OBE-Based

SPECIALIZED
CRIME
INVESTIGATION
W/ LEGAL

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Specialized Crime
Investigation
w/ Legal Medicine
A Course Module for Students

Burauen Community College

Written and Designed by

AIZA E. MINALABAG, RCRIM
minalabagaestrella@[Link]

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 BCC VISION
Burauen Community College shall emerge
as the premier local public educational institution
in Eastern Visayas which is responsive to the
needs of the community, and develops students to
meet the economic, social, and environmental
challenges as active participants in shaping the
world of the future.

BCC MISSION
Burauen Community College offers holistic,
and outcomes-based experiential learning to
develop the youth to be responsible individuals
with integrity and service as agents of equality. It
will serve as a venue for the development of
individuals in the areas of academics, research,
community extension, and innovative technology.

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 Specialized Crime Investigation
with Legal Medicine
A Course Module for Students

Burauen Community College

Printed in Burauen, Leyte

© 2023

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication All rights are reserved. No part of
this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
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without prior permission of the institution.

This module contains information obtained from highly regarded resources. A wide
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For students who want to purchase additional copies of this module, you may
send your request to locallcollegebcc@[Link] or you may visit the institution
for an in-person request.

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MIDTERM MODULE

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 Preface
SPCI W/ LEGAL MEDICINE MIDTERM

The application of legal medicine in criminal investigation with emphasis on

the medico legal aspects of physical injuries, death, abortion, burns, poisoning and
other medico legal cases plays a crucial part in proving innocence or guilt in the
court of law or in emerging facts that may arrive that a certain death are of natural
causes. Therefore, a thorough, complete and methodical investigation and
examinations are broad ingredients to resolve a case specially those complex and
difficult in nature categorized as special crimes. Furthermore, in the process of
identifying and determining the manner of suspicious and violent deaths the
burden lies in the hands of medical experts. Applying their medical knowledge
especially in conducting postmortem examinations and autopsies, it help
elucidating uncertain conclusion whether deaths are homicidal, suicidal accidental
or natural.
All throughout, this course module will give an adequate knowledge to
the students both in theoretical and practical aspects of special crimes that applies
the concept of Legal medicine. First, they will learn different medico legal aspects
of death, signs and changes that happens to a human body after death, the
manner and causes of death and the special cases that require broad
understanding due to it complexities. In addition, the students will also learn the
different classification of Physical injuries including the classification of wounds;
gunshot wound, stab wounds. The degree of Burns, the symptoms of poisons and
drowning was also discussed.
At the end of this module, the students will be given test to challenge
their learnings and to measure their ability to reason out their perception through
an interpretive assessment and a reflective essay.

UNIT II
POST MORTEM CHANGES
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WHAT ARE POSTMORTEM CHANGES?

Postmortem changes refer to the various processes that occur in a human

body after death. These complex biologic processes are progressive after death
unless a body is frozen or embalmed. Changes in environmental temperature may
change the rate but not the underlying biological mechanism of postmortem
changes.
Postmortem changes are important in estimating the time of death or
postmortem interval. When it is used in connection with the history, terminal
events, and scene findings in death investigation the forensic pathologist can have
a point of reference regarding the postmortem interval. However, to arrive an
accurate estimation is very difficult to attain. Many variables can influence the rate
and extent of these alterations to the body, and so it is simply not possible to
reliably estimate an accurate time of death based on these changes alone.
Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors can accelerate or decelerate the onset
and extent of postmortem changes as enumerated below (Diangson 2015).

Acceleration of onset and extent postmortem changes may be affected by several

factors.
a. Death occurred in a hot and moist environment or in high ambient
temperature.
b. Subject was overweight/has a high fat content
c. Subject suffered/ died from underlying infection or sepsis.
d. Subject was intoxicated (ex; with illicit drugs such as heroin)
e. Subject suffered/ died from open wounds (perforating/penetrating
traumatic injuries such as stab wounds, gunshot wounds, impalement
injuries) or during surgical procedures.
f. Body surface was insulated by warm clothing or other covering
g. Considerable time interval elapsed after death until artificial cooling of the
body.
Meanwhile, the deceleration of onset and extent of postmortem changes may be
due to the following.
a. Death occurred in a cool(cold), dry environment or under low ambient
temperature.
b. Subject was scantily dressed, naked or undressed shortly after death.
c. The subject was stored in a cooling apparatus shortly after death.

STAGES OF POSTMORTEM CHANGES

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1. Stage of Primary Flaccidity – it is a state of muscular change after death

characterized by the relaxation of the muscle and loss of their natural tone, so the
jaw or head drops down and the thorax collapses and the limbs become flaccid,
and splinters relaxed. This is the reason why dead person still urinate, defecate and
excrete waste products of metabolism.

