(Kizilcec et al.

, 2016) Self-regulated learning (SRL) has been consistently

identified as a crucial factor influencing learner behavior and goal attainment
in online learning environments, particularly in Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs). Research shows that learners with strong SRL skills—such as goal
setting, strategic planning, time management, and self-monitoring—are more
capable of managing their learning process independently and are more
likely to achieve their personal learning goals in low-support environments
like MOOCs. Given the absence of structured schedules, direct instructor
guidance, and external pressure, MOOCs demand a high level of learner
autonomy, making SRL an essential determinant of success. Empirical
evidence from large-scale studies involving thousands of MOOC participants
indicates that specific SRL strategies, particularly goal setting and strategic
planning, positively predict course goal attainment, while other strategies
such as help-seeking may be associated with lower achievement, possibly
reflecting learners’ difficulties rather than effective regulation. Furthermore,
behavioral data reveal that learners with stronger SRL skills are more likely
to revisit previously studied materials, especially assessments, suggesting
deeper engagement and reflective learning practices. Studies also highlight
that SRL skills vary according to individual learner characteristics, including
prior experience, motivation, and demographics, underscoring the
heterogeneous nature of MOOC populations.

These findings emphasize the need for adaptive learning environments that
can identify learners with weaker SRL skills and provide targeted, non-
intrusive support to enhance learning outcomes. Overall, the literature
affirms that understanding SRL strategies and their behavioral
manifestations is fundamental to improving learner persistence,
engagement, and goal attainment in MOOCs and other self-directed online
learning contexts.

Recent studies show that metacognitive awareness plays an important role in

how learners work together during collaborative problem solving (Järvelä et
al., 2023). Instead of being only an individual skill, metacognitive awareness
also develops through interaction with group members and through
engagement with the learning environment (Çini et al., 2020). In
collaborative settings, learners must constantly think about their own
understanding, monitor group progress, and adjust strategies as tasks
become more complex. At the individual level, metacognitive awareness
involves learners’ ability to reflect on their confidence, track their progress,
and evaluate whether their strategies are effective during problem solving.
However, recent research suggests that individual awareness alone is not
enough to explain successful collaboration. In group tasks, social-level
metacognitive awareness becomes important, as learners share ideas,
question each other’s thinking, and regulate problem-solving strategies
together (Taub et al., 2021). Through discussion and feedback, group
members can identify misunderstandings and improve their shared
understanding of the task. Environmental-level metacognitive awareness is
also essential in collaborative learning, especially in technology-based tasks.
Learners must respond to the difficulty of the task, interpret feedback from
the system, and adjust their decisions across different stages of problem
solving (Järvelä et al., 2021). In complex simulations, these demands require
learners to stay aware of both their own thinking and the information
provided by the learning environment. Recent advances in learning analytics
have made it possible to observe metacognitive processes as they happen
during collaboration. Studies using facial expression recognition and other
real-time data show that learners’ emotions, such as confidence or
confusion, can reveal changes in metacognitive awareness during CPS
(Dindar et al., 2020a; Taub et al., 2021). These findings suggest that
thinking, emotion, and regulation are closely connected when learners work
together on challenging tasks.

Overall, research from the last decade highlights that metacognitive

awareness in collaborative problem solving operates at multiple levels:
individual, social, and environmental. Understanding how these levels
interact can help educators design learning environments that better support
group learning and improve students’ performance in higher education.

According to Vorhölter (2019) Recent studies highlight the importance of

metacognitive strategies in helping students solve complex problems,
especially when working in groups. In tasks such as mathematical modelling,
students must not only understand the problem but also plan how to
proceed, monitor their progress, and evaluate their solutions as a group.
Research shows that these metacognitive group strategies support goal-
oriented and effective problem solving over time. Intervention-based
research involving secondary school students has shown that metacognitive
strategies can be developed through structured learning activities. When
students worked collaboratively on multiple modelling problems over an
extended period, their use of metacognitive group strategies improved,
particularly in how they evaluated their group performance and solutions.
Analysis at both the individual and group levels revealed that a considerable
portion of students’ metacognitive behavior was influenced by group
dynamics rather than individual effort alone. This suggests that
metacognition in group problem solving is a shared process shaped by
interaction and collaboration. Furthermore, findings indicate that
metacognitive strategies can be organized into three main types: strategies
for planning how to proceed, strategies for regulating the problem-solving
process, and strategies for evaluating outcomes. While instructional
interventions were effective in strengthening evaluation strategies at the
group level, improvements were not consistently observed in planning and
regulation strategies. This implies that some aspects of metacognition may
be more responsive to instructional support than others, particularly those
related to reflection and evaluation after completing a task.

