 Baseband Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.2 Broadband Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.3 Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.1 Frequency and Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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 1.5.2 Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.3 The Optical Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6.1 Importance of Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6.2 Historical Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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1.6.3 Advantages of Higher Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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1.6.4 Current Spectrum Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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1.6.5 Spectrum Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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1.7 A Survey of Communication Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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1.7.1 Simplex (One-Way Communication) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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1.7.2 Duplex (Two-Way Communication) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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1.7.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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1.8 Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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1.8.1 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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1.8.2 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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1.8.3 Decibels (dB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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1.8.4 Overall Gain and Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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1.8.5 Special Decibel Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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1.8.6 Practical Applications of Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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2 Audio (sound) and Video transducers. 36

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2.1 Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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2.1.1
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Condenser microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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2.1.2 Dynamic microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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2.1.3 Carbon microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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2.1.4 Piezoelectric microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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2.2 Loudspeaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
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2.3 Video camera: The CCD camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 How an LCD Works..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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3 Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals 46
3.1 AM Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Sidebands and the Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.1 Sideband Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2 Frequency-Domain Representation of AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Pulse Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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3.5 Amplitude Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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3.5.1 Low-Level AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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3.6 Amplitude Demodulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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3.6.1 Diode Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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3.7 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

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4 Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation M 63
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4.1 FM Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
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4.2 Modulation Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

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4.3 Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

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4.3.1 Advantages of FM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
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4.3.2 Disadvantages of FM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
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4.4 Frequency Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

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4.5 Frequency Demodulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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4.6 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

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5 Multiple access schemes 76

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5.1 Frequency division multiple access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

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5.2 Time-division multiple access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5.3 Code-division multiple access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4 Demand Assigned Multiple Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.5 Time-division duplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.6 Frequency-division duplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6 OPTICAL FIBERS 84
6.1 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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6.2 THE OPTICAL FIBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3 THE COHERENT BUNDLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.4 THE NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.5 ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.6 PULSE DISPERSION IN STEP-INDEX FIBERS (SIF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.7 PARABOLIC-INDEX FIBERS (PIF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.8 MATERIAL DISPERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

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6.9 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

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6.9.1 Extrinsic fiber optic sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

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6.9.2 Intrinsic sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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6.10 BASIC FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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6.10.1 TYPES OF FIBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

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6.10.2 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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6.10.3 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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6.11 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

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List of Figures

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1.1 A general model of a communication system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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1.2 Simplex communication: one-way flow of information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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1.3 Duplex communication: (a) Full duplex (simultaneous two-way). . . . . . . . . . 13

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1.4 Duplex communication: (b) Half duplex (alternating two-way). . . . . . . . . . . 14

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1.5 Analog signals: (a) Pure sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice waveform. (c) Composite

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video signal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6
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Digital signals: (a) Morse code telegraph. (b) CW on/off keying. (c) Serial
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binary code (ASCII example). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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1.7 Modulation at the transmitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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1.8 Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation. . . 19

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1.9 Transmitting binary data in analog form. (a) FSK. (b) PSK. . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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1.10 Recovering the intelligence signal at the receiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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1.11 Multiplexing at the transmitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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1.12 Demultiplexing at the receiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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1.13 The electromagnetic spectrum. Frequency increases to the right, while wave-
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length decreases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
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1.14 The electromagnetic spectrum used in electronic communication. . . . . . . . . . 23

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2.1 Structure of the condenser microphone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.2 Structure of the moving-coil microphone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3 Cutaway view of a dynamic loudspeaker. 1. Magnet 2. Voicecoil 3. Suspension
4. Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4 CCD cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5 Structure of LCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

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3.1 Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2 Amplitude modulator showing input and output signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 The relationship between time and frequency domains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Amplitude modulation of a sine wave carrier by a pulse or rectangular wave is
called amplitude-shift keying. (a) Fifty percent modulation. (b) One hundred
percent modulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5 The relationship between time and frequency domains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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3.6 Amplitude modulation with a diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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3.7 Waveforms in the diode modulator. (a) Modulating signal. (b) Carrier. (c)

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Linearly mixed modulating signal and carrier. (d) Positive-going signal after

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diode D1. (e) Am output signal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

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3.8 Simple transistor modulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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3.9 A diode detector AM demodulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
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3.10 Diode detector waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
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4.1 FM and PM signals. The carrier is drawn as a triangular wave for simplicity,
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but in practice it is a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) FM
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signal. (d) PM signal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

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4.2 Frequency-modulating of a carrier with binary data produces FSK. . . . . . . . 65

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4.3 A direct-frequency-modulated carrier oscillator using a varactor diode. . . . . . . 70

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4.4 Slope detector operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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6.1 A typical fiber optic communication system: T, transmitter; C, connector; S,

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splice; R, repeater; D, detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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6.2 (a) A ray of light incident on a denser medium (n2 > n1). (b) A ray incident on
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a rarer medium (n2 < n1). (c) For n2 < n1 , if the angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle, it will undergo total internal reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3 (a) A glass fiber consists of a cylindrical central core clad by a material of slightly
lower refractive index. (b) Light rays impinging on the core-cladding interface
at an angle greater than the critical angle are trapped inside the core of the fiber. 86

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6.4 A bundle of aligned fibers. A bright (or dark) spot at the input end of the
coherent fiber bundle produces a bright (or dark) spot at the output end. Thus,
an image will be transmitted (in the form of bright and dark spots) through a
bundle of aligned fibers, forming, for example, the letter T shown above. . . . . 87
6.5 Pulses separated by 100 ns at the input end would be resolvable at the output
end of 1 km of the fiber. The same pulses would not be resolvable at the output
end of 2 km of the same fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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6.6 Different ray paths in a parabolic-index fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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6.7 Alignment sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

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6.8 The fiber optic Mach-Zehnder interferometric sensor. Phase changes (due to

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external perturbation on the sensing arm) between the light beams arriving at

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the output coupler cause changes in intensity at the output. . . . . . . . . . . . 93

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6.9 Basic fiber optic communication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
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6.10 Types of fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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6.11 Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

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6.12 Light detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

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Chapter 1

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC

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COMMUNICATION

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1.1 The Significance of Human Communication M
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Communication is the fundamental process of exchanging information between individuals,
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groups, or systems. It facilitates the transfer of ideas, thoughts, knowledge, and emotions,
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making it central to both social interaction and technological development. Communication

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can occur through multiple modes, including:

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• Verbal communication: Spoken or written words.

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• Nonverbal communication: Gestures, posture, facial expressions, and other body

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language.
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• Print communication: Books, letters, newspapers, and printed documents.

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• Electronic communication: Modern tools such as telephones, radio, television, and

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the Internet.

1.1.1 Barriers to Communication

Despite its importance, communication is often hindered by certain barriers. Two of the most
common are:

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 • Language barriers: These occur when individuals from different linguistic or cultural
backgrounds attempt to interact. Misinterpretations or incomplete understanding are
common challenges in such contexts.

• Distance barriers: Physical separation restricts direct, face-to-face communication.

Historically, this required humans to develop alternative means of transmitting informa-
tion over long distances.

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1.1.2 Historical Evolution of Communication

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In early human societies, communication was limited to direct encounters. To overcome dis-

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tance limitations, humans adopted basic signaling methods such as drumbeats, horn blasts,

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smoke signals, and semaphore flags. These signals could be relayed across multiple stations,

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significantly extending communication range.
The invention of written language marked a breakthrough by allowing information to be pre-
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served and transported. Messages were carried by human runners, animals (e.g., horseback
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messengers), and later, ships and trains. However, these methods were slow and often unreli-
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able.
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The late nineteenth century witnessed a dramatic transformation with the application of elec-
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tricity to communication. Key milestones included:

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• Telegraph (1844): Enabled rapid transmission of coded messages over wires.

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• Telephone (1876): Allowed real-time voice communication over long distances.

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• Radio (1887-1895): Enabled wireless communication, further eliminating physical con-

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straints.
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1.1.3 Modern Significance of Communication

Today, communication technologies form the backbone of an information society. Electronic

systems such as telephony, radio, television, and the Internet have enabled instantaneous global
information exchange. The effectiveness of modern industries, economies, and personal lives
now depends heavily on communication efficiency.

2
Contemporary society is characterized by a shift from mass production of goods to the pro-
duction, processing, and exchange of information. Without electronic communication systems,
it would be impossible to access, analyze, and apply information in real time, making them
indispensable for decision-making, collaboration, and innovation.

1.2 Communication Systems

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An electronic communication system is a structured arrangement designed to transfer informa-

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tion from a source to a destination through a defined process. Every communication system

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consists of three fundamental components, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1:

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• Transmitter: Converts the original message (information signal) into a suitable form

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for transmission. This often involves modulation to adapt the signal to the channel.

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• Communication channel or medium: The physical medium through which the signal
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propagates (e.g., copper wire, optical fiber, or free space for wireless communication).
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• Receiver: Detects the transmitted signal, performs necessary demodulation or decoding,

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and reconstructs the information for delivery to the end user.

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1.2.1 Message Generation and Transmission

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The communication process begins when a message is generated by a source. This source may
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be:
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• A human (voice, text, or gesture).

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• A computer (data or digital signals).

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• Another electronic system (sensor measurements or control signals).

The transmitter processes this message into an electronic signal, which is optimized for trans-
mission through the chosen medium. For example, in wireless systems, radio frequency (RF)
modulation is used to map baseband signals onto carrier waves for efficient propagation.

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1.2.2 Noise and Interference

During transmission, the signal is exposed to unwanted disturbances collectively known as

noise. Noise may arise from various sources:

• Thermal noise: Generated by random electron motion in conductors.

• Interference: Caused by overlapping signals from other communication systems.

• Channel imperfections: Attenuation, distortion, or multipath effects that degrade

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signal quality.

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Noise reduces the accuracy and clarity of the received message, making noise mitigation tech-

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niques (e.g., error correction, filtering, modulation schemes) essential in system design.

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1.2.3 Modern Applications
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Modern communication systems are highly diverse and include:
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• Wired systems: Telephone networks, Ethernet, optical fiber communication.

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• Wireless systems: Radio broadcasting, cellular networks, satellite communication, Wi-

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• Internet-based systems: Email, social media, video conferencing, cloud services.

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These systems enable global interconnectivity, transforming the way humans work, learn, and
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interact on a daily basis.

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1.2.4 Transmitter
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The transmitter is the first functional block in an electronic communication system. Its pri-
mary role is to process the original message and convert it into a form that can be efficiently
propagated through the communication channel.

Message Conversion to Electrical Form

Before transmission, the source information must be represented as an electrical signal. This
conversion is achieved through input devices or transducers, depending on the type of message:

4
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Figure 1.1: A general model of a communication system.

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• Voice signals: A microphone converts acoustic sound waves into an analog electrical

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audio signal.

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• Video signals: A television or digital camera converts variations in light intensity into
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an electronic video signal.
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• Digital data: A keyboard, computer, or digital sensor generates binary codes (0s and
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1s), which can be stored, processed, or transmitted serially.

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• Physical measurements: Specialized transducers convert physical quantities such as

5:
40

temperature, pressure, or light intensity into proportional electrical signals.

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Signal Processing within the Transmitter

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Once converted, the electrical message is processed by a collection of electronic components

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and circuits to prepare it for transmission. The major functional units typically include:
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• Oscillators: Generate a stable carrier signal, usually a sinusoidal waveform at a higher

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frequency than the baseband signal.

• Amplifiers: Increase the strength of the signal to ensure it can propagate effectively
over the medium.

• Tuned circuits and filters: Shape the signal spectrum and remove unwanted frequency
components.

5
 • Modulators: Superimpose the baseband intelligence signal onto the high-frequency car-
rier wave using modulation techniques (e.g., amplitude modulation, frequency modula-
tion, or digital modulation schemes).

• Frequency mixers and synthesizers: Shift the signal to the appropriate frequency
band and provide frequency agility.

Final Output

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After processing, the original intelligence signal is combined with the high-frequency carrier,

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amplified to the required power level, and formatted to match the selected transmission medium

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(e.g., coaxial cable, optical fiber, or free space). The resulting output is a robust signal capable

AT
of traveling long distances while preserving the integrity of the transmitted information.

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1.2.5 Communication Channel M
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The communication channel is the physical medium through which an electronic signal prop-
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agates from the transmitter to the receiver. Its primary function is to carry the transmitted
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information while minimizing distortion and loss. Different types of media are used in commu-
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nication systems, each with its own characteristics, advantages, and limitations.
5:
40

Electrical Conductors
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Electrical conductors are widely used for short- and medium-distance communication. Common
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examples include:
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• Two-wire transmission lines: Simple pairs of wires capable of carrying low-frequency

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signals such as voice or audio.

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• Coaxial cables: Consist of a central conductor surrounded by an insulating dielectric

and an outer conductive shield. These are widely used for television distribution, broad-
band Internet, and high-frequency RF transmission due to their superior shielding and
bandwidth.

• Twisted-pair cables: Pairs of insulated conductors twisted together to minimize elec-

tromagnetic interference (EMI). They are commonly used in telephone lines and local-area
networks (LANs).

6
Electrical conductors are cost-effective and reliable, though they suffer from attenuation, lim-
ited bandwidth, and electromagnetic interference over long distances.

Optical Media

Optical fibers, also referred to as light pipes, are the backbone of modern long-distance and
high-speed communication systems. Information is transmitted as pulses of light, typically
generated by a laser diode or light-emitting diode (LED).

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• Digital transmission: Information is converted into binary codes, which control the

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rapid on/off switching of the light source, enabling very high data rates.

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• Analog transmission: Audio or video signals may modulate the amplitude or intensity

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of the transmitted light.

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Optical fibers offer extremely high bandwidth, low signal attenuation, and immunity to elec-
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tromagnetic interference, making them ideal for telecommunication backbones, Internet infras-
M
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tructure, and submarine cable systems.

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Free Space
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When signals are transmitted through free space, the system is referred to as wireless commu-
40

nication. This category includes:

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• Radio communication: Utilizes electromagnetic waves within the radio frequency spec-
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trum to propagate signals over short or long distances. Examples include AM/FM radio,
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cellular networks, and satellite links.

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• Optical wireless communication: Employs visible or infrared light beams transmitted

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through the atmosphere (e.g., remote controls, free-space optical communication).

Wireless communication enables mobility and global coverage but is subject to interference,
fading, and atmospheric absorption.

Other Media

In addition to conductors, optical fibers, and free space, specialized communication channels
are employed in unique applications:

7
 • Underwater communication: Sonar systems use water as the medium. Passive sonar
detects natural underwater sounds, while active sonar transmits sound pulses and ana-
lyzes the reflected echoes to determine object distance and movement.

• The Earth as a medium: The ground can conduct electricity and transmit very low-
frequency (VLF) electromagnetic waves, useful in submarine communication and geo-
physical exploration.

• Power line communication (PLC): Electrical power lines, normally used to distribute

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alternating current (AC), can also carry data signals. Communication is achieved by

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superimposing high-frequency carrier signals on the existing AC waveform. PLC is used

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for remote equipment control, smart metering, and certain types of LANs.

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Comparison of Media

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Each medium has unique properties, and the choice depends on factors such as distance,
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bandwidth, cost, reliability, and environmental conditions. For example, optical fibers excel in
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long-distance, high-data-rate applications, whereas free-space channels are essential for mobility
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and global access.

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5:

1.2.6 Receivers
40
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A receiver is an assembly of electronic components and circuits designed to capture the trans-
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mitted signal from the communication channel, extract the original information, and present
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it in a form intelligible to humans or machines. The receiver performs functions such as ampli-
ha

fication, filtering, frequency conversion, and demodulation to recover the transmitted message
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with minimal distortion or loss.

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Receiver Functions and Components

The typical receiver includes the following functional blocks:

• Amplifiers: Boost the weak signal captured from the channel to a usable level while
attempting to preserve its fidelity.

• Oscillators and mixers: Convert the received signal from its carrier frequency to an
intermediate frequency (IF) or baseband for easier processing.

8
 • Tuned circuits and filters: Select the desired frequency band and suppress unwanted
signals or interference.

• Demodulator or detector: Recovers the original intelligence signal (audio, video, or

data) from the modulated carrier.

Once processed, the recovered signal is delivered to the appropriate output device:

• Audio signals are reproduced by speakers or headphones.

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• Video signals are displayed on monitors, LCD panels, or television screens.

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• Digital data is received by computers, stored in memory, or displayed through user in-

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terfaces.

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Transceivers
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Most modern communication is bidirectional, requiring both transmission and reception ca-
M
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pabilities. To achieve this, communication equipment often integrates both transmitter and
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receiver circuits into a single unit called a transceiver.

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Transceivers share common subsystems such as the power supply, frequency synthesizers,
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5:

and control circuits. Examples include telephones, handheld radios, cellular devices, Wi-Fi
40

adapters, and computer modems. The integration of both functions within one device im-
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proves efficiency, reduces cost, and minimizes size.