Overall, recent evidence suggests that metacognitive strategies in group

problem solving are multi-level in nature and strongly influenced by
collaborative processes. Strengthening students’ ability to evaluate their
work as a group appears especially important for improving performance in
complex problem-solving tasks, such as mathematical modelling.

(Akcaôglu, 2023) Recent studies highlight metacognitive awareness as

a central process that connects critical thinking and self-regulation in
learning. While critical thinking involves analyzing situations,
considering alternatives, and making informed decisions, these skills
become more effective when learners are aware of how they think and
learn (Alsaleh, 2020). Metacognitive awareness allows students to
recognize their strengths and weaknesses, monitor their
understanding, and reflect on the strategies they use when solving
problems. Metacognitive awareness plays an important role in
transforming critical thinking into purposeful learning actions. Students
who are metacognitively aware can evaluate whether their reasoning is
logical, check the accuracy of their conclusions, and decide when to
adjust their strategies. Without this awareness, critical thinking may
remain theoretical and may not lead to effective learning behaviors.
Thus, metacognitive awareness helps learners apply critical thinking
 skills in a more controlled and goal-directed manner. In relation to self-
regulation, metacognitive awareness supports learners in planning,
monitoring, and evaluating their learning processes. When students
are aware of their thinking, they are better able to regulate their
actions, manage their time, and stay focused on learning goals. This
suggests that metacognitive awareness serves as a bridge between
critical thinking and self-regulation, enabling learners to turn thoughtful
analysis into deliberate and effective learning strategies (Petek &
Bedir, 2018).

Overall, recent literature emphasizes that metacognitive awareness is

not merely a supporting skill but a key mechanism that strengthens
both critical thinking and self-regulation. By becoming more aware of
how they think and learn, students are more likely to engage in
reflective judgment, make better decisions, and regulate their learning
more effectively. This highlights the importance of fostering
metacognitive awareness in educational settings to improve higher-
order thinking and self-directed learning outcomes.

(Pereles et al., 2024) Online learning environments require learners to take

greater control of how they study, think, and reflect. One way to support this
control is through the use of metacognitive strategies, which help learners
plan their learning, monitor their understanding, and evaluate their progress.
Evidence from intervention studies shows that when these strategies are
deliberately supported through digital tools, learners’ critical thinking skills
can improve significantly. In a study involving trainee teachers enrolled in
online master’s programs, a digital tool designed to support metacognitive
self-regulation was used over an academic term. Learners who actively used
the tool showed clear improvement in different dimensions of critical
thinking, including both substantive and dialogic thinking, as well as related
skills such as reading, writing, and speaking. These gains suggest that
metacognitive strategies do not only support learning management but also
deepen how learners analyze, reflect, and communicate ideas. The structure
of the intervention highlights the role of metacognitive awareness in learning
improvement. Rather than focusing only on content, students were guided to
reflect on how they learn, how they check their understanding, and how they
prepare for assessments. Over time, this awareness allowed learners to
become more intentional in their learning decisions. Those who did not use
the metacognitive tool showed weaker improvement, indicating that critical
thinking does not automatically develop without structured support for
reflection and self-monitoring.

Statistical analyses further confirmed that the improvements in critical

thinking were linked to the use of metacognitive strategies rather than prior
ability alone. By controlling for pre-test results, the study demonstrated that
learners’ growth in critical thinking was associated with their engagement in
metacognitive self-regulation during the course. This finding strengthens the
idea that metacognitive awareness plays a key role in transforming learning
activities into meaningful thinking processes.