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Attenuation and Signal Loss

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During propagation, signals inevitably undergo attenuation, which refers to the reduction in
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signal amplitude over distance. Key aspects include:

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• Attenuation is approximately proportional to the square of the distance between trans-

mitter and receiver.

• Transmission media are frequency-selective; for example, many channels act as low-pass
filters, which can distort digital pulses and reduce high-frequency components.

• Signal propagation is always slower than the speed of light in a vacuum due to the physical
properties of the medium.

9
To counteract attenuation, receivers employ sensitive amplifiers, and repeaters are often used
in long-distance systems to restore signal strength and integrity.

Noise and Signal Quality

Noise is a critical limiting factor in all communication systems and is most noticeable at
the receiver stage. Sources of noise include thermal agitation of electrons, electromagnetic
interference from external systems, and imperfections in electronic components.

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Noise is typically quantified using the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), defined as:

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Psignal
SNR =

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Pnoise

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It is commonly expressed in decibels (dB):

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Psignal
SNR(dB) = 10 log10 M Pnoise
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A higher SNR indicates better performance, as the information signal is stronger relative to
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the background noise. Practical methods of improving receiver performance include:

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• Using low-noise amplifiers (LNAs).

5:
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• Employing filtering techniques to remove unwanted frequency components.

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• Operating devices at lower temperatures to reduce thermal noise.

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1.3 Types of Electronic Communication

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Electronic communications can be classified in different ways depending on how information

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flows between the sender and receiver, and the type of signals used. The two most common
classifications are based on:

1. The direction of communication: whether the system allows only one-way (simplex) or
two-way (half duplex or full duplex) transmission.

2. The nature of the signal: whether the communication uses analog signals (continuous in
nature) or digital signals (discrete values, typically binary codes).

10
Understanding these classifications is fundamental because the type of communication deter-
mines the system design, efficiency, and the range of applications it can support.

1.3.1 Simplex

The simplest form of communication is simplex, where the information flows in only one
direction from the transmitter to the receiver, with no feedback path. The receiver cannot
respond back to the transmitter.

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• Examples:

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1. Radio broadcasting: A radio station transmits music or news programs to listen-

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AT
ers, but listeners cannot transmit back.

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2. Television broadcasting: A TV station sends video and audio signals to viewers’

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televisions. M
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3. Remote-controlled devices: A toy car or an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV or
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drone) receives commands from a remote controller but does not send signals back.
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4. Public announcement (PA) systems: A school or stadium PA system broad-

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casts announcements to the audience, but the audience cannot talk back through
5:
40

the same channel.

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• Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, and suitable for mass communication.

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• Limitations: No feedback or interaction; the receiver is passive.

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1.3.2 Full Duplex

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Full duplex communication allows information to flow simultaneously in both directions. Both
parties can transmit and receive at the same time, just like having a face-to-face conversation.

• Examples:

1. Telephone systems: Two people talking on the phone can speak and listen at the
same time without waiting for the other to stop.

11
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Figure 1.2: Simplex communication: one-way flow of information.

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2. Video conferencing: Platforms like Zoom, Teams, or Google Meet allow partici-
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pants to exchange audio and video in real time.

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3. Mobile networks: Cellular systems support simultaneous upload and download

of data.

4. Internet communication: Web browsing, email, and VoIP services rely on full
duplex data channels.

• Advantages: Natural and efficient interaction, reduces delay, improves user experience.

12
 • Limitations: Requires more complex circuitry and higher bandwidth compared to sim-
plex or half duplex.

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IO
Figure 1.3: Duplex communication: (a) Full duplex (simultaneous two-way).

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IC
1.3.3 Half Duplex

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In half duplex communication, both parties can transmit and receive, but not at the same
M
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time. Only one side communicates at a time, and the direction of communication alternates.
EC

• Examples:
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1. Two-way radios (walkie-talkies): A user presses a push-to-talk button to trans-

5:
40

mit, and then releases it to listen.

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2. Military and emergency services communication: Fire, police, marine, and

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aircraft radios use half duplex because it reduces interference and is reliable.
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3. Amateur radio (ham radio) and CB radio: Communication is possible both

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ways, but participants take turns speaking.

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• Advantages: Simpler than full duplex and uses less bandwidth.

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• Limitations: Not as natural as full duplex; conversation flow is slower since users must
take turns.

1.3.4 Analog Signals

An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current that represents
physical quantities such as sound, light, or temperature. Unlike digital signals, analog signals

13
 s
Figure 1.4: Duplex communication: (b) Half duplex (alternating two-way).

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change in an infinite number of possible values over time, making them a natural representation

NS
IO
of real-world information.

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• Examples of Analog Signals:

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1. Sine wave: The simplest analog signal, representing a single frequency.
M
M
2. Voice signals: When someone speaks into a microphone, the varying air pressure
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of sound waves is converted into a continuously varying electrical signal.

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EL

3. Video signals: A camera converts light intensity variations in a scene into a con-
T

tinuously changing voltage representing brightness and color information.

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40

4. Sensor outputs: Many sensors, such as temperature or pressure sensors, produce

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analog voltages proportional to the measured quantity.

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• Characteristics:
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1. Continuous in both time and amplitude.

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2. Can represent very fine detail, since values are not restricted to discrete steps.
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3. Susceptible to noise, distortion, and interference, which may degrade signal quality
over distance.

• Advantages:

– Natural representation of real-world signals (e.g., voice, music, video).

– Can carry a wide range of information smoothly.

• Limitations:

14
 – Signal quality deteriorates over long distances.

– Difficult to process, store, and transmit reliably compared to digital signals.

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IO
Figure 1.5: Analog signals: (a) Pure sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice waveform. (c) Composite

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video signal.

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UN
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1.3.5 Digital Signals
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In contrast, a digital signal does not vary continuously, but instead changes in steps or
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discrete increments. Digital communication represents information using binary codes (0s and
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1s), making it well-suited for modern electronic systems and computers.

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5:
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• Examples of Digital Signals:

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1. Telegraph signals: Early telegraphy used Morse code, consisting of short and long
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pulses (dots and dashes) to represent letters and numbers [Fig. 1.6(a)].
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2. Continuous-wave (CW) transmission: A sine wave carrier is switched on and

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off for specific durations to form digital codes [Fig. 1.6(b)].

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3. Computer data: Information such as text, numbers, images, and audio is rep-
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resented in binary format (ASCII, Unicode, etc.) and transmitted as serial binary
codes [Fig. 1.6(c)].

• Characteristics:

1. Discrete in both time and amplitude.

2. Relies on two main states: logic “0” (low voltage) and logic “1” (high voltage).

15
 3. More resistant to noise compared to analog signals, since errors can be detected and
corrected.

• Advantages:

– Reliable transmission and storage with minimal signal degradation.

– Easy to encrypt, compress, and process using computers.

– Error detection and correction techniques improve accuracy.

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• Limitations:

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– Requires higher bandwidth in many cases (e.g., digitized video or audio).

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– Needs additional circuitry for conversion between analog and digital (ADCs and

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DACs).

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Figure 1.6: Digital signals: (a) Morse code telegraph. (b) CW on/off keying. (c) Serial binary
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code (ASCII example).

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Relationship Between Analog and Digital Signals

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Although analog and digital signals are different, modern communication systems often use
both together:

• Analog signals (e.g., voice or video) can be digitized using an analog-to-digital con-
verter (ADC) and transmitted as digital data. This is common in mobile phones,
digital TV, and the Internet.

16
 • Digital data can be converted into analog signals using a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) so that it can travel over media designed for analog transmission, such as the
traditional telephone network.

This blending of analog and digital techniques enables efficient, reliable, and high-quality com-
munication in today’s systems.

1.4 Modulation and Multiplexing

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Modulation and multiplexing are two essential techniques in electronic communication sys-

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tems that enable efficient transmission of information over various media.

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AT
• Modulation modifies a carrier signal so that baseband information (voice, video, or

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data) can be transmitted more effectively through a medium such as cable, fiber, or free
space.
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• Multiplexing allows multiple signals to share the same communication channel simul-
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taneously, maximizing channel efficiency and resource utilization.

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Together, these techniques form the foundation of nearly all modern communication systems.
5:
40

Once the principles of modulation and multiplexing are understood, the operation of radio,
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television, satellite, cellular, and Internet communication systems becomes much clearer.
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’s

1.4.1 Baseband Transmission

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Before transmission, information must first be represented as an electronic signal compatible

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with the chosen medium. This initial representation is known as the baseband signal.
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• A microphone converts sound waves into an analog audio signal (a voltage varying with
frequency and amplitude).

• A video camera produces an analog signal corresponding to light variations in a scene.

• A computer keyboard generates digital binary codes, which can be stored, processed, or
transmitted to peripherals and other computers over a LAN.

17
If a baseband signal is applied directly to the medium without modification, the process is
called baseband transmission. Examples include:

• Telephone and intercom systems where the audio signal is transmitted directly through
wires.

• Computer networks (e.g., Ethernet over coaxial or twisted-pair cables) transmitting bi-
nary data directly.

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Limitations: Baseband transmission is often restricted by bandwidth, distance, and medium

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compatibility. For example, transmitting voice signals directly by radio is theoretically possible

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but highly inefficient and impractical.

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AT
To overcome these limitations, baseband signals are typically used to modulate higher-frequency

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carrier signals. These carriers radiate efficiently into free space, forming electromagnetic (radio-

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frequency) waves capable of long-distance propagation. M
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1.4.2 Broadband Transmission

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Broadband transmission involves using modulation to transfer baseband information onto

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a high-frequency carrier wave.

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• The carrier is a pure sinusoidal signal generated by an oscillator.

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• The baseband intelligence signal modifies (or is impressed upon) the carrier via a
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circuit called a modulator.

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• The resulting modulated carrier is amplified and radiated by an antenna for transmis-
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sion.
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At the receiver, the modulated carrier is amplified, filtered, and then demodulated (or de-
tected) to recover the original baseband information.

Types of Modulation

The three primary ways of modifying a carrier are:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): The carrier amplitude varies with the baseband signal.
See Fig. 1.8(a).

18
 s
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Figure 1.7: Modulation at the transmitter.

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AT
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): The carrier frequency varies while its amplitude re-

IC
mains constant. See Fig. 1.8(b).

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3. Phase Modulation (PM): The carrier’s phase angle varies in accordance with the
M
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baseband signal. PM is closely related to FM since phase variation inherently affects
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frequency.
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Figure 1.8: Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation.

Digital Modulation

Modern communication systems frequently transmit digital data using specialized modulation
schemes:

19
 • Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK): Binary data is represented by discrete frequency
changes (see Fig. 1.9(a)).

• Phase-Shift Keying (PSK): Data is encoded by shifting the phase of the carrier, often
by 180 (see Fig. 1.9(b)).

Devices known as modems (modulator-demodulators) perform these conversions, translating

digital data into analog signals suitable for transmission and back again.

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AT
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Figure 1.9: Transmitting binary data in analog form. (a) FSK. (b) PSK.
T EL

At the receiver, demodulation restores the original baseband signal. This process, also called
5:

detection, is illustrated in Fig. 1.10.

40
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Figure 1.10: Recovering the intelligence signal at the receiver.

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1.4.3 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication

channel.

• A multiplexer (MUX) combines several baseband signals into a single composite signal
that modulates the carrier at the transmitter (see Fig. 1.11).

20
 • At the receiver, a demultiplexer (DEMUX) separates the composite signal back into
the original individual signals (see Fig. 1.12).

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Figure 1.11: Multiplexing at the transmitter.

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Figure 1.12: Demultiplexing at the receiver.

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Types of Multiplexing
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1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): Multiple signals occupy distinct frequency

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bands within the same channel. Cable TV and radio broadcasting use this approach. Op-
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tical fiber systems use a related technique called Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

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(WDM).

2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): Signals share the same channel by taking turns
in time slots. This is common in digital telephony and computer networks.

3. Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM): Each signal is assigned a unique code and

transmitted over the same frequency band simultaneously. Receivers use the code to
recover the desired signal. CDM is widely used in cellular systems (CDMA).

21
Summary: Baseband signals can sometimes be transmitted directly, but for most applications,
modulation is required to adapt them to the medium. Broadband transmission makes use of
modulation techniques such as AM, FM, PM, and digital modulation (FSK, PSK). Multiplexing
further enhances channel efficiency, enabling many signals to share the same medium. Together,
these techniques underpin the operation of nearly all modern electronic communication systems.

1.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Electromagnetic (EM) waves are time-varying signals consisting of oscillating electric and mag-

NS
netic fields that are mutually perpendicular and propagate through space at the speed of light.

IO
The amplitudes of these fields vary sinusoidally, with polarity reversing a specific number of

AT
times per second, depending on the frequency. The complete range of possible frequencies of

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EM waves is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum.
M
Electromagnetic signals are characterized by their frequency and wavelength. Frequency
M
determines how many cycles per second occur, while wavelength indicates the physical distance
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of one cycle in space. The electromagnetic spectrum spans from extremely low-frequency (ELF)
EL

waves, such as those used in submarine communications, to extremely high-frequency (EHF)

T

millimeter waves and beyond, encompassing infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and
5:
40

gamma rays.
R

All electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free space fall into the electromagnetic
EA

spectrum. Signals confined to transmission lines (e.g., coaxial cable, twisted pair, or waveg-
’s
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uides) may have the same frequencies but are not considered radio signals because they do
ha

not freely propagate through space. Fig. 1.13 illustrates the overall electromagnetic spectrum,
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showing both frequency and wavelength.

Within the middle ranges lie the most commonly used frequencies for communication, including
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radio, television, cellular phones, wireless LANs, and radar. At the upper end are infrared and
visible light, used in fiber optics and laser communications. Fig. 1.14 highlights the primary
subdivisions of the spectrum used in communication systems.

1.5.1 Frequency and Wavelength

A signal’s position in the spectrum is defined by its frequency and wavelength.

22
 s
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NS
IO
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Figure 1.13: The electromagnetic spectrum. Frequency increases to the right, while wavelength

IC
decreases.

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Figure 1.14: The electromagnetic spectrum used in electronic communication.

Frequency. Frequency (f ) is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave per second. It is

measured in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle/second. For example, a tuning fork producing
the musical note A vibrates at approximately 440 Hz. Higher frequencies correspond to faster
oscillations of the wave.

23
Wavelength. Wavelength (λ) is the spatial length of one complete cycle of the wave, typically
measured in meters. For an electromagnetic wave in free space, it is the distance traveled
during one cycle. Since EM waves travel at the speed of light (c ≈ 3 × 108 m/s), wavelength
is given by:
c
λ=
f

where f is the frequency in hertz. For example, a 100 MHz FM broadcast station has a
wavelength:

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3 × 108

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λ= = 3 meters.
100 × 106

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1.5.2 Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz

AT
For classification, the EM spectrum is divided into segments, each associated with distinct

IC
UN
characteristics and applications:
M
Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF, 30-300 Hz). Used mainly for power line transmission
M
(50 or 60 Hz) and specialized submarine communication due to its ability to penetrate water
O
EC

and earth.
EL

Voice Frequencies (VF, 300-3000 Hz). The range of intelligible human speech. Telephony
T

systems are designed around this band to efficiently transmit voice while minimizing bandwidth
5:
40

usage.
R

Very Low Frequencies (VLF, 9-30 kHz). Used for long-distance military communication,
EA

especially with submarines, as VLF waves penetrate seawater. Some natural phenomena, such
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as atmospheric noise, also occupy this range.

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Low Frequencies (LF, 30-300 kHz). Used in aeronautical and maritime navigation, as well
ac

as radio beacons. LF waves follow the earth’s curvature (ground waves), making them suitable
.M

for long-distance transmission.

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Medium Frequencies (MF, 300 kHz-3 MHz). Includes AM radio broadcasting (535-1605
kHz). Also used in marine and amateur radio communication.
High Frequencies (HF, 3-30 MHz). Known as shortwave radio. Widely used for interna-
tional broadcasting, amateur radio, and long-distance communication via ionospheric reflection
(skywave propagation).
Very High Frequencies (VHF, 30-300 MHz). Used for FM radio (88-108 MHz), television

24
channels 2-13, marine and air traffic control, and some two-way radios. VHF provides line-of-
sight communication with minimal noise.
Ultrahigh Frequencies (UHF, 300 MHz-3 GHz). Supports UHF television channels (14-
51), mobile phones, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, radar, and modern digital communication. UHF signals
are line-of-sight and penetrate buildings moderately well.
Microwaves and Super High Frequencies (SHF, 1-30 GHz). Critical for satellite com-
munication, radar systems, microwave ovens (2.45 GHz), GPS, and 5G networks. Microwave

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bands provide high data capacity but limited range due to atmospheric absorption.

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Extremely High Frequencies (EHF, 30-300 GHz). Also called millimeter waves. Used

NS
in advanced radar, 5G/6G mobile systems, and some satellite communications. Hardware for

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AT
EHF is complex and expensive, but the available bandwidth is immense.

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300 GHz to Optical Spectrum. A transitional band between RF and optical frequencies.

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Currently underutilized due to technological limitations but considered promising for future
M
terahertz (THz) communication systems.
M
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1.5.3 The Optical Spectrum

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Above the radio spectrum lies the optical spectrum, which consists of infrared, visible, and
T
5:

ultraviolet light waves. Unlike RF signals, optical signals are often manipulated using lenses,
40

mirrors, and prisms.

R
EA

Infrared (IR). Spanning from 0.1 mm to 700 nm, IR is associated with heat radiation. Appli-
’s

cations include fiber-optic communication, thermal imaging, astronomy, TV remote controls,

ria

and military guidance systems.

ha
ac

Visible Light. Covers 400-800 nm (violet to red). Used in free-space optical communica-
.M

tion, fiber-optics, and laser-based systems. Its extremely high frequency enables enormous
Dr

bandwidth for data transmission.

Ultraviolet (UV). Covers 4-400 nm. Primarily used in sterilization, medical imaging, and
scientific research. Not typically used in communication due to absorption in the atmosphere.
Beyond UV are X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. While these are forms of EM radia-
tion, they are not employed in communication systems due to their extreme energy levels and
hazardous effects on living tissue.

25
1.6 Bandwidth

Bandwidth (BW) refers to the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
It is also commonly used to describe the frequency range over which a receiver, transmitter, or
other electronic circuit operates effectively. More precisely, bandwidth is the difference between
the upper and lower frequency limits of a signal or an equipment operating range. If the upper
frequency is denoted as f2 and the lower frequency as f1 , then the bandwidth is mathematically
expressed as:

s
te
no
NS
BW = f2 − f1

IO
AT
1.6.1 Importance of Bandwidth

IC
UN
Bandwidth is a critical parameter in communication systems because signals that transmit on
M
the same frequency, or on overlapping frequencies, interfere with one another. Therefore, only
M
a limited number of signals can coexist within the available spectrum at any given time.
O
EC

As communication systems and applications have expanded over the years, the demand for more
EL

frequency channels has continuously increased. This rising demand has driven the development
T

of technologies capable of operating at higher frequencies, thereby opening up additional por-

5:
40

tions of the spectrum for communication purposes.

R
EA

1.6.2 Historical Developments

’s
ria

Prior to World War II, frequencies above 1 GHz were largely unused due to the absence of elec-
ha

tronic components capable of generating and handling such high-frequency signals. However,
ac
.M

technological advancements led to the development of specialized microwave components such

Dr

as klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling-wave tubes. In modern times, transistors, integrated

circuits, and other semiconductor devices routinely operate in the microwave frequency range,
making higher frequencies accessible for communication.

1.6.3 Advantages of Higher Frequencies

The use of higher frequencies provides several benefits:

26
 • Efficient Spectrum Utilization: At higher frequencies, a signal of a given bandwidth
occupies a smaller percentage of the total spectrum compared to lower frequencies. This
enables better allocation of spectrum resources.

• Support for Wide-Bandwidth Signals: Higher frequencies allow the transmission of

wide-bandwidth signals. For example, a television signal requires a bandwidth of approx-
imately 6 MHz. Such a signal cannot be accommodated in the MF (Medium Frequency)
or HF (High Frequency) ranges without consuming the entire available spectrum. In-

s
te
no
stead, TV signals are transmitted in the VHF (Very High Frequency) and UHF (Ultra

NS
High Frequency) bands, where sufficient spectrum space exists.

IO
AT
1.6.4 Current Spectrum Utilization

IC
UN
Today, nearly the entire frequency spectrum between approximately 30 kHz and 30 GHz is
allocated to various communication services. Although some parts of the spectrum are less
M
M
heavily used, the majority is occupied by signals from individuals, companies, governments,
O
EC

and international services.

EL

Because the electromagnetic spectrum is a limited natural resource, communication engineer-

T

ing emphasizes the development of techniques that conserve bandwidth. These techniques
5:
40

aim to minimize the spectral space required for a given transmission, thereby allowing more
R

communication channels and services to coexist within the spectrum.

EA
’s

1.6.5 Spectrum Management

ria
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Recognizing the spectrum as a finite and valuable resource, governments and international
ac
.M

organizations regulate its use to avoid interference and to promote efficient utilization.
Dr

• United States: In 1934, the U.S. Congress passed the Communications Act, which es-
tablished the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC allocates spectrum
space, issues licenses, sets technical standards, and enforces compliance. The Telecom-
munications Act of 1996 further influenced how spectrum resources are managed. The
National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) oversees spectrum
allocation for government and military use.

27
 • Kenya: The Communications Authority of Kenya (CA) serves as the regulatory body re-
sponsible for managing spectrum use across telecommunications, broadcasting, e-commerce,
and postal/courier services.

• International: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), an agency of the

United Nations headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, coordinates spectrum use glob-
ally. With over 189 member countries, the ITU organizes conferences such as the World
Administrative Radio Conferences (WARCs), held approximately every two years, where

s
te
no
countries negotiate spectrum sharing agreements. Some parts of the spectrum can be

NS
reused locally without interference, while othersespecially in the high-frequency range-

IO
spropagate globally, requiring international cooperation to avoid mutual interference.

AT
IC
In summary, the electromagnetic spectrum is one of the most valuable resources in communi-

UN
cation. Proper management and efficient use of bandwidth ensure that the growing needs of
M
individuals, industries, and governments are met while minimizing interference and preserving
M
O

spectrum space for future technologies.

EC
EL

1.7 A Survey of Communication Applications

T
5:
40

Electronic communication techniques are deeply integrated into daily life, to the point that
R

most people interact with them without consciously realizing it. Common examples include
EA

using telephones, listening to the radio, watching television, browsing the Internet, sending
’s
ria

text messages, or even opening a garage door remotely.

ha

Communication systems can generally be categorized into two modes:

ac
.M

• Simplex (One-Way Communication) - Information flows in only one direction, from

Dr

the transmitter to the receiver, with no return path.

• Duplex (Two-Way Communication) - Information flows in both directions, enabling

real-time interaction between two or more parties. Duplex can further be half-duplex
(alternating transmission and reception) or full-duplex (simultaneous two-way communi-
cation).

28
1.7.1 Simplex (One-Way Communication)

1. AM and FM Radio Broadcasting: Stations broadcast music, news, weather reports,

and other programs for entertainment and information. This includes shortwave broad-
casting for long-distance communication.

2. Digital Radio: Both satellite and terrestrial systems deliver radio programming in
digital formats, offering higher quality and additional channels.

s
te
3. Television Broadcasting: Analog TV broadcasts entertainment, educational, and in-

no
formational content using radio signals.

NS
IO
4. Digital Television (DTV): Modern television systems transmit content digitally via

AT
terrestrial, satellite, or Internet-based platforms (e.g., High Definition Television (HDTV)

IC
and Internet Protocol Television (IPTV)).

UN
M
5. Cable Television: Movies, sports, and other programs are delivered to subscribers via
M
coaxial or fiber-optic cables.
O
EC

6. Facsimile (Fax): Printed documents are scanned, converted into electronic signals,
EL

transmitted over telephone lines, and reproduced by a receiving fax machine or computer.
T
5:

7. Wireless Remote Control: Devices use radio frequency (RF) or infrared (IR) signals
40

to control remote systems such as robots, satellites, missiles, vehicles, or home appliances.
R
EA

Everyday examples include car keyless entry systems, garage door openers, and television
’s

remotes.
ria
ha

8. Internet of Things (IoT): Smart homes and offices use sensors and actuators connected
ac
.M

via wireless networks and the Internet to monitor and control appliances, lighting, secu-
rity, and industrial processes.
Dr

9. Navigation and Direction-Finding: Systems such as the Global Positioning System

(GPS), based on a constellation of satellites, provide location and navigation services for
aviation, shipping, automotive, and personal applications.

10. Telemetry: Measurements such as temperature, pressure, or flow rate are collected
by remote sensors and transmitted to central monitoring stations. Applications include
satellites, spacecraft, industrial plants, and oil pipelines.

29
 11. Radio Astronomy: Large antennas and sensitive receivers capture faint radio signals
from celestial objects, enabling astronomers to study stars, galaxies, and cosmic phenom-
ena.

12. Surveillance: Electronic monitoring systems are used for intelligence gathering, law
enforcement, and military reconnaissance. Techniques include wiretapping, wireless bugs,
satellite imaging, and airborne reconnaissance.

s
13. Music Services: Specialized FM subcarriers broadcast background music to offices,

te
no
stores, or elevators.

NS
14. Internet Radio and Video: Digital platforms deliver music, podcasts, and video

IO
AT
streaming over the Internet, accessible via computers, smartphones, and smart TVs.

IC
UN
1.7.2 Duplex (Two-Way Communication) M
M
1. Telephones: Provide real-time, two-way voice communication across the globe using
O
EC

wire, fiber optics, radio, or satellite links.

EL

• Cordless Phones: Short-range wireless handsets connected to a wired base station.

T

• Cell Phones: Provide global communication using cellular networks, supporting

5:
40

voice, SMS, e-mail, Internet access, and multimedia services.

R
EA

• Voice over IP (VoIP): Internet-based telephony using broadband connections for

’s

low-cost digital voice calls.

ria
ha

• Satellite Phones: Rely on low-Earth-orbit satellites to provide connectivity in remote

ac

or rural areas beyond cellular coverage.

.M
Dr

2. Two-Way Radio: Widely used in commercial, industrial, and government sectors. Ap-
plications include police, fire departments, taxis, trucking, forestry, aviation, marine, and
military communication.

3. Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging): Uses reflected microwaves to detect objects
such as ships, aircraft, and missiles, and to determine their distance, direction, and speed.
Applications include military defense, civilian air traffic control, marine navigation, and
law enforcement (speed detection).

30
 4. Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging): Uses underwater acoustic signals for sub-
marine and ship navigation, detection, and ranging.

• Passive Sonar: Listens for noise produced by vessels.

• Active Sonar: Emits ultrasonic pulses and measures reflections to determine object
location and speed.

5. Amateur (Ham) Radio: Licensed individuals communicate worldwide using self-built

s
te
or commercial two-way radio equipment, often experimenting with new technologies.

no
NS
6. Citizens Band (CB) Radio: Provides personal two-way communication over short

IO
distances, commonly used by truckers and motorists.

AT
7. Family Radio Service (FRS): Short-range (about 2 miles) handheld radios for personal

IC
UN
or family communication.
M
8. The Internet: The most pervasive modern communication system, enabling worldwide
M
O

connectivity via fiber-optic networks, telecommunications carriers, ISPs, and satellite

EC

systems. Applications include the World Wide Web, e-mail, instant messaging, video
T EL

conferencing, and cloud services.

5:
40

9. Wide-Area Networks (WANs): Large-scale networks interconnecting multiple re-

R

gions or countries, typically using fiber optics for telephony and Internet services.
EA

10. Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs): Medium-scale networks connecting users

’s
ria

within a city, campus, or company, often via fiber-optic or wireless systems.

ha
ac

11. Local-Area Networks (LANs): Small-scale interconnections of PCs, laptops, servers,

.M

and peripherals within a building or office, enabling e-mail, file sharing, Internet access,
Dr

and resource management.

1.7.3 Summary

From simple broadcast systems like AM radio to complex, interactive systems such as the Inter-
net and IoT, communication applications span nearly every aspect of modern life. They enable

31
entertainment, safety, industrial monitoring, navigation, global collaboration, and scientific ex-
ploration. The breadth of these applications demonstrates the central role of communication
technologies in both everyday convenience and critical global infrastructure.

1.8 Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels

Most electronic circuits in communication are used to process signals, i.e., to manipulate signals

s
to produce a desired result. All signal processing circuits involve either gain or attenuation.

te
no
Understanding these concepts is essential in the design and analysis of amplifiers, filters, com-

NS
munication links, and transmission systems.

IO
AT
1.8.1 Gain

IC
UN
Gain means amplification. If a signal is applied to a circuit such as an amplifier and the output
M
of the circuit has a greater amplitude than the input signal, the circuit has gain. Gain is simply
M
O

the ratio of the output to the input. For input (Vin ) and output (Vout ) voltages, voltage gain
EC

AV is expressed as follows:
T EL

Vout
AV = (1.1)
5:

Vin
40

Similarly, current gain (AI ) and power gain (AP ) can be expressed as:
R
EA

Iout Pout
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AI = , AP = (1.2)
ria

Iin Pin
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Example: If an input of 50 mV is amplified to an output of 2.5 V, then the voltage gain is:
ac
.M

2.5
AV = = 50
Dr

0.050

This means the signal is amplified 50 times.

1.8.2 Attenuation

Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. Many electronic circuits,

sometimes called stages, reduce the amplitude of a signal rather than increase it. If the output

32
signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit has loss, or attenuation. Like gain,
attenuation is simply the ratio of the output to the input:

Vout
A= (1.3)
Vin

Here, A < 1 indicates attenuation. Attenuators are commonly used in measurement systems,
radio receivers, and signal conditioning to prevent overload or to match impedance.
Example: If an attenuator reduces an input signal of 10 V to 2 V, then:

s
te
no
2
A= = 0.2

NS
10

IO
AT
This means the signal is reduced to 20% of its original amplitude.

IC
UN
1.8.3 Decibels (dB)
M
M
The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (dB), a logarithmic unit of measure-
O

ment that was originally created to express the hearing response of the human ear to various
EC

sound levels. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel.

T EL

The logarithmic scale has two major advantages:

5:
40

• Very large or small ratios can be expressed in manageable numbers.

R
EA

• Gains and losses of cascaded circuits can be added instead of multiplied.

’s

The formulas for computing the decibel gain or loss of a circuit are:
ria
ha
ac

 
Vout
dB = 20 log10 (1.4)
.M

Vin
Dr

 
Iout
dB = 20 log10 (1.5)
Iin

 
Pout
dB = 10 log10 (1.6)
Pin

Solved Problem: An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the gain
in decibels?

33
  
5
dB = 20 log10 = 64.4 dB
0.003

Note: A positive dB value indicates gain, while a negative dB value indicates attenuation.

1.8.4 Overall Gain and Attenuation

For a system made of multiple stages (e.g., amplifiers and attenuators), the total gain or loss

s
in dB is the algebraic sum of the individual dB values:

te
no
NS
Gtotal (dB) = G1 (dB) + G2 (dB) + G3 (dB) + . . . (1.7)

IO
AT
This property makes the decibel scale very convenient for system-level calculations.

IC
UN
1.8.5 Special Decibel Units M
M
dBm: When an absolute reference is needed, the unit dBm is used. It expresses power in
O

decibels relative to 1 mW:

EC
EL

 
Pout (W )
T

dBm = 10 log10 (1.8)

0.001
5:
40

Example: If a signal has a power of 100 mW:

R
EA

 
0.1
dBm = 10 log10 = 20 dBm
0.001
’s
ria
ha

dBW: Similar to dBm, but the reference is 1 W instead of 1 mW:

ac
.M

 
P
dBW = 10 log10
1W
Dr

dBc: This unit is used when a signal level is expressed relative to the carrier power. For
example, if the spurious signal is 1 mW compared to a 10 W carrier:

 
0.001
dBc = 10 log10 = −40 dBc
10

This means the spurious signal is 40 dB below the carrier.

34
1.8.6 Practical Applications of Decibels

• In audio engineering, dB is used to specify sound levels.

• In RF (radio frequency) communication, amplifier gains, filter responses, and antenna

patterns are expressed in dB.

• In fiber optics, losses in cables and connectors are expressed in dB/km.

• In wireless systems, received signal strength (RSSI) is usually given in dBm.

s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
M
M
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EC
TEL
5:
40
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EA
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Dr

35
Chapter 2

s
Audio (sound) and Video transducers.

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no
NS
IO
AT
2.1 Microphone

IC
UN
A microphone is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are
M
used in many applications such as telephones, hearing aids, public address systems for concert
M
halls and public events, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, sound
O
EC

recording, two-way radios, megaphones, and radio and television broadcasting. They are also
EL

used in computers for recording voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for other purposes such
T

as ultrasonic sensors or knock sensors.

5:
40

Several types of microphone are used today, which employ different methods to convert the air
R

pressure variations of a sound wave to an electrical signal. The most common are the dynamic
EA

microphone, which uses a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field; the condenser microphone,
’s
ria

which uses the vibrating diaphragm as a capacitor plate; and the contact microphone, which
ha

uses a crystal of piezoelectric material. Microphones typically need to be connected to a

ac
.M

preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced.