Taken together, these findings suggest that metacognitive strategies act as a

foundation for developing critical thinking in online learning. When learners
are guided to reflect on their thinking, evaluate their learning strategies, and
adjust their approach, they become more capable of engaging in deeper and
more critical forms of learning. This highlights the importance of integrating
metacognitive supports into online education to enhance both self-regulated
learning and critical thinking outcomes.

(Wu et al., 2020) Metacognitive awareness plays an important role in how

students think, reflect, and regulate their learning during collaborative tasks.
Research shows that when learners are aware of their goals, thinking
processes, and learning context, they are better able to manage their actions
and make sense of complex learning situations. In collaborative learning,
students often reflect on what they are trying to achieve, indicating that goal
awareness is a central part of metacognitive awareness and a foundation for
higher-order thinking.

Differences in students’ metacognitive patterns suggest that stronger

metacognitive awareness is linked to more effective thinking behaviors.
High-performing students tend to focus more on metacognitive actions such
as planning, monitoring, and adjusting strategies, which are closely related
to critical thinking skills like analysis and decision-making. In contrast, lower-
performing students focus more on understanding the context and their prior
knowledge but show less engagement in active regulation of their thinking.
This indicates that metacognitive awareness supports students in moving
beyond understanding information toward critically evaluating and using it.

Emotional aspects of learning also emerge as an important part of

metacognitive awareness. Students’ reflections show that feelings,
experiences, and situational factors influence how they engage in
collaborative learning. These emotional experiences shape how students
interpret tasks, respond to challenges, and regulate their learning behavior.
This connection suggests that emotional regulation works alongside
metacognitive awareness by helping students manage frustration, maintain
focus, and persist in problem-solving tasks, all of which are essential for
critical thinking.

Overall, this literature suggests that metacognitive awareness and emotional

regulation jointly support the development of critical thinking skills. When
students are aware of their thinking and able to regulate their emotions
during learning, they are more capable of planning, evaluating information,
and making thoughtful decisions. These findings support the idea that
fostering both metacognitive awareness and emotional regulation is
important for enhancing critical thinking skills among students, including
those at the junior high school level.

Garrison & Akyol (2015) emphasized that “metacognition is a required

cognitive ability to achieve deep and meaningful learning that must be
viewed from both an individual and social perspective” (p. 66). This
perspective highlights that students’ awareness of their thinking does not
develop in isolation but is shaped through interaction, reflection, and shared
regulation in collaborative learning environments. Understanding
metacognition as both self-regulated and socially constructed provides a
strong foundation for examining how students develop higher-order thinking
skills.

Building on this view, Zion et al. (2015) examined how individual and social
metacognitive support influence students’ metacognitive performance in
online discussions. Their findings showed that individual metacognitive
support helped students monitor and regulate their own thinking, while social
metacognitive support encouraged students to engage with peers’ ideas and
participate more actively in collaborative learning. This suggests that
metacognitive awareness is strengthened when learners are guided to reflect
on their own thinking while also responding to others, supporting deeper
understanding and reasoning. Differences in metacognitive awareness
among learners are further explained by studies that examine students’
reflective patterns during collaboration. Using epistemic network analysis,
Wu et al. (2020) found that students’ metacognitive awareness varied based
on performance level and learning context. High-performing students
showed stronger connections between planning, monitoring, and action,
while lower-performing students focused more on knowledge and situational
context. These findings suggest that students who actively regulate their
thinking are better positioned to engage in critical thinking processes such as
analysis, evaluation, and decision-making.

Taken together, these studies suggest that metacognitive awareness

develops through both individual reflection and social interaction, and it is
closely linked with learners’ ability to regulate emotions and thinking during
learning tasks. This supports the idea that metacognitive awareness and
emotional regulation work together to strengthen critical thinking skills. Such
findings provide a strong basis for examining how these factors jointly
predict critical thinking skills among Grade 10 students.