The sensitive transducer element of a microphone is called its element or capsule. Sound is
Dr

first converted to mechanical motion by means of a diaphragm, the motion of which is then
converted to an electrical signal. A complete microphone also includes a housing, some means
of bringing the signal from the element to other equipment, and often an electronic circuit to
adapt the output of the capsule to the equipment being driven. A wireless microphone contains
a radio transmitter.
Microphones are categorized by their transducer principle, such as condenser, dynamic, etc.,

36
and by their directional characteristics. Sometimes other characteristics such as diaphragm
size, intended use or orientation of the principal sound input to the principal axis (end- or
side-address) of the microphone are used to describe the microphone.

2.1.1 Condenser microphone

The condenser microphone is also called a capacitor microphone or electrostatic microphoneca-

pacitors were historically called condensers. The diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor,

s
te
and audio vibrations produce changes in the distance between the plates. Because the ca-

no
pacitance of the plates is inversely proportional to the distance between them, the vibrations

NS
IO
produce changes in capacitance. These changes in capacitance are used to measure the audio

AT
signal. The assembly of fixed and movable plates is called an ”element” or ”capsule”.

IC
Condenser microphones span the range from telephone transmitters through inexpensive karaoke

UN
microphones to high-fidelity recording microphones. They generally produce a high-quality au-
M
dio signal and are now the popular choice in laboratory and recording studio applications. The
M
O

inherent suitability of this technology is due to the very small mass that must be moved by the
EC

incident sound wave, unlike other microphone types that require the sound wave to do more
EL

work.
T
5:

Condenser microphones require a power source, provided either via microphone inputs on
40

equipment as phantom power or from a small battery. Power is necessary for establishing the
R
EA

capacitor plate voltage and is also needed to power the microphone electronics (impedance con-
’s

version in the case of electret and DC-polarized microphones, demodulation or detection in the
ria

case of RF/HF microphones). Condenser microphones are also available with two diaphragms
ha
ac

that can be electrically connected to provide a range of polar patterns, such as cardioid, om-
.M

nidirectional, and figure-eight. It is also possible to vary the pattern continuously with some
Dr

microphones, for example, the Rode NT2000 or CAD M179.

There are two main categories of condenser microphones, depending on the method of extract-
ing the audio signal from the transducer: DC-biased microphones, and radio frequency (RF)
or high frequency (HF) condenser microphones.

37
 Figure 2.1: Structure of the condenser microphone.

s
te
no
2.1.2 Dynamic microphone

NS
The dynamic microphone (also known as the moving-coil microphone) works via electromag-

IO
AT
netic induction. They are robust, relatively inexpensive and resistant to moisture. This,

IC
coupled with their potentially high gain before feedback, makes them ideal for on-stage use.

UN
Dynamic microphones use the same dynamic principle as in a loudspeaker, only reversed.
M
A small movable induction coil, positioned in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet, is
M
O

attached to the diaphragm. When sound enters through the windscreen of the microphone,
EC

the sound wave moves the diaphragm. When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in the
EL

magnetic field, producing a varying current in the coil through electromagnetic induction. A
T

single dynamic membrane does not respond linearly to all audio frequencies. For this reason,
5:
40

some microphones utilize multiple membranes for the different parts of the audio spectrum
R
EA

and then combine the resulting signals. Combining the multiple signals correctly is difficult;
designs that do this are rare and tend to be expensive. On the other hand, there are several
’s
ria

designs that are more specifically aimed towards isolated parts of the audio spectrum. The
ha

AKG D112, for example, is designed for bass response rather than treble.
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 2.2: Structure of the moving-coil microphone.

38
2.1.3 Carbon microphone

The carbon microphone was the earliest type of microphone. The carbon button microphone
(or sometimes just a button microphone), uses a capsule or button containing carbon granules
pressed between two metal plates. A voltage is applied across the metal plates, causing a small
current to flow through the carbon. One of the plates, the diaphragm, vibrates in sympathy
with incident sound waves, applying a varying pressure to the carbon. The changing pres-
sure deforms the granules, causing the contact area between each pair of adjacent granules to

s
te
change, and this causes the electrical resistance of the mass of granules to change. The changes

no
in resistance cause a corresponding change in the current flowing through the microphone, pro-

NS
IO
ducing the electrical signal. Carbon microphones were once commonly used in telephones; they

AT
have extremely low-quality sound reproduction and a very limited frequency response range

IC
but are very robust devices.

UN
Unlike other microphone types, the carbon microphone can also be used as a type of ampli-
M
M
fier, using a small amount of sound energy to control a larger amount of electrical energy.
O

Carbon microphones found use as early telephone repeaters, making long-distance phone calls
EC

possible in the era before vacuum tubes. Called a Brown’s relay, these repeaters worked by
T EL

mechanically coupling a magnetic telephone receiver to a carbon microphone: the faint signal
5:

from the receiver was transferred to the microphone, where it modulated a stronger electric
40

current, producing a stronger electrical signal to send down the line. One illustration of this
R
EA

amplifier effect was the oscillation caused by feedback, resulting in an audible squeal from the
’s

old ”candlestick” telephone if its earphone was placed near the carbon microphone.
ria
ha
ac

2.1.4 Piezoelectric microphone

.M

A crystal microphone or piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezoelectricitythe ability

Dr

of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressureto convert vibrations into
an electrical signal. An example of this is potassium sodium tartrate, which is a piezoelec-
tric crystal that works as a transducer, both as a microphone and as a slimline loudspeaker
component.
Piezoelectric transducers are often used as contact microphones to amplify sound from acoustic
musical instruments, to sense drum hits, for triggering electronic samples, and to record sound

39
in challenging environments, such as underwater under high pressure. Saddle-mounted pickups
on acoustic guitars are generally piezoelectric devices that contact the strings passing over the
saddle. This type of microphone is different from magnetic coil pickups commonly visible on
typical electric guitars, which use magnetic induction, rather than mechanical coupling, to pick
up vibration.

2.2 Loudspeaker

s
te
no
A loudspeaker (commonly referred to as a speaker or speaker driver) is an electroacoustic

NS
transducer that converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound.

IO
A speaker system, also often simply referred to as a ”speaker” or ”loudspeaker”, comprises one

AT
or more such speaker drivers, an enclosure, and electrical connections. The speaker driver can

IC
UN
be viewed as a linear motor attached to a diaphragm which couples that motor’s movement to
M
motion of air, that is, sound. An audio signal, typically from a microphone, recording, or radio
M
broadcast, is amplified electronically to a power level capable of driving that motor in order to
O
EC

reproduce the sound corresponding to the original unamplified electronic signal. This is thus
EL

the opposite function to the microphone; indeed the dynamic speaker driver, by far the most
T

common type, is a linear motor in the same basic configuration as the dynamic microphone
5:
40

which uses such a motor in reverse, as a generator.

R

The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic loudspeaker, uses a lightweight
EA

diaphragm, or cone, connected to a rigid basket, or frame, via a flexible suspension, commonly
’s
ria

called a spider, that constrains a voice coil to move axially through a cylindrical magnetic gap.
ha

A protective dust cap glued in the cone’s center prevents dust, most importantly ferromagnetic
ac
.M

debris, from entering the gap.

When an electrical signal is applied to the voice coil, a magnetic field is created by the electric
Dr

current in the voice coil, making it a variable electromagnet. The coil and the driver’s magnetic
system interact in a manner similar to a solenoid, generating a mechanical force that moves
the coil (and thus, the attached cone). Application of alternating current moves the cone back
and forth, accelerating and reproducing sound under the control of the applied electrical signal
coming from the amplifier.

40
 s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
Figure 2.3: Cutaway view of a dynamic loudspeaker. 1. Magnet 2. Voicecoil 3. Suspension 4.

IC
Diaphragm

2.3 Video camera: The CCD camera

UN
M
M
O

2.3.1 Overview
EC
EL

A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a device whose most prominent characteristic is the move-
T

ment of electrical charge, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be
5:
40

manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by “shifting” the
R

signals between stages within the device one at a time. CCDs move charge between capacitive
EA

bins in the device, with the shift allowing for the transfer of charge between bins.
’s
ria

In recent years CCD has become a major technology for digital imaging. In a CCD image
ha

sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal-oxide-semiconductors (MOS) capacitors. These

ac

capacitors are biased above the threshold for inversion when image acquisition begins, allowing
.M

the conversion of incoming photons into electron charges at the semiconductor-oxide interface;
Dr

the resultant charges are subsequently read out.

CCD image sensors are widely used in professional, medical, and scientific applications where
high-quality image data are required. In applications with less exacting quality demands, such
as consumer and professional digital cameras, active pixel sensors, also known as complemen-
tary metal-oxide-semiconductors (CMOS) are generally used; the large quality advantage CCDs
enjoyed early on has narrowed over time.

41
2.3.2 Operation

In a CCD structure designed for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an epitaxial
layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a shift register (the CCD, properly
speaking).
An image is projected through a lens onto the CCD capacitor array (the photoactive region),
causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at
that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of

s
te
the image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-

no
dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor.

NS
IO
Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer

AT
its contents to its neighbor (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor in the array dumps

IC
its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts the charge into a voltage. By repeating this

UN
process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor
M
M
to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and
O

usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are
EC

processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g. by feeding the output of the charge amplifier
T EL

into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission,
5:

recording, or other processing.

40
R
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Figure 2.4: CCD cell.

Dr

2.4 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical

device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers.
Liquid crystals do not emit light directly but instead use a backlight or reflector to produce

42
images in color or monochrome. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a
general-purpose computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be
displayed or hidden. For instance: preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays, as in a
digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic
technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other
displays have larger elements.
A display is made up of millions of pixels. The quality of a display commonly refers to the

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number of pixels; for example, a 4K display is made up of 3840 X 2160 or 4096 X 2160 pixels.

no
A pixel is made up of three subpixels; a red, blue and greencommonly called RGB. When the

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subpixels in a pixel change color combinations, a different color can be produced. With all the

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AT
pixels on a display working together, the display can make millions of different colors. When

IC
the pixels are rapidly switched on and off, a picture is created.

UN
M
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EC
T EL
5:
40
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Figure 2.5: Structure of LCD

The way a pixel is controlled is different in each type of display; CRT, LED, LCD and newer
types of displays all control pixels differently. In short, LCDs are lit by a backlight, and pixels
are switched on and off electronically while using liquid crystals to rotate polarized light. A
polarizing glass filter is placed in front and behind all the pixels, the front filter is placed at 90
degrees. In between both filters are the liquid crystals, which can be electronically switched

43
on and off.
The display appears black if all of a pixel’s sub-pixels are turned off and appears white if all
the sub-pixels are turned on 100%. The millions of color combinations can be possible with
the help of adjusting the individual levels of red, green, and blue light. As compared to CRT
technology, LCD consume much less power and allow displays to be much thinner and way less
heavy. Instead of emitting light, LCDs work on the principle of blocking light.

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2.4.1 How an LCD Works.....

no
A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a flat-panel display technology commonly used in var-

NS
IO
ious devices, such as computer monitors, television screens, and smartphones. LCDs work

AT
by manipulating light through liquid crystals to create images. Below is an overview of the

IC
fundamental components and functioning of an LCD:

UN
M
Components of an LCD
M
O

An LCD consists of several key components:

EC
EL

• Liquid Crystals: The core of the display, which changes its optical properties in response
T

to an electric field.
5:
40

• Backlight: Provides the necessary light that passes through the liquid crystals to form
R
EA

visible images.
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• Polarizers: Filters that control the orientation of light waves passing through the liquid
ria
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crystals.
ac
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• Electrodes: Apply an electric field to the liquid crystals to control their alignment and
Dr

optical properties.

• Color Filters: Separate light into red, green, and blue components to produce a full
range of colors.

Working Principle

The operation of an LCD can be explained through the following steps:

44
 1. Light Source: The backlight provides a uniform source of light, which illuminates the
entire display.

2. Polarization: The light first passes through a polarizer, which filters it so that the light
waves are oriented in a specific direction.

3. Liquid Crystal Layer: The polarized light then passes through the layer of liquid
crystals. Depending on the voltage applied to the electrodes, the orientation of the liquid

s
crystals changes.

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4. Modulation of Light: The changing orientation of the liquid crystals alters the po-

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larization of the light passing through them. This effect modulates the intensity and

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direction of light.

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5. Color Filters: After modulating the light, it passes through color filters (red, green,
and blue) that combine to produce a full spectrum of colors.
M
M
O

6. Final Polarizer: The light then passes through a second polarizer, which ensures that
EC

only light with the correct polarization is allowed to pass through to the viewer’s eyes.
T EL

In summary, an LCD works by controlling the alignment of liquid crystals in response to electric
5:
40

fields, thereby modulating light to create images. The combination of polarizers, liquid crystals,
R

and color filters enables LCDs to produce clear and vibrant displays for various applications.
EA
’s
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Dr

45
Chapter 3

s
Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals

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no
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In the modulation process, the baseband voice, video, or digital signal modifies another, higher-

AT
frequency signal called the carrier, which is usually a sine wave. A sine wave carrier can be

IC
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modified by the intelligence signal through amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, or
M
phase modulation. The focus of this chapter is amplitude modulation (AM).
M
O
EC

3.1 AM Concepts
T EL

As the name suggests, in AM, the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine
5:

wave. The instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the ampli-
40

tude and frequency variations of the modulating signal. Fig. 3.1 shows a single frequency sine
R
EA

wave intelligence signal modulating a higher-frequency carrier.

’s
ria
ha
ac
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Figure 3.1: Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals.

The carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process, but its amplitude varies
in accordance with the modulating signal. An increase in the amplitude of the modulating

46
signal causes the amplitude of the carrier to increase. Both the positive and the negative peaks
of the carrier wave vary with the modulating signal. An increase or a decrease in the amplitude
of the modulating signal causes a corresponding increase or decrease in both the positive and
the negative peaks of the carrier amplitude. An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks
and negative peaks of the carrier waveform (the dashed line in Fig. 3-1) gives the exact shape
of the modulating information signal. This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as
the envelope.

s
te
The signals illustrated in Fig. 3.1 show the variation of the carrier amplitude with respect to

no
time and are said to be in the time domain. Time-domain signals (voltage or current variations

NS
that occur over time) are displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope. Using trigonometric

IO
AT
functions, we can express the sine wave carrier with the simple expression:

IC
vc = Vc sin2πfc t

UN
In this expression, vc represents the instantaneous value of the carrier sine wave voltage at some
M
specific time in the cycle; Vc represents the peak value of the constant unmodulated carrier
M
O

sine wave as measured between zero and the maximum amplitude of either the positive-going
EC

or the negative-going alternations (Fig. 3.1); fc is the frequency of the carrier sine wave; and
EL

t is a particular point in time during the carrier cycle.

T

A sine wave modulating signal can be expressed with a similar formula:

5:
40

vm = Vm sin2πfm t
R
EA

In Fig. 3.1, the modulating signal uses the peak value of the carrier rather than zero as its
reference point. The envelope of the modulating signal varies above and below the peak carrier
’s
ria

amplitude. That is, the zero reference line of the modulating signal coincides with the peak
ha

value of the unmodulated carrier. Because of this, the relative amplitudes of the carrier and
ac
.M

modulating signal are important. In general, the amplitude of the modulating signal should be
Dr

less than the amplitude of the carrier. When the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater
than the amplitude of the carrier, distortion will occur, causing incorrect information to be
transmitted. In amplitude modulation, it is particularly important that the peak value of the
modulating signal be less than the peak value of the carrier.
Values for the carrier signal and the modulating signal can be used in a formula to express
the complete modulated wave. First, keep in mind that the peak value of the carrier is the
reference point for the modulating signal; the value of the modulating signal is added to or

47
subtracted from the peak value of the carrier. The instantaneous value of either the top or the
bottom voltage envelope v1 can be computed by using the equation:
v1 = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm sin2πfm t
which expresses the fact that the instantaneous value of the modulating signal algebraically
adds to the peak value of the carrier. Thus, we can write the instantaneous value of the
complete modulated wave v2 by substituting v1 for the peak value of carrier voltage Vc as
follows:

s
te
v2 = v1 sin2πfc t

no
Now substituting the previously derived expression for v1 and expanding, we get the following:

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v2 = (Vc + Vm sin2πfm t)sin2πfc t = Vc sin2πfc t + Vm sin2πfm tsin2πfc t

IO
AT
The second part of the expression Vc sin2πfc t + Vm sin2πfm tsin2πfc t is characteristic of AM.

IC
A circuit must be able to produce mathematical multiplication of the carrier and modulating

UN
signals in order for AM to occur. The AM wave is the product of the carrier and modulating
M
signals. The circuit used for producing AM is called a modulator. Its two inputs, the carrier
M
O

and the modulating signal, and the resulting outputs are shown in Fig. 3.2.
EC
T EL
5:
40
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Figure 3.2: Amplitude modulator showing input and output signals.

Dr

Amplitude modulators compute the product of the carrier and modulating signals. Circuits
that compute the product of two analog signals are also known as analog multipliers, mixers,
converters, product detectors, and phase detectors. A circuit that changes a lower-frequency
baseband or intelligence signal to a higher-frequency signal is usually called a modulator. A
circuit used to recover the original intelligence signal from an AM wave is known as a detector
or demodulator.

48
3.2 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation

As stated previously, for undistorted AM to occur, the modulating signal voltage Vm must
be less than the carrier voltage Vc . Therefore, the relationship between the amplitude of the
modulating signal and the amplitude of the carrier signal is important. This relationship,
known as the modulation index m (also called the modulating factor or coefficient, or the
degree of modulation), is the ratio:
Vm
m=

s
Vc

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For example, if the carrier voltage is 9 V and the modulating signal voltage is 7.5 V, the

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modulation factor is 0.8333 and the percentage of modulation is 0.833 x 100 = 83.33.

IO
Over-modulation and Distortion

AT
The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1. If the amplitude of the modulating

IC
voltage is higher than the carrier voltage, m will be greater than 1, causing distortion of

UN
the modulated waveform. If the distortion is great enough, the intelligence signal becomes
M
M
unintelligible. Distortion of voice transmissions produces garbled, harsh, or unnatural sounds
O
EC

in the speaker. Distortion of video signals produces a scrambled and inaccurate picture on a
EL

TV screen.
T

Preventing over-modulation is tricky. For example, at different times during voice transmission
5:

voices will go from low amplitude to high amplitude. Normally, the amplitude of the modu-
40
R

lating signal is adjusted so that only the voice peaks produce 100 percent modulation. This
EA

prevents over-modulation and distortion. Automatic circuits called compression circuits solve
’s

this problem by amplifying the lower-level signals and suppressing or compressing the higher-
ria
ha

level signals. The result is a higher average power output level without over-modulation.
ac

Distortion caused by over-modulation also produces adjacent channel interference. Distortion

.M

produces a non-sinusoidal information signal. According to Fourier theory, any non-sinusoidal

Dr

signal can be treated as a fundamental sine wave at the frequency of the information signal plus
harmonics. Obviously, these harmonics also modulate the carrier and can cause interference
with other signals on channels adjacent to the carrier.

49
3.3 Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, new signals at different frequencies

are generated as part of the process. These new frequencies, which are called side frequencies,
or sidebands, occur in the frequency spectrum directly above and directly below the carrier
frequency. More specifically, the sidebands occur at frequencies that are the sum and difference
of the carrier and modulating frequencies. When signals of more than one frequency make up
a waveform, it is often better to show the AM signal in the frequency domain rather than in

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the time domain.

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3.3.1 Sideband Calculations

AT
When only a single-frequency sine wave modulating signal is used, the modulation process

IC
UN
generates two sidebands. If the modulating signal is a complex wave, such as voice or video,
M
a whole range of frequencies modulate the carrier, and thus a whole range of sidebands are
M
generated. The upper sideband fU SB and lower sideband fLSB are computed as
O
EC

fU SB = fc + fm
EL

and
T

fLSB = fc − fm
5:
40

The existence of sidebands can be demonstrated mathematically, starting with the equation
R

for an AM signal described previously:

EA

vAM = Vc sin2πfc t + Vm sin2πfm tsin2πfc t

’s
ria

By using the trigonometric identity:

ha

cos(A−B) cos(A+B)
sinAsinB = 2
− 2
ac
.M

the instantaneous amplitude of the signal becomes:

Vm Vm
vAM = Vc sin2πfc t + cos2πt(fc − fm ) − cos2πt(fc + fm )
Dr

2 2

where the first term is the carrier; the second term is the lower sideband; and the third term
is the upper sideband.
Example:
For example, assume that a 400-Hz tone modulates a 300-kHz carrier. The upper and lower
sidebands are:
upper = 300,000 + 400 = 300,400 Hz or 300.4 kHz

50
lower = 300,000 - 400 = 299,600 Hz or 299.6 kHz

3.3.2 Frequency-Domain Representation of AM

Fig. 3.3 shows the relationship between the time and frequency domain displays of an AM
signal. The time and frequency axes are perpendicular to each other. The amplitudes shown
in the frequency-domain display are the peak values of the carrier and sideband sine waves.
Whenever the modulating signal is more complex than a single sine wave tone, multiple upper

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and lower sidebands are produced by the AM process. For example, a voice signal consists of

no
many sine wave components of different frequencies mixed together.

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5:
40
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Figure 3.3: The relationship between time and frequency domains.

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Example:
ha
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Problem: A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating frequencies up

.M

to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a frequency of 980 kHz, compute the maximum
Dr

and minimum upper and lower sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM station.
Solution:
Given:
fc = 980 kHz, fm = 5 kHz

For standard AM, the sidebands extend from fc − fm to fc + fm .

51
Lower Sideband (LSB) Range

fLSB,min = fc − fm = 980 − 5 = 975 kHz

fLSB,max = fc = 980 kHz

Upper Sideband (USB) Range

fU SB,min = fc = 980 kHz

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fU SB,max = fc + fm = 980 + 5 = 985 kHz

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Total Bandwidth

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BW = 2fm = 2 × 5 = 10 kHz

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Final Answer:
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LSB range: 975 kHz – 980 kHz
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USB range: 980 kHz – 985 kHz

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Total occupied bandwidth: 10 kHz

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5:
40

3.4 Pulse Modulation

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When complex signals such as pulses or rectangular waves modulate a carrier, a broad spec-
’s

trum of sidebands are produced. According to Fourier theory, complex signals such as square
ria

waves, triangular waves, sawtooth waves, and distorted sine waves are simply made up of a
ha
ac

fundamental sine wave and numerous harmonic signals at different amplitudes. Assume that a
.M

carrier is amplitude-modulated by a square wave that is made up of a fundamental sine wave

Dr

and all odd harmonics. A modulating square wave will produce sidebands at frequencies based
upon the fundamental sine wave as well as at the third, fifth, seventh, etc., harmonics. Pulses
generate extremely wide-bandwidth signals. In order for a square wave to be transmitted and
faithfully received without distortion or degradation, all the most significant sidebands must
be passed by the antennas and the transmitting and receiving circuits.
Fig. 3.4 shows the AM wave resulting when a square wave modulates a sine wave carrier. In
Fig. 3.4(a), the percentage of modulation is 50; in Fig. 3.4(b), it is 100. In this case, when the

52
square wave goes negative, it drives the carrier amplitude to zero. Amplitude modulation by
square waves or rectangular binary pulses is referred to as amplitude-shift keying (ASK). ASK
is used in some types of data communication when binary information is to be transmitted.

s
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NS
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IC
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M
M
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Figure 3.4: Amplitude modulation of a sine wave carrier by a pulse or rectangular wave is called
EC

amplitude-shift keying. (a) Fifty percent modulation. (b) One hundred percent modulation.
T EL

Another crude type of amplitude modulation can be achieved by simply turning the carrier off
5:

and on. An example is the transmitting of Morse code by using dots and dashes. A dot is a
40

short burst of carrier, and a dash is a longer burst of carrier. Fig. 3.5 shows the transmission
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EA

of the letter P, which is dot-dash-dash-dot (pronounced dit-dah-dah-dit).

’s
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ac
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Figure 3.5: The relationship between time and frequency domains.

The time duration of a dash is three times the length of a dot, and the spacing between dots

53
and dashes is one dot time. Code transmissions such as this are usually called continuous-wave
(CW) transmissions. This kind of transmission is also referred to as ON/OFF keying (OOK).
Despite the fact that only the carrier is being transmitted, sidebands are generated by such
ON/OFF signals. The sidebands result from the frequency or repetition rate of the pulses
themselves plus their harmonics.

3.5 Amplitude Modulators

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Amplitude modulators are generally one of two types: low level or high level. Low level

NS
modulators generate AM with small signals and thus must be amplified considerably if they

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are to be transmitted. High-level modulators produce AM at high power levels, usually in the

AT
final amplifier stage of a transmitter. Although the discrete component circuits discussed in

IC
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the following sections are still used to a limited extent, keep in mind that today most amplitude
M
modulators and demodulators are in integrated circuit form.
M
O
EC

3.5.1 Low-Level AM
EL

Diode Modulator.
T
5:

One of the simplest amplitude modulators is the diode modulator. The practical implemen-
40

tation shown in Fig. 3.6 consists of a resistive mixing network, a diode rectifier, and an LC
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tuned circuit.
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Figure 3.6: Amplitude modulation with a diode.

The carrier (Fig. 3.7b) is applied to one input resistor and the modulating signal (Fig. 3.7a)
to the other. The mixed signals appear across R3. This network causes the two signals to be

54
 s
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no
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M
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T EL
5:
40
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Figure 3.7: Waveforms in the diode modulator. (a) Modulating signal. (b) Carrier. (c) Linearly
mixed modulating signal and carrier. (d) Positive-going signal after diode D1. (e) Am output
signal.

55
linearly mixed, i.e., algebraically added. If both the carrier and the modulating signal are sine
waves, the waveform resulting at the junction of the two resistors will be like that shown in
Fig. 3.7(c), where the carrier wave is riding on the modulating signal. This signal is not AM.
Modulation is a multiplication process, not an addition process. The composite waveform is
applied to a diode rectifier. The diode is connected so that it is forward-biased by the positive-
going half-cycles of the input wave. During the negative portions of the wave, the diode is cut
off and no signal passes. The current through the diode is a series of positive-going pulses whose

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amplitude varies in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal [see Fig. 3.7(d)].

no
These positive-going pulses are applied to the parallel-tuned circuit made up of L and C, which

NS
are resonant at the carrier frequency. Each time the diode conducts, a pulse of current flows

IO
AT
through the tuned circuit. The coil and capacitor repeatedly exchange energy, causing an

IC
oscillation, or ringing, at the resonant frequency. The oscillation of the tuned circuit creates

UN
one negative half-cycle for every positive input pulse. High amplitude positive pulses cause
M
the tuned circuit to produce high- amplitude negative pulses. Low-amplitude positive pulses
M
O

produce corresponding low-amplitude negative pulses. The resulting waveform across the tuned
EC

circuit is an AM signal, as Fig. 3.7(e) illustrates. The Q of the tuned circuit should be
EL

high enough to eliminate the harmonics and produce a clean sine wave and to filter out the
T

modulating signal, and low enough that its bandwidth accommodates the sidebands generated.
5:
40

This signal produces high-quality AM, but the amplitudes of the signals are critical to proper
R
EA

operation. Because the nonlinear portion of the diodes characteristic curve occurs only at low
voltage levels, signal levels must be low, less than a volt, to produce AM. At higher voltages,
’s
ria

the diode current response is nearly linear. The circuit works best with millivolt-level signals.
ha
ac

Transistor Modulator.
.M
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An improved version of the circuit just described is shown in Fig. 3.8.

Because it uses a transistor instead of the diode, the circuit has gain. The emitter-base junction
is a diode and a nonlinear device. Modulation occurs as described previously, except that the
base current controls a larger collector current, and therefore the circuit amplifies. Rectification
occurs because of the emitter-base junction. This causes larger half-sine pulses of current in
the tuned circuit. The tuned circuit oscillates (rings) to generate the missing half-cycle. The
output is a classic AM wave.

56
 s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
Figure 3.8: Simple transistor modulator.
M
M
3.6 Amplitude Demodulators
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Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover the original
EL

modulating information. The demodulator circuit is the key circuit in any radio receiver. In
T
5:

fact, demodulator circuits can be used alone as simple radio receivers.

40
R
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3.6.1 Diode Detectors

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The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode detector (see Fig. 3.9).
ria
ha
ac
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Figure 3.9: A diode detector AM demodulator.

As shown, the AM signal is usually transformer-coupled and applied to a basic half wave

57
rectifier circuit consisting of D1 and R1. The diode conducts when the positive half-cycles
of the AM signals occur. During the negative half-cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no
current flows through it. As a result, the voltage across R1 is a series of positive pulses whose
amplitude varies with the modulating signal. A capacitor C1 is connected across resistor R1,
effectively filtering out the carrier and thus recovering the original modulating signal. One way
to look at the operation of a diode detector is to analyze its operation in the time domain. The
waveforms in Fig. 3.10 illustrate this.

s
te
On each positive alternation of the AM signal, the capacitor charges quickly to the peak value of

no
the pulses passed by the diode. When the pulse voltage drops to zero, the capacitor discharges

NS
into resistor R1. The time constant of C1 and R1 is chosen to be long compared to the period

IO
AT
of the carrier. As a result, the capacitor discharges only slightly during the time that the

IC
diode is not conducting. When the next pulse comes along, the capacitor again charges to its

UN
peak value. When the diode cuts off, the capacitor again discharges a small amount into the
M
resistor. The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a close approximation to the original
M
O

modulating signal.
EC

Because the capacitor charges and discharges, the recovered signal has a small amount of ripple
EL

on it, causing distortion of the modulating signal. However, because the carrier frequency is
T

usually many times higher than the modulating frequency, these ripple variations are barely
5:
40

noticeable.
R
EA

Because the diode detector recovers the envelope of the AM signal, which is the original mod-
ulating signal, the circuit is sometimes referred to as an envelope detector. Distortion of the
’s
ria

original signal can occur if the time constant of the load resistor R1 and the shunt filter ca-
ha

pacitor C1 is too long or too short. If the time constant is too long, the capacitor discharge
ac
.M

will be too slow to follow the faster changes in the modulating signal. This is referred to as
Dr

diagonal distortion. If the time constant is too short, the capacitor will discharge too fast and
the carrier will not be sufficiently filtered out. The dc component in the output is removed
with a series coupling or blocking capacitor, C2 in Fig. 3.9, which is connected to an amplifier.

58
 Dr
.M
ac
ha
ria
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40
5:
TEL

59
EC
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M
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UN

Figure 3.10: Diode detector waveforms.

IC
AT
IO
NS
no
te
s
3.7 Solved Problems

Example 1: Modulation Index Calculation

Given:

Carrier amplitude (Ac ) = 10 V

Modulating signal amplitude (Am ) = 2 V

s
te
no
The modulation index (µ) can be calculated using the formula:

NS
IO
Am
µ=

AT
Ac

IC
UN
2
µ= M
10
M
O

µ = 0.2
EC

So, the modulation index is 0.2.

T EL
5:

Example 2: Peak Amplitude of AM Signal

40
R

Given:
EA
’s

Carrier amplitude (Ac ) = 10 V

ria
ha

Modulating signal amplitude (Am ) = 2 V

ac
.M

The peak amplitude (Apeak ) of the AM signal can be calculated using the formula:
Dr

Apeak = Ac + Am

Apeak = 10 + 2

Apeak = 12 V

60
So, the peak amplitude of the AM signal is 12 V.

Example 3: Percentage Modulation Calculation

Given:

Carrier amplitude (Ac ) = 10 V

Modulating signal amplitude (Am ) = 2 V

s
te
no
The percentage modulation can be calculated using the formula:

NS
IO
Am
Percentage Modulation = × 100%

AT
Ac

IC
UN
2
× 100%
Percentage Modulation =
M
10
M
O

Percentage Modulation = 20%

EC
EL

So, the percentage modulation is 20%.

T
5:

Example 4: Modulated Signal Frequency Calculation

40
R

Given:
EA
’s
ria

Carrier frequency (fc ) = 1 MHz

ha

Modulating signal frequency (fm ) = 10 kHz

ac
.M

Modulation index (µ) = 0.5

Dr

The modulated signal frequency (fmod ) can be calculated using the formula:

fmod = fc + fm

fmod = 1 MHz + 10 kHz

61
 fmod = 1.01 MHz

So, the modulated signal frequency is 1.01 MHz.

Example 5: Power of Modulated Signal

Given:

Carrier power (Pc ) = 10 W

s
te
no
Modulating signal power (Pm ) = 2 W

NS
IO
The power of the modulated signal can be calculated using the formula:

AT
IC
Pmod = Pc + Pm

UN
M
M
O

Pmod = 10 W + 2 W
EC
EL

Pmod = 12 W
T

So, the power of the modulated signal is 12 W.