Mevarech et al. (2015) examined how individual and social metacognitive

support influences students’ metacognitive performance in an online
collaborative learning environment. Their study showed that when students
were provided with individual metacognitive support, they became better at
monitoring and regulating their own thinking during online discussions. This
form of support helped learners become more aware of how they plan,
understand, and evaluate their ideas, which are essential components of
metacognitive awareness. In addition, the study found that social
metacognitive support played a different but equally important role. Social
support encouraged students to engage more deeply with their peers’ ideas
and to take part in shared learning processes. Through interaction and
collaboration, students were able to reflect not only on their own thinking but
also on the thinking of others. This social regulation of learning supports
deeper reasoning and promotes skills related to critical thinking, such as
evaluating different perspectives and making informed judgments. The
findings suggest that metacognitive awareness develops most effectively
when both individual reflection and social interaction are present. When
students are guided to think about their own learning while also responding
to peers, they are more likely to engage in meaningful discussion and
sustained problem-solving. Such environments also help students manage
challenges and maintain engagement, indicating a link between
metacognitive awareness and emotional regulation during learning activities.

Overall, this study supports the idea that individual and social metacognitive
support strengthens students’ awareness of their thinking and their ability to
regulate learning in collaborative settings. These processes are important
foundations for the development of critical thinking skills, making this
literature relevant for understanding how metacognitive awareness and
emotional regulation can jointly influence students’ critical thinking
performance.

(Molenaar et al., 2016) examined how metacognitive scaffolding supports

students’ thinking during collaborative learning. Their study showed that
when learners receive structured guidance that prompts them to question,
explain, and reflect during group work, they engage more actively in shared
metacognitive processes. Rather than ignoring each other’s ideas, students
were more likely to co-construct understanding by discussing strategies,
evaluating decisions, and monitoring group progress together. The findings
highlight that metacognitive awareness is strengthened when students are
encouraged to reflect not only on their own thinking but also on the thinking
of their peers. Groups that received problematizing scaffolds—those that
challenged students to think deeper rather than simply follow steps—showed
higher levels of shared and co-constructed metacognitive interaction. This
type of interaction supports critical thinking by requiring students to analyze
ideas, justify reasoning, and consider alternative solutions during
collaboration. Participation in social metacognitive interaction was also found
to be related to students’ metacognitive knowledge. Students who actively
engaged in shared reflection and discussion developed a better
understanding of how to think about and regulate their learning. These
processes are important for managing challenges during learning, suggesting
a link between metacognitive awareness and emotional regulation,
especially when students encounter difficulty or disagreement in group
tasks.
Overall, this study suggests that metacognitive scaffolding in collaborative
learning environments helps students become more aware of their thinking,
regulate their learning behavior, and engage in deeper reasoning. Such
conditions support the development of critical thinking skills, reinforcing the
idea that metacognitive awareness—supported through interaction and
reflection—plays an important role in students’ ability to think critically and
manage learning demands.

(Smith & Mancy, 2018) explored how metacognitive talk develops during
group problem-solving and how it is shaped by collaboration. Their study
showed that metacognitive awareness does not occur only within individual
students but emerges through interaction and dialogue among group
members. During group mathematical problem-solving, students’
metacognitive talk—such as explaining strategies, monitoring understanding,
and evaluating solutions—was closely connected to collaborative talk,
including sharing ideas and responding to peers.

The findings revealed that metacognitive talk was more likely than purely
cognitive talk to occur within collaborative exchanges. In many cases,
metacognitive statements were both preceded and followed by collaborative
talk, suggesting that interaction with peers encourages students to reflect
more deeply on their thinking. This process supports critical thinking by
prompting students to justify reasoning, evaluate approaches, and reconsider
decisions during problem-solving tasks.

The study also highlights that collaborative metacognition results from the
combination of individual reflection and group interaction. As students
engage with others, they become more aware of their own thinking while
also responding to different perspectives. Managing these interactions
requires students to regulate emotions such as confusion, disagreement, or
uncertainty, indicating that emotional regulation supports the effective use
of metacognitive awareness in group settings.

Overall, this research suggests that metacognitive awareness is

strengthened through collaborative dialogue and plays an important role in
developing critical thinking skills. When students are able to reflect on their
thinking, communicate ideas clearly, and manage emotional responses
during collaboration, they are more likely to engage in higher-order thinking.
These findings support the idea that metacognitive awareness and emotional
regulation work together to influence students’ critical thinking performance.