5:
40
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EA
’s
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ac
.M
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62
Chapter 4

s
Fundamentals of Frequency

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no
NS
Modulation

IO
AT
IC
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4.1 FM Concepts M
M
In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by the
O
EC

modulating signal. As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency
EL

shifts proportionately. As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency
T

increases. If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency decreases.
5:
40

The reverse relationship can also be implemented. A decreasing modulating signal increases the
R

carrier frequency above its center value, whereas an increasing modulating signal decreases the
EA

carrier frequency below its center value. As the modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier
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frequency varies above and below its normal center, or resting, frequency with no modulation.
ha

The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known as the
ac
.M

frequency deviation. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Dr

The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency deviation rate, or how many
times per second the carrier frequency deviates above and below its center frequency. If the
modulating signal is a 500-Hz sine wave, the carrier frequency shifts above and below the center
frequency 500 times per second.
An FM signal is illustrated in Fig. 4.1(c). Normally the carrier [Fig. 4.1(a)] is a sine wave,
but it is shown as a triangular wave here to simplify the illustration. With no modulating

63
signal applied, the carrier frequency is a constant-amplitude sine wave at its normal resting
frequency.

s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
M
M
O
EC
T EL
5:
40
R
EA
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ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 4.1: FM and PM signals. The carrier is drawn as a triangular wave for simplicity, but
in practice it is a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) FM signal. (d) PM signal.

The modulating information signal [Fig. 4.1(b)] is a low-frequency sine wave. As the sine wave
goes positive, the frequency of the carrier increases proportionately. The highest frequency

64
occurs at the peak amplitude of the modulating signal. As the modulating signal amplitude
decreases, the carrier frequency decreases. When the modulating signal is at zero amplitude,
the carrier is at its center frequency point.
When the modulating signal goes negative, the carrier frequency decreases. It continues to
decrease until the peak of the negative half-cycle of the modulating sine wave is reached.
Then as the modulating signal increases toward zero, the carrier frequency again increases.
This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 4.1(c), where the carrier sine waves seem to be first

s
te
compressed and then stretched by the modulating signal.

no
Assume a carrier frequency of 150 MHz. If the peak amplitude of the modulating signal causes

NS
a maximum frequency shift of 30 kHz, the carrier frequency will deviate up to 150.03 MHz

IO
AT
and down to 149.97 MHz. The total frequency deviation is 150.03 - 149.97 = 0.06 MHz = 60

IC
kHz. In practice, however, the frequency deviation is expressed as the amount of frequency

UN
shift of the carrier above or below the center frequency. Thus, the frequency deviation for the
M
150 MHz carrier frequency is represented as ± 30 kHz. This means that the modulating signal
M
O

varies the carrier above and below its center frequency by 30 kHz. Note that the frequency of
EC

the modulating signal has no effect on the amount of deviation, which is strictly a function of
EL

the amplitude of the modulating signal.

T

Frequently, the modulating signal is a pulse train or series of rectangular waves, e.g., serial
5:
40

binary data. When the modulating signal has only two amplitudes, the carrier frequency,
R
EA

instead of having an infinite number of values, as it would have with a continuously varying
(analog) signal, has only two values. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
’s
ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 4.2: Frequency-modulating of a carrier with binary data produces FSK.

For example, when the modulating signal is a binary 0, the carrier frequency is the center

65
frequency value. When the modulating signal is a binary 1, the carrier frequency abruptly
changes to a higher frequency level. The amount of the shift depends on the amplitude of the
binary signal. This kind of modulation, called frequency-shift keying (FSK), is widely used in
the transmission of binary data in Bluetooth headsets, wireless speakers, and many forms of
industrial wireless.

4.2 Modulation Index

s
te
no
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation

NS
index mf :

IO
fd
mf =

AT
fm

where fd is the frequency deviation and fm is the modulating frequency.

IC
UN
In most communication systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the frequency
M
deviation and the modulating frequency. For example, in standard FM broadcasting, the
M
maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum permitted modulating
O
EC

frequency is 15 kHz. This produces a modulation index of:

EL

fd 75
mf = fm
= 15
= 5.
T
5:
40

4.3 Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modula-

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EA

tion
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4.3.1 Advantages of FM
ha
ac

In general, FM is considered to be superior to AM. Although both AM and FM signals can be

.M

used to transmit information from one place to another, FM typically offers some significant
Dr

benefits over AM.

Noise Immunity.

The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity to noise, made possible by the
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver, which effectively strip off all the noise variations, leaving
a constant-amplitude FM signal. Although clipping does not result in total recovery in all

66
cases, FM can nevertheless tolerate a much higher noise level than AM for a given carrier
amplitude. This is also true for phase-shift-induced distortion.

Capture Effect.

Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on the same frequency are effectively
rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and the demodulating methods used by FM re-
ceivers, a phenomenon known as the capture effect takes place when two or more FM signals

s
te
occur simultaneously on the same frequency. If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of

no
the other, the stronger signal captures the channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal. With

NS
modern receiver circuitry, a difference in signal amplitudes of only 1 dB is usually sufficient to

IO
AT
produce the capture effect. In contrast, when two AM signals occupy the same frequency, both

IC
signals are generally heard, regardless of their relative signal strengths. When one AM signal

UN
is significantly stronger than another, naturally the stronger signal is intelligible; however, the
M
weaker signal is not eliminated and can still be heard in the background. When the signal
M
O

strengths of given AM signals are nearly the same, they will interfere with each other, making
EC

both nearly unintelligible.

EL

Although the capture effect prevents the weaker of two FM signals from being heard, when
T

two stations are broadcasting signals of approximately the same amplitude, first one may be
5:
40

captured and then the other. This can happen, e.g., when a driver moving along a highway
R
EA

is listening to a clear broadcast on a particular frequency. At some point, the driver may
suddenly hear the other broadcast, completely losing the first, and then, just as suddenly, hear
’s
ria

the original broadcast again. Which one dominates depends on where the car is and on the
ha

relative signal strengths of the two signals.

ac
.M

Transmitter Efficiency.
Dr

A third advantage of FM over AM involves efficiency. Recall that AM can be produced by both
low-level and high-level modulation techniques. The most efficient is high-level modulation in
which a class C amplifier is used as the final RF power stage and is modulated by a high-power
modulation amplifier. The AM transmitter must produce both very high RF and modulating
signal power. In addition, at very high power levels, large-modulation amplifiers are impracti-
cal. Under such conditions, low-level modulation must be used if the AM information is to be

67
preserved without distortion. The AM signal is generated at a lower level and then amplified
with linear amplifiers to produce the final RF signal. Linear amplifiers are either class A or
class B and are far less efficient than class C amplifiers. FM signals have a constant amplitude,
and it is therefore not necessary to use linear amplifiers to increase their power level. In fact,
FM signals are always generated at a lower level and then amplified by a series of class C
amplifiers to increase their power. The result is greater use of available power because of the
high level of efficiency of class C amplifiers. Even more efficient class D, E, or F amplifiers are

s
te
also used in FM or PM equipment.

no
NS
4.3.2 Disadvantages of FM

IO
AT
Excessive Spectrum Use.

IC
Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of FM is that it simply uses too much spectrum space.

UN
The bandwidth of an FM signal is, in general, considerably wider than that of an AM signal
M
M
transmitting similar information. Although it is possible to keep the modulation index low to
O
EC

minimize bandwidth, reducing the modulation index also reduces the noise immunity of an FM
EL

signal.
T

Since FM occupies so much bandwidth, it is typically used only in those portions of the
5:

spectrum where adequate bandwidth is available, i.e., at very high frequencies. In fact, it
40
R

is rarely used below frequencies of 30 MHz. Most FM communication work is done at the
EA

VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies.

’s
ria

Circuit Complexity.
ha
ac

One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the complexity of the circuits used for fre-
.M

quency modulation and demodulation in comparison with the simple circuits used for amplitude
Dr

modulation and demodulation. Today, this disadvantage has almost disappeared because of
the use of integrated circuits. Although the ICs used in FM transmission are still complex,
they require very little effort to use and their price is just as low as those of comparable AM
circuits.
Since the trend in electronic communication is toward higher and higher frequencies and be-
cause ICs are so cheap and easy to use, FM and PM have become by far the most widely used

68
modulation method in electronic communication today.

4.4 Frequency Modulators

A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the mod-
ulating signal. The carrier is generated by either an LC or a crystal oscillator circuit, and so
a way must be found to change the frequency of oscillation. In an LC oscillator, the carrier

s
frequency is fixed by the values of the inductance and capacitance in a tuned circuit, and the

te
no
carrier frequency can therefore be changed by varying either inductance or capacitance. The

NS
idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a modulating voltage to a corresponding

IO
change in capacitance or inductance.

AT
When the carrier is generated by a crystal oscillator, the frequency is fixed by the crystal.

IC
UN
However, keep in mind that the equivalent circuit of a crystal is an LCR circuit with both
M
series and parallel resonant points. Connecting an external capacitor to the crystal allows minor
M
variations in operating frequency to be obtained. Again, the objective is to f nd a circuit or
O
EC

component whose capacitance will change in response to the modulating signal. The component
EL

most frequently used for this purpose is a varactor. Also known as a voltage variable capacitor,
T

variable capacitance diode, or varicap, this device is basically a semiconductor junction diode
5:
40

operated in a reverse-bias mode.

R

Fig. 4.3, a carrier oscillator for a transmitter, shows the basic concept of a varactor frequency
EA

modulator. The capacitance of varactor diode D1 and L1 forms the parallel-tuned circuit of the
’s
ria

oscillator. The value of C1 is made very large at the operating frequency so that its reactance
ha

is very low. As a result, C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator circuit. Also C1 blocks
ac
.M

the dc bias on the base of Q1 from being shorted to ground through L1. The values of L1 and
D1 fix the center carrier frequency.
Dr

The capacitance of D1 is controlled in two ways, through a fixed dc bias and by the modulating
signal. In Fig. 4.3, the bias on D1 is set by the voltage divider potentiometer R4. Varying R4
allows the center carrier frequency to be adjusted over a narrow range. The modulating signal
is applied through C5 and the radio frequency choke (RFC); C5 is a blocking capacitor that
keeps the dc varactor bias out of the modulating-signal circuits. The reactance of the RFC
is high at the carrier frequency to prevent the carrier signal from getting back into the audio

69
 s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
M
M
Figure 4.3: A direct-frequency-modulated carrier oscillator using a varactor diode.
O
EC

modulating-signal circuits.
EL

The modulating signal derived from the microphone is amplified and applied to the modulator.
T
5:

As the modulating signal varies, it adds to and subtracts from the fixed-bias voltage. Thus,
40

the effective voltage applied to D1 causes its capacitance to vary. This, in turn, produces the
R
EA

desired deviation of the carrier frequency. A positive-going signal at point A adds to the reverse
’s

bias, decreasing the capacitance and increasing the carrier frequency. A negative-going signal
ria

at A subtracts from the bias, increasing the capacitance and decreasing the carrier frequency.
ha
ac

The main problem with the circuit in Fig. 4.3 is that most LC oscillators are simply not stable
.M

enough to provide a carrier signal. Even with high-quality components and optimal design,
Dr

the frequency of LC oscillators will vary because of temperature changes, variations in circuit
voltage, and other factors. Such instabilities cannot be tolerated in most modern electronic
communication systems, where a transmitter must stay on frequency as precisely as possible.
The LC oscillators simply are not stable enough to meet the stringent requirements imposed
by the FCC. As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set carrier frequency. Not
only do crystal oscillators provide a highly accurate carrier frequency, but also their frequency
stability is superior over a wide temperature range.

70
4.5 Frequency Demodulators

Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the carrier back to a proportional volt-
age variation can be used to demodulate or detect FM signals. Circuits used to recover the
original modulating signal from an FM transmission are called demodulators, detectors, or
discriminators.
The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector, makes use of a tuned circuit and a
diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations. The basic circuit is shown

s
te
no
in Fig. 4.4(a).

NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
M
M
O
EC
T EL
5:
40
R
EA
’s
ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 4.4: Slope detector operation.

The FM signal is applied to transformer T1 made up of L1 and L2. Together L2 and C1 form
a series resonant circuit. Remember that the signal voltage induced into L2 appears in series
with L2 and C1 and the output voltage is taken from across C1. The response curve of this
tuned circuit is shown in Fig. 4.4(b). Note that at the resonant frequency fr the voltage across

71
C1 peaks. At lower or higher frequencies, the voltage falls off.
To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so that the center or carrier
frequency of the FM signals is approximately centered on the leading edge of the response
curve, as shown in Fig. 4.4(b). As the carrier frequency varies above and below its center
frequency, the tuned circuit responds as shown in the figure. If the frequency goes lower than
the carrier frequency, the output voltage across C1 decreases. If the frequency goes higher, the
output across C1 goes higher. Thus, the ac voltage across C1 is proportional to the frequency

s
te
of the FM signal. The voltage across C1 is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load

no
R1. These are filtered into a varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original

NS
modulating signal.

IO
AT
The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning them so that the FM signal is correctly

IC
centered on the leading edge of the tuned circuit. In addition, the tuned circuit does not have a

UN
perfectly linear response. It is approximately linear over a narrow range, as Fig. 4.4(b) shows,
M
but for wide deviations, amplitude distortion occurs because of the nonlinearity.
M
O
EC

4.6 Solved Problems

T EL

Example 1: Frequency Deviation Calculation

5:
40

Given:
R
EA

Modulation index (β) = 2

’s
ria

Modulating signal frequency (fm ) = 10 kHz

ha
ac
.M

The frequency deviation (∆f ) can be calculated using the formula:

Dr

∆f = β × fm

∆f = 2 × 10 kHz

∆f = 20 kHz

72
So, the frequency deviation is 20 kHz.

Example 2: Modulated Signal Frequency Calculation

Given:

Carrier frequency (fc ) = 100 MHz

Frequency deviation (∆f ) = 50 kHz

s
te
no
The modulated signal frequency (fmod ) can be calculated using the formula:

NS
IO
fmod = fc + ∆f

AT
IC
UN
M
fmod = 100 MHz + 50 kHz
M
O

fmod = 100.05 MHz

EC
EL

So, the modulated signal frequency is 100.05 MHz.

T
5:

Example 3: Peak Frequency Deviation

40
R

Given:
EA
’s
ria

Frequency deviation (∆f ) = 20 kHz

ha
ac

The peak frequency deviation (∆fpeak ) is the maximum deviation from the carrier frequency.
.M

It is equal to the frequency deviation in FM.

Dr

So, the peak frequency deviation is 20 kHz.

73
Example 4: Modulation Index Calculation

Given:

Carrier frequency (fc ) = 95 MHz

Modulated signal frequency (fmod ) = 95.1 MHz

The modulation index (β) can be calculated using the formula:

s
te
no
∆f
β=
fm

NS
IO
AT
95.1 MHz − 95 MHz
β=

IC
10 kHz

UN
0.1 MHz
β=
10 kHz M
M
β = 10
O
EC

So, the modulation index is 10.

T EL

Example 5: Maximum Modulating Frequency

5:
40

Given:
R
EA
’s

Modulation index (β) = 5

ria

Frequency deviation (∆f ) = 50 kHz

ha
ac
.M

The maximum modulating frequency (fmax ) can be calculated using the formula:
Dr

∆f
fmax =
β

50 kHz
fmax =
5

fmax = 10 kHz

74
So, the maximum modulating frequency is 10 kHz.

s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
M
M
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EC
T EL
5:
40
R
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ha
ac
.M
Dr

75
Chapter 5

s
Multiple access schemes

te
no
NS
IO
In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or multiple access

AT
method allows several terminals connected to the same multi-point transmission medium to

IC
UN
transmit over it and to share its capacity. Examples of shared physical media are wireless
M
networks, bus networks, ring networks and point-to-point links operating in half-duplex mode.
M
A channel access method is based on multiplexing, that allows several data streams or signals to
O
EC

share the same communication channel or transmission medium. In this context, multiplexing
EL

is provided by the physical layer.

T

A channel access method is also based on a multiple access protocol and control mechanism,
5:
40

also known as media access control (MAC). Media access control deals with issues such as
R

addressing, assigning multiplex channels to different users, and avoiding collisions. Media
EA

access control is a sub-layer in the data link layer of the OSI model and a component of the
’s
ria

link layer of the TCP/IP model.

ha
ac
.M

5.1 Frequency division multiple access

Dr

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) is a channel access method used in multiple-access
protocols as a channelization protocol. FDMA gives users an individual allocation of one or sev-
eral frequency bands, or channels. It is particularly commonplace in satellite communication.
FDMA, like other multiple access systems, coordinates access between multiple users. Alter-
natives include time-division multiple access (TDMA), code-division multiple access (CDMA),
or space-division multiple access (SDMA).
Disadvantage: Crosstalk may cause interference among frequencies and disrupt transmission.

76
In FDMA, all users share the frequency channel simultaneously but each user transmits at
single frequency.
FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signals but it is generally used with analog
signals.
FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware, in contrast to TDMA and
CDMA.
FDMA is not vulnerable to the timing problems that TDMA has. Since a predetermined

s
te
frequency band is available for the entire period of communication, stream data (a continuous

no
flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used with FDMA.

NS
Due to the frequency filtering, FDMA is not sensitive to near-far problem which is pronounced

IO
AT
in CDMA.

IC
Each user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a unique frequency

UN
slot.
M
FDMA is distinct from frequency division duplexing (FDD). While FDMA allows multiple
M
O

users simultaneous access to a transmission system, FDD refers to how the radio channel is
EC

shared between the uplink and downlink (for instance, the traffic going back and forth between
EL

a mobile-phone and a mobile phone base station). Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

T

is also distinct from FDMA. FDM is a physical layer technique that combines and transmits
5:
40

low-bandwidth channels through a high-bandwidth channel. FDMA, on the other hand, is an

R
EA

access method in the data link layer.

FDMA also supports demand assignment in addition to fixed assignment. Demand assign-
’s
ria

ment allows all users apparently continuous access of the radio spectrum by assigning carrier
ha

frequencies on a temporary basis using a statistical assignment process. The first FDMA
ac
.M

demand-assignment system for satellite was developed by COMSAT for use on the Intelsat
Dr

series IVA and V satellites.

There are two main techniques:
Multi-channel per-carrier (MCPC)
Single-channel per-carrier (SCPC)
A related technique is wavelength division multiple access (WDMA), based on wavelength-
division multiplexing (WDM), where different datastreams get different colors in fiber-optical
communications. In the WDMA case, different network nodes in a bus or hub network get a

77
different color.
An advanced form of FDMA is the orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA)
scheme, for example used in 4G cellular communication systems. In OFDMA, each node may
use several sub-carriers, making it possible to provide different quality of service (different data
rates) to different users. The assignment of sub-carriers to users may be changed dynamically,
based on the current radio channel conditions and traffic load.

s
te
5.2 Time-division multiple access

no
NS
Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared-medium networks.

IO
It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different

AT
time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its own time

IC
UN
slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency
M
channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular
M
systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital
O
EC

Cellular (PDC) and iDEN, and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT)
EL

standard for portable phones. It is also used extensively in satellite systems, combat-net radio
T

systems, and passive optical network (PON) networks for upstream traffic from premises to
5:
40

the operator.
R

TDMA is a type of time-division multiplexing (TDM), with the special point that instead
EA

of having one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the
’s
ria

case of the uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes particularly difficult
ha

because the mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its
ac
.M

transmission match the gap in transmission from its peers.

A disadvantage of TDMA systems is that they create interference at a frequency which is
Dr

directly connected to the time slot length. This is the buzz which can sometimes be heard if a
TDMA phone is left next to a radio or speakers. Another disadvantage is that the “dead time”
between time slots limits the potential bandwidth of a TDMA channel. These are implemented
in part because of the difficulty in ensuring that different terminals transmit at exactly the
times required. Handsets that are moving will need to constantly adjust their timings to ensure
their transmission is received at precisely the right time, because as they move further from

78
the base station, their signal will take longer to arrive. This also means that the major TDMA
systems have hard limits on cell sizes in terms of range, though in practice the power levels
required to receive and transmit over distances greater than the supported range would be
mostly impractical anyway.

5.3 Code-division multiple access

s
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method where several transmitters

te
no
can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several

NS
users to share a band of frequencies. To permit this without undue interference between the

IO
users, CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each

AT
transmitter is assigned a code).

IC
UN
CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards. IS-95, also called
M
“cdmaOne”, and its 3G evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to as “CDMA”, but
M
UMTS, the 3G standard used by GSM carriers, also uses “wideband CDMA”, or W-CDMA,
O
EC

as well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio technologies.

EL

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the
T

codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems.
5:
40

The best performance occurs when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user
R

and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received
EA

signal with the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired
’s
ria

user’s code, then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal.
ha

If the desired user’s code has nothing in common with the signal, the correlation should be as
ac
.M

close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross-correlation. If
the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should
Dr

be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject

multi-path interference.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to
talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time
division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different languages (code
division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking the same language

79
can understand each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly,
in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same
channel, but only users associated with a particular code can communicate.
An advantage of CDMA over other techniques: Efficient practical utilization of the fixed fre-
quency spectrum:
In theory CDMA, TDMA and FDMA have exactly the same spectral efficiency, but, in practice,
each has its own challenges power control in the case of CDMA, timing in the case of TDMA,

s
te
and frequency generation/ filtering in the case of FDMA.

no
TDMA systems must carefully synchronize the transmission times of all the users to ensure

NS
that they are received in the correct time slot and do not cause interference. Since this cannot

IO
AT
be perfectly controlled in a mobile environment, each time slot must have a guard time, which

IC
reduces the probability that users will interfere, but decreases the spectral efficiency.

UN
Similarly, FDMA systems must use a guard band between adjacent channels, due to the un-
M
predictable Doppler shift of the signal spectrum because of user mobility. The guard bands
M
O

will reduce the probability that adjacent channels will interfere, but decrease the utilization of
EC

the spectrum.
T EL
5:

5.4 Demand Assigned Multiple Access

40
R

Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA) is a technology used to assign a channel to clients
EA

that don’t need to use it constantly. DAMA systems assign communication channels based on
’s
ria

requests issued from user terminals to a network control system. When the circuit is no longer
ha

in use, the channels are then returned to the central pool for reassignment to other users.
ac
.M

Channels are typically a pair of carrier frequencies (one for transmit and one for receive),
but can be other fixed bandwidth resources such as timeslots in a TDMA burst plan or even
Dr

physical party line channels. Once a channel is allocated to a given pair of nodes, it is not
available to other users in the network until their session is finished.
It allows utilizing of one channel (radio or baseband frequency, timeslot, etc.) by many users
sequentially at different times. This technology is mainly useful with sparsely used networks
of transient clients, as opposed to PAMA (Permanently Assigned Multiple Access). By using
DAMA technology the number of separate nodes that can use a limited pool of circuits can

80
be greatly increased at the expense of no longer being able to provide simultaneous access for
all possible pairs of nodes. A five-channel DAMA network can only have five simultaneous
conversations but could have any number of nodes. A five-channel PAMA network perma-
nently supports five simultaneous conversations, with channel ownership remaining with their
permanently assigned nodes even when idle.
DAMA and PAMA are related only to channel/resource allocation and should not be confused
with the Multiple access/multiplexing methods (such as FDMA frequencies, TDMA slots,

s
te
CDMA codes, or others) intended to divide a single communication channel into multiple

no
virtual channels. These systems typically use resource allocation protocols that allow a more

NS
rapid (although often less deterministic, consider CDMA collisions) near-real-time allocation of

IO
AT
bandwidth based on demand and data priority. However, in sparsely allocated multiple-access

IC
channels, DAMA can be used to allocate the individual virtual channel resources provided

UN
by the multiple-access channel. This is most common in environments that are sufficiently
M
sparsely utilized that there is no need to add complexity just to recover ”conversation gap”
M
O

idle periods.
EC

DAMA is widely used in satellite communications, especially in VSAT systems. It is very

EL

effective in environments comprising multiple users each having a low to moderate usage profile.
T

DAMA is often used in military environments due to the relative simplicity of implementation,
5:
40

ease of modeling, and the fact that military usage profiles are a very good fit. In military
R
EA

SATCOM, it has the added advantage that it can function in a bent pipe environment, thus
requires no special security or coordination hardware on the satellite. This allows the mas-
’s
ria

ter and slave ground stations to be upgraded repeatedly to change or improve security and
ha

compression without requiring an expensive satellite replacement.

ac
.M
Dr

5.5 Time-division duplexing

Where channel access methods are used in point-to-multipoint networks (such as cellular net-
works) for dividing forward and reverse communication channels on the same physical commu-
nications medium, they are known as duplexing methods, such as time-division duplexing and
frequency-division duplexing.
Time-division duplexing (TDD) is the application of time-division multiplexing to separate

81
outward and return signals. It emulates full duplex communication over a half duplex commu-
nication link.
Time-division duplexing has a strong advantage in the case where there is asymmetry of the
uplink and downlink data rates. As the amount of uplink data increases, more communication
capacity can be dynamically allocated, and as the traffic load becomes lighter, capacity can be
taken away. The same applies in the downlink direction.
For radio systems that aren’t moving quickly, another advantage is that the uplink and downlink

s
te
radio paths are likely to be very similar. This means that techniques such as beamforming work

no
well with TDD systems.

NS
Examples of time-division duplexing systems are:

IO
AT
UMTS 3G supplementary air interfaces TD-CDMA for indoor mobile telecommunications.

IC
The Chinese TD-LTE 4-G, TD-SCDMA 3-G mobile communications air interface.

UN
DECT wireless telephony
M
Half-duplex packet switched networks based on carrier sense multiple access, for example 2-
M
O

wire or hubbed Ethernet, Wireless local area networks and Bluetooth, can be considered as
EC

time-division duplexing systems, albeit not TDMA with fixed frame-lengths.

EL

IEEE 802.16 WiMAX

T

PACTOR
5:
40

ISDN BRI U interface, variants using the time-compression multiplex (TCM) line system
R
EA

[Link], a digital subscriber line (DSL) standard under development by the ITU-T
’s
ria

5.6 Frequency-division duplexing

ha
ac
.M

Frequency-division duplexing (FDD) means that the transmitter and receiver operate at dif-
ferent carrier frequencies. The method is frequently used in ham radio operation, where an
Dr

operator is attempting to use a repeater station. The repeater station must be able to send
and receive a transmission at the same time, and does so by slightly altering the frequency at
which it sends and receives. This mode of operation is referred to as duplex mode or offset
mode.
Uplink and downlink sub-bands are said to be separated by the frequency offset. Frequency-
division duplexing can be efficient in the case of symmetric traffic. In this case, time-division

82
duplexing tends to waste bandwidth during the switch-over from transmitting to receiving, has
greater inherent latency, and may require more complex circuitry.
Another advantage of frequency-division duplexing is that it makes radio planning easier and
more efficient, since base stations do not “hear” each other (as they transmit and receive in
different sub-bands) and therefore will normally not interfere with each other. Conversely, with
time-division duplexing systems, care must be taken to keep guard times between neighboring
base stations (which decreases spectral efficiency) or to synchronize base stations, so that they

s
te
will transmit and receive at the same time (which increases network complexity and therefore

no
cost, and reduces bandwidth allocation flexibility as all base stations and sectors will be forced

NS
to use the same uplink/downlink ratio)

IO
AT
Examples of frequency-division duplexing systems are:

IC
ADSL and VDSL

UN
Most cellular systems, including the UMTS/WCDMA use frequency-division duplexing mode
M
and the cdma2000 system.
M
O

IEEE 802.16 WiMax also uses frequency-division duplexing mode.

EC
T EL
5:
40
R
EA
’s
ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

83
Chapter 6

s
OPTICAL FIBERS

te
no
NS
IO
The dramatic reduction of transmission loss in optical fibers coupled with equally important

AT
developments in the area of light sources and detectors has brought about a phenomenal growth

IC
UN
of the fiber optic industry during the past two decades. The birth of optical fiber communica-
M
tion coincided with the fabrication of low-loss optical fibers and room-temperature operation
M
of semiconductor lasers in 1970. Ever since, the scientific and technological progress in this
O
EC

field has been so phenomenal that we are already in the sixth generation of optical fiber com-
EL

munication systems within a brief span of 40 years. Recent developments in optical amplifiers
T

and wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) are taking us to a communication system with
5:
40

almost ”zero” loss and ”infinite” bandwidth. Indeed, optical fiber communication systems are
R

fulfilling the increased demand on communication links, especially with the proliferation of the
EA

Internet. See Figure 6.1.

’s
ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 6.1: A typical fiber optic communication system: T, transmitter; C, connector; S, splice;
R, repeater; D, detector

6.1 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR)

At the heart of an optical communication system is the optical fiber that acts as the transmis-
sion channel carrying the light beam loaded with [Link] guidance of the light beam

84
(through the optical fiber) takes place because of the phenomenon of total internal reflection
(TIR). See Figure 6.2.

s
te
Figure 6.2: (a) A ray of light incident on a denser medium (n2 > n1). (b) A ray incident on

no
a rarer medium (n2 < n1). (c) For n2 < n1 , if the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle, it will undergo total internal reflection.

NS
IO
The angle of incidence, for which the angle of refraction is 90 degrees, is known as the critical

AT
angle and is denoted by ϕc . See Equation 6.1.

IC
ϕc = sin−1 (n2 /n1 )
UN (6.1)
M
M
O

When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle (i.e., when ϕi > ϕc ), there is no refracted
EC

ray and we have total internal reflection.

T EL
5:

6.2 THE OPTICAL FIBER

40
R

Figure 6.3a shows an optical fiber, which consists of a (cylindrical) central dielectric core clad
EA

by a material of slightly lower refractive index. The corresponding refractive index distribution
’s
ria

(in the transverse direction) is given by n=n1 for r < a and n=n2 for r > a. n1 and n2 (< n1)
ha

represent respectively the refractive indices of core and cladding and a represents the radius of
ac
.M

the core.
For a typical (multimode) fiber, the cladding is usually pure silica while the core is usually
Dr

silica doped with germanium.

6.3 THE COHERENT BUNDLE

A large number of fibers put together form what is known as a bundle. If the fibers are not
aligned, i.e. they are all jumbled up, the bundle is said to be an incoherent bundle. However,
if the fibers are aligned properly, i.e., if the relative positions of the fibers in the input and

85
 s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
Figure 6.3: (a) A glass fiber consists of a cylindrical central core clad by a material of slightly
lower refractive index. (b) Light rays impinging on the core-cladding interface at an angle

IC
greater than the critical angle are trapped inside the core of the fiber.

UN
M
output ends are the same, the bundle is said to be a coherent bundle. If a particular fiber in this
M
coherent bundle is illuminated at one of its ends, there will be a bright spot at the other end of
O
EC

the same fiber. Thus a coherent bundle will transmit the image from one end to another (see
EL

Figure 6.4). On the other hand, in an incoherent bundle the output image will be scrambled.
T

Because of this property, an incoherent bundle can be used as a coder; the transmitted image
5:
40

can be decoded by using a similar bundle at the output end. In a bundle, since there can be
R

hundreds of thousands of fibers, decoding without the original bundle configuration would be
EA

extremely difficult. Incoherent bundles are also used in illumination such as in traffic lights
’s
ria

or road signs or even for lighting applications in buildings wherein the light source is removed
ha

from relatively inaccessible areas and fibers are used to guide light from a lamp. They can also
ac

be used as cold light sources (i.e., light sources giving only light and no heat) by cutting off
.M

the heat radiation with a filter at the input to the fiber bundle. The light emerging from the
Dr

bundle is also free from UV radiation and is suitable for illumination of paintings in museums.
Perhaps the most important application of a coherent bundle is in a fiber optic endoscope
where it can be inserted inside a human body and the interior of the body can be viewed from
outside. For illuminating the portion that is to be seen, the bundle is enclosed in a sheath of
fibers that carry light from outside to the interior of the body. A state-of-the-art fiberscope
can have about 10,000 fibers, which would form a coherent bundle of about 1 mm in diameter,

86
Figure 6.4: A bundle of aligned fibers. A bright (or dark) spot at the input end of the coherent
fiber bundle produces a bright (or dark) spot at the output end. Thus, an image will be
transmitted (in the form of bright and dark spots) through a bundle of aligned fibers, forming,

s
te
for example, the letter T shown above.

no
NS
capable of resolving objects 70 µm across. Fiber optic bundles can also be used for viewing

IO
internal machine parts that are otherwise inaccessible.

AT
IC
6.4 THE NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)
UN
M
The numerical aperture (Equation 6.2) of an optical fiber is a measure of its light-gathering
M
O

power.
EC
EL

q
NA = n21 − n22 (6.2)
T
5:
40

6.5 ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS

R
EA

Attenuation and pulse dispersion represent the two most important characteristics of an optical
’s
ria

fiber that determine the information-carrying capacity of a fiber optic communication system.
ha

Obviously, the lower the attenuation (and similarly, the lower the dispersion) the greater can
ac
.M

be the required repeater spacing and therefore the lower will be the cost of the communication
Dr

system.
The attenuation of an optical beam is usually measured in decibels (dB). If an input power P1
results in an output power P2 , the power loss α in decibels is given as in Equation 6.3.

P1
α(dB) = 10log10 ( ) (6.3)
P2

87
6.6 PULSE DISPERSION IN STEP-INDEX FIBERS

(SIF)

In digital communication systems, information to be sent is first coded in the form of pulses
and these pulses of light are then transmitted from the transmitter to the receiver, where the
information is decoded. The larger the number of pulses that can be sent per unit time and
still be resolvable at the receiver end, the larger will be the transmission capacity of the system.

s
te
A pulse of light sent into a fiber broadens in time as it propagates through the fiber. This

no
phenomenon is known as pulse dispersion, and it occurs primarily because of the following

NS
mechanisms:

IO
AT
1. Different rays take different times to propagate through a given length of the fiber. In

IC
the language of wave optics, this is known as intermodal dispersion because it arises due to

UN
different modes traveling with different speeds.
M
2. Any given light source emits over a range of wavelengths, and, because of the intrinsic
M
O

property of the material of the fiber, different wavelengths take different amounts of time to
EC

propagate along the same path. This is known as material dispersion.

EL

3. Apart from intermodal and material dispersions, there is yet another mechanismreferred to
T

as waveguide dispersion and important only in single-mode fibers.

5:
40

In the fiber shown in Figure 6.3, the rays making larger angles with the axis (those shown as
R
EA

dotted rays) have to traverse a longer optical path length and therefore take a longer time to
reach the output end. Consequently, the pulse broadens as it propagates through the fiber (see
’s
ria

Figure 6.5). Even though two pulses may be well resolved at the input end, because of the
ha

broadening of the pulses they may not be so at the output end. Where the output pulses are
ac
.M

not resolvable, no information can be retrieved. Thus, the smaller the pulse dispersion, the
Dr

greater will be the information-carrying capacity of the system.

For a very-high-information-carrying system, it is necessary to reduce the pulse dispersion.
Two alternative solutions existone involves the use of near-parabolic-index fibers and the other
involves single-mode fibers.

88
 s
te
Figure 6.5: Pulses separated by 100 ns at the input end would be resolvable at the output end

no
of 1 km of the fiber. The same pulses would not be resolvable at the output end of 2 km of

NS
the same fiber.

IO
6.7 PARABOLIC-INDEX FIBERS (PIF)

AT
IC
In a step-index fiber such as that pictured in Figure 6.3, the refractive index of the core has

UN
a constant value. By contrast, in a parabolic-index fiber, the refractive index in the core
M
decreases continuously (in a quadratic fashion) from a maximum value at the center of the core
M
O

to a constant value at the core-cladding interface.

EC

Since the refractive index decreases as one moves away from the center of the core, a ray
T EL

entering the fiber is continuously bent toward the axis of the fiber, as depicted in Figure 6.6.
5:
40
R
EA
’s
ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 6.6: Different ray paths in a parabolic-index fiber

This follows from Snells law because the ray continuously encounters a medium of lower re-
fractive index and hence bends continuously away from the normal. Even though rays making

89
larger angles with the fiber axis traverse a longer path, they do so now in a region of lower
refractive index (and hence greater speed). The longer path length is almost compensated for
by a greater average speed such that all rays take approximately the same amount of time in
traversing the fiber. This leads to a much smaller pulse dispersion.

6.8 MATERIAL DISPERSION

s
Every source of light has a certain wavelength spread, which is often referred to as the spectral

te
no
width of the source. Thus, a white light source (like the sun) has a spectral width of about

NS
300 nm. On the other hand, an LED has a spectral width of about 25 nm and a typical laser

IO
diode (LD) operating at 1300 nm has a spectral width of about 2 nm or less. Each wavelength

AT
component will travel with a slightly different group velocity through the fiber. This results in

IC
UN
broadening of a pulse (dispersion). This broadening of the pulse is proportional to the length
of the fiber and to the spectral width of the source.
M
M
O
EC

6.9 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

T EL

Although the most important application of optical fibers is in the field of transmission of
5:

information, optical fibers capable of sensing various physical parameters and generating in-
40
R

formation are also finding widespread use. The use of optical fibers for such applications offers
EA

the same advantages as in the field of communication: lower cost, smaller size, more accuracy,
’s

greater flexibility, and greater reliability. As compared to conventional electrical sensors, fiber
ria
ha

optic sensors are immune to external electromagnetic interference and can be used in hazardous
ac

and explosive environments. A very important attribute of fiber optic sensors is the possibility
.M

of having distributed or quasi-distributed sensing geometries, which would otherwise be too

Dr

expensive or complicated using conventional sensors. With fiber optic sensors it is possible
to measure pressure, temperature, electric current, rotation, strain, and chemical and biolog-
ical parameters with greater precision and speed. These advantages are leading to increased
integration of such sensors in civil structures such as bridges and tunnels, process industries,
medical instruments, aircraft, missiles, and even cars.
Fiber optic sensors can be broadly classified into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. In
the case of extrinsic sensors, the optical fiber simply acts as a device to transmit and collect

90
light from a sensing element, which is external to the fiber. The sensing element responds
to the external perturbation, and the change in the characteristics of the sensing element is
transmitted by the return fiber for analysis. The optical fiber here plays no role other than
that of transmitting the light beam. On the other hand, in the case of intrinsic sensors, the
physical parameter to be sensed directly alters the properties of the optical fiber, which in turn
leads to changes in a characteristic such as intensity, polarization, or phase of the light beam
propagating in the fiber.

s
te
no
6.9.1 Extrinsic fiber optic sensors

NS
IO
Figure 6.7 shows a very simple sensor based on the fact that transmission through a fiber

AT
joint depends on the alignment of the fiber cores. Light coupled into a multimode optical

IC
fiber couples across a joint into another fiber. The light is detected by a photodetector. Any

UN
deviation of the fiber pair from perfect alignment is immediately sensed by the detector. A
M
misalignment of magnitude equal to the core diameter of the fiber results in zero transmission.
M
O

The first 20 percent of transverse displacement gives an approximately linear output. Thus, for
EC

a 50-µm-core-diameter fiber, approximately 10-µm misalignment will be linear. The sensitivity

EL

will of course become better with decrease in core diameter, but, at the same time, the range
T
5:

of displacements will also reduce.

40
R
EA
’s
ria

Figure 6.7: Alignment sensor

ha
ac
.M

The misalignment between the fibers could be caused by various physical parameters, such as
Dr

acoustic waves and pressure. Thus, if one of the probe fibers has a short free length while
the other has a longer length, acoustic waves impinging on the sensor will set the fibers into
vibration, which will result in a modulation of the transmitted light intensity leading to an
acoustic sensor. Using such an arrangement, deep-sea noise levels in the frequency range of 100
Hz to 1 kHz and transverse displacements of a few tenths of a nanometer have been measured.
Using the same principle, any physical parameter leading to a relative displacement of the fiber
cores can be sensed using this geometry.

91
6.9.2 Intrinsic sensors

In intrinsic sensors the physical parameter changes some characteristic of the propagating light
beam that is sensed. Among the many intrinsic sensors, here we discuss the Mach-Zehnder
interferometric fiber sensor.
One of the most sensitive arrangements for a fiber optic sensor is the Mach-Zehnder (MZ)
interferometric sensor arrangement shown in Figure 6.8. Light from a laser is passed through a
3-dB fiber optic coupler, which splits the incoming light beam into two equal-amplitude beams

s
te
in the two single-mode fiber arms. The light beams recombine at the output coupler after

no
passing through the two arms. The output from the output coupler is detected and processed.

NS
IO
One of the fiber arms of the interferometer is the sensing arm, which is sensitive to the external

AT
parameter to be sensed. The other fiber arm is the reference arm. It is usually coated with a

IC
material to make it insensitive to the parameter of measurement. The two fiber arms behave as

UN
two paths of an interferometer, and hence the output depends on the phase difference between
M
M
the beams as they enter the output coupler. If the two fibers are of exactly equal lengths, the
O

entire input light beam appears in the lower fiber and no light comes out of the upper fiber.
EC

Any external parameter such as temperature or pressure affects the sensing fiber by changing
T EL

either the refractive index or the length of the arm, thus changing the phase difference between
5:

the two beams as they enter the output coupler. This results in a change in the intensity of the
40

two output arms. Processing of the output leads to a measurement of the external parameter.
R
EA

MZ sensors can be used to sense different physical parameters such as temperature, strain,
’s

and magnetic field. These physical parameters cause changes in the phase of the propagating
ria

light beam. Such sensors are finding various applications in hydrophones for underwater sound
ha
ac

detection. One of the great advantages of such an application is the possibility of configuring
.M

the sensors as omnidirectional or highly directional sensors.

Dr

6.10 BASIC FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYS-

TEM

An optical fiber is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the form of
light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in nature. A basic

92
Figure 6.8: The fiber optic Mach-Zehnder interferometric sensor. Phase changes (due to exter-
nal perturbation on the sensing arm) between the light beams arriving at the output coupler

s
cause changes in intensity at the output.

te
no
fiber optic system consists of a transmitting device that converts an electrical signal into a light

NS
signal, an optical fiber cable that carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light signal

IO
AT
and converts it back into an electrical signal. The complexity of a fiber optic system can range

IC
from very simple (i.e., local area network) to extremely sophisticated and expensive (i.e., long

UN
distance telephone or cable television trunking). For example, the system shown in Figure 6.9
M
could be built very inexpensively using a visible LED, plastic fiber, a silicon photo detector,
M
O

and some simple electronic circuitry. The overall cost could be less than 20 dollars. On the
EC

other hand, a typical system used for long-distance, high-bandwidth telecommunication that
EL

employs wavelength-division multiplexing, erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, external modulation

T

using DFB lasers with temperature compensation, fiber Bragg gratings, and high-speed infrared
5:
40

photo detectors could cost tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars. The basic question
R
EA

is how much information is to be sent and how far does it have to go?
’s
ria
ha
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Dr

Figure 6.9: Basic fiber optic communication system

6.10.1 TYPES OF FIBER

Three basic types of fiber optic cable are used in communication systems:
1. Step-index multimode

93
2. Step-index single mode
3. Graded-index This is illustrated in Figure 6.10.

s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
M
Figure 6.10: Types of fiber
M
O
EC
EL

6.10.2 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES

T

Two basic light sources are used for fiber optics: laser diodes (LD) and light-emitting diodes
5:
40

(LED). Each device has its own advantages and disadvantages as listed in Figure 6.11.
R
EA
’s
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ha
ac
.M
Dr

Figure 6.11: Light Sources

6.10.3 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS

The purpose of a fiber optic detector is to convert light emanating from the optical fiber back
into an electrical signal. The choice of a fiber optic detector depends on several factors including
wavelength, responsivity, and speed or rise time.

94
The process by which light is converted into an electrical signal is the opposite of the process
that produces the light. Light striking the detector generates a small electrical current that is
amplified by an external circuit. Absorbed photons excite electrons from the valence band to
the conduction band, resulting in the creation of an electron-hole pair. Under the influence of
a bias voltage these carriers move through the material and induce a current in the external
circuit. For each electron-hole pair created, the result is an electron flowing in the circuit.
Typical current levels are small and require some amplification as shown in Figure 6.12.

s
te
no
NS
IO
AT
IC
UN
Figure 6.12: Light detector
M
M
O
EC

6.11 Solved Problems

T EL

1. Calculation of Link Budget

5:
40

Given:
R
EA

Transmitter power (P) = 10 dBm

’s
ria

Transmitter antenna gain (G) = 20 dBi

ha
ac

Receiver antenna gain (G) = 25 dBi

.M

Path loss (L) = 120 dB

Dr

The received power (Pr ) can be calculated using the link budget equation:

Pr = P + G − L + G

Pr = 10 + 20 − 120 + 25

95
 Pr = −65 dBm

2. Calculation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Given:

Received power (P) = −65 dBm

Noise power (N) = −80 dBm

s
te
no
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be calculated as:

NS
IO
SN R = P − N

AT
IC
SN R = −65 − (−80)
UN
M
M
O

SN R = 15 dB
EC
EL

3. Calculation of Bit Error Rate (BER)

T
5:

Given:
40
R
EA

SNR = 15 dB
’s
ria

Using a suitable modulation scheme, the bit error rate (BER) can be estimated from the SNR.
ha
ac
.M

4. Calculation of Channel Capacity

Dr

Given:

Bandwidth (B) = 10 MHz

SNR = 15 dB

96
The channel capacity (C) can be calculated using Shannon’s formula:

C = B log2 (1 + SNR)

C = 10 × 106 log2 (1 + 10(15/10) )

C ≈ 10 × 106 × 4.7549

s
te
no
C ≈ 47.549 Mbps

NS
IO
5. Calculation of Attenuation in Fiber Optic Cable

AT
Given:

IC
Fiber length = 10 km
UN
M
M
Attenuation coefficient (α) = 0.2 dB/km
O
EC
EL

The total attenuation (A) can be calculated as:

T
5:

A = α × Fiber length
40
R
EA
’s

A = 0.2 × 10
ria
ha

A = 2 dB
ac
.M

6. Calculation of Dispersion in Fiber Optic Cable

Dr

Given:

Fiber length = 10 km

Dispersion coefficient (D) = 17 ps/nm/km

97
The total dispersion (Dtotal ) can be calculated as:

Dtotal = D × Fiber length

Dtotal = 17 × 10

Dtotal = 170 ps/nm

s
te
no
7. Calculation of Rise Time in Optical Pulse

NS
IO
Given:

AT
IC
Pulse duration = 100 ps

UN
M
The rise time (tr ) can be calculated as half of the pulse duration:
M
O
EC

Pulse duration
tr =
2
T EL
5:

100
40

tr =
2
R
EA

tr = 50 ps
’s
ria

8. Calculation of Loss Budget for Optical Link

ha
ac

Given:
.M
Dr

Fiber length = 20 km

Attenuation coefficient (α) = 0.3 dB/km

The loss budget (Lbudget ) can be calculated as the product of the attenuation coefficient and
the fiber length:
Lbudget = α × Fiber length

98
 Lbudget = 0.3 × 20

Lbudget = 6 dB

9. Calculation of Q-Factor in Optical Communication

Given:

s
te
no
Signal power = 0 dBm

NS
Noise power = −20 dBm

IO
AT
The Q-factor can be calculated using the formula:

IC
UN
Signal power − Noise power
Q=
Noise standard deviation
M
M
O

In optical communication, the noise standard deviation can be calculated using the formula:
EC
EL

1
σ=√
T

2 × Bandwidth
5:
40

10. Calculation of Maximum Reach of Optical Link

R
EA

Given:
’s
ria

Signal power = −10 dBm

ha
ac

Attenuation coefficient (α) = 0.2 dB/km

.M
Dr

To find the maximum reach of the optical link, we need to calculate the total attenuation
experienced over the link. This can be done using the formula:

Total attenuation = α × Fiber length

Once the total attenuation is known, it can be subtracted from the initial signal power to
find the power at the receiver. By setting a threshold for the minimum required power at the

99
receiver, the maximum reach of the link can be determined.

11. Calculation of Numerical Aperture

Given:

Refractive index of core (n1 ) = 1.50

Refractive index of cladding (n2 ) = 1.45

s
te
no
The numerical aperture (NA) can be calculated using the formula:

NS
IO
q
NA = n21 − n22

AT
IC
UN
√
1.502 − 1.452
NA =
M
M
√
O

NA = 2.25 − 2.1025
EC

√
EL

NA ≈ 0.1475
T

NA ≈ 0.384
5:
40
R

So, the numerical aperture is approximately 0.384.

EA
’s

12: Calculation of Critical Angle

ria
ha

Given:
ac
.M

Refractive index of core (n1 ) = 1.50

Dr

Refractive index of cladding (n2 ) = 1.45

The critical angle (θc ) can be calculated using Snell’s law:

n1 sin(θc ) = n2

100
 n2
sin(θc ) =
n1
1.45
sin(θc ) =
1.50

sin(θc ) ≈ 0.9667

Taking the inverse sine, we get:

θc ≈ sin−1 (0.9667)

s
te
no
θc ≈ 73.74◦

NS
IO
So, the critical angle is approximately 73.74◦ .

AT
IC
13: Calculation of Acceptance Angle

Given:
UN
M
M
O

Refractive index of core (n1 ) = 1.50

EC
EL

Refractive index of cladding (n2 ) = 1.45

T
5:

The acceptance angle (θa ) can be calculated using the formula:

40
R

NA
EA

sin(θa ) =
n1
’s
ria

From Example 1, we found NA ≈ 0.384. Substituting this value:

ha
ac

0.384
.M

sin(θa ) =
1.50
Dr

sin(θa ) ≈ 0.256

Taking the inverse sine, we get:

θa ≈ sin−1 (0.256)

θa ≈ 14.88◦

So, the acceptance angle is approximately 14.88◦ .

101
14: Calculation of Refractive Index of Cladding

Given:

Refractive index of core (n1 ) = 1.50

Acceptance angle (θa ) = 15◦

The refractive index of cladding (n2 ) can be calculated using the formula:

s
te
no
n2 = n1 sin(θa )

NS
IO
Substituting the given values:

AT
n2 = 1.50 × sin(15◦ )

IC
UN
n2 ≈ 1.50 × 0.2588
M
M
n2 ≈ 0.3882
O
EC

So, the refractive index of cladding is approximately 0.3882.

T EL
5:
40
R
EA
’s
ria
ha
ac
.M
Dr

102