2. Algor Mortis – (body cooling) this refers to the normal cooling of the body after
death as the result of equilibration of the body with the ambient temperature.
After death, the body temperature tends to approximate that of its
surrounding and this usually involves cooling. However, several conditions could
affect in the warming of a dead body such as when it is left dead under a direct
sunlight.
Usually, it is difficult to determine the victim’s body temperature at the time
of death. Several factors could have influenced the body temperature to make it
higher or lower than the normal, such as physical activity, infectious disease
(pneumonia, sepsis), emotional stress, administrations of medications,
intoxications with illicit drugs, heat strokes and hypothermia. The lowering of the
body temperature is one of the earliest signs of death. The rate of fall of the body
temperature is most rapid in the first four hours after death until it reaches the
temperature of a living person which is 37 degrees Celsius or 98.3 degrees
Fahrenheit but upon death the temperature gradually decreases, and the fall of 15
to 20 degrees Fahrenheit is considered as death of the body.

In some cases, there are instances that temperature of the cadaver may
arise instead of cooling which is termed as postmortem caloricity, this is because of
different factors mentioned below;

POSTMORTEM CALORICITY – it is the increase of temperature of the body

after death due to rapid and early putrefactive changes or some internal changes
for the first two hours
 Cholera
 Yellow fever
 Liver abscess
 Peritonitis – infection of the inner lining or the thin tissues of the
abdomen.
 Cerebro-spinal fever
 Rheumatic fever
 Tetanus
 Smallpox
 Strychnine poisoning
Factors based on the body constitution

a. Factors that delay the body cooling

 Acute pyrexial disease
 Sudden death in good health
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 Obesity of person
 Death from asphyxia
 Death of the middle age
b. Factors that accelerate the body cooling
 Leanness of the body
 Extreme age
 Long standing or lingering illness
 Chronic pyrexial disease associated with wasting

Factors based on the condition of the surrounding

a. Factors delaying body cooling

 clothing’s
 small room
 warm or hot surroundings
b. Factors accelerating body cooling
 Unclothed body
 large room permitting the dissipation of heat
 cooling more rapid in water than in air

3. Livor mortis (postmortem lividity or hypostasis) – this refers to the settling

of blood to the dependent parts of the body following death. It is visible as a
usually blue violet or dark purple discoloration appearing on the lower (dependent)
parts of the body within 20 to 30 or an hour minutes after death.
It became more readily seen at 6 to 8 hours and becomes fixed and fully developed
around 18 to 24 hours. (Diangson 2015).
Livor mortis begins to develop after the heart stops beating and the blood
stops circulating. The red blood cells drain and settles to the most dependent
vessels under the effect of gravity (those closest to the ground) and becomes
deoxygenated then discoloration of the skin appears.
Note: Mostly dead bodies lying in a face up position postmortem lividity is
observed on the back, it appers as to where it is close or in contact with the
ground.
Usually, livor mortis is absent in some pressure points such as the skin over
the scapulae and the buttocks if the body is lying in a supine position, or on skin
with surface pressure such as tight clothing or belt. This is also unnoticeable in
dark skin bodies, and if the person suffers a large amount loss of blood before
death, this may not also be seen in drowning bodies.
Within minutes after death a finger pressure can be apply to the dead body
to remove the discoloration but once the finger was removed the discoloration will
again be visible. When the lividity become fixed and fully develo ped pressure may
no longer be possible.
Example: if a dead body was found lying on its back but with fixed lividity on the
front of the body, the examiner and investigator may conclude that the body has
been turned sometimes.

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The color of livor mortis can sometimes be useful in determining the cause of
death. This is because the red blood cells in the body that have given up their
oxygen usually have a reddish color in the early phase of their formation. When
fully developed the normal color appears to be blue violet or purple.
 Red or pink lividity can be the result of exposure to cold, fatal,
hypothermia, carbon monoxide or cyanide poisoning.
 brown lividity is usually associated with poisoning with nitrates,
nitrites, or sodium chloride.
 and green lividity is usually a sign of decomposition.

2 KINDS OF LIVOR MORTIS

HYPOSTATIC LIVIDITY – The blood gravitates into the most dependent portion
of the body but still in the blood vessel and still in fluid form.
DIFFUSED LIVIDITY – This appears in the later stage of its formation when the
blood has coagulated inside the blood vessels and diffused into the tissues of
the body. Change in position will not change the location of the lividity.

4. Rigor mortis (post- mortem rigidity or cadaveric rigidity)

Refers to the progressive stiffening of muscles after death due to chemical
changes within the muscle’s fibers.
 Disappearance of adenosine triphosphate from the muscle – ATP –
captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food
molecules and release it to fuel other cellular
 Due to buildup of lactic acid – a chemical produce when the
body breakdown the glucose and carbohydrates. If a person died
this lactic acid easily build up on the muscle tissues and will not

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be distributed all throughout causing the body to to become stiff

and immobile.
It usually begins after death, but it is not readily detected until hours later. It
ordinarily makes its first appearance 2 to 4 hours after death.
 The very peak is at 12 hours.
It starts first in the muscle eyelids, the back of neck and the lower jaw, the
front of the neck, at the face, chest and upper extremities, and then progress in the

abdomen and lower extremities. The stiffness’ which develops in the muscle of the
body after death depend upon the postmortem chemical changes affecting the
glycogen and constituent of the muscle cytoplasm. For a short time after death, the
reaction of the muscle protoplasm is alkaline and as long as this condition ordure
the skeletal muscle remains flexible. In most cases, the reaction changes from
alkaline to acid from 2 – 6 hours postmortem because of the conversion of
glycogen and other substances to sarcolactic and phosphoric acid. The process is
completed in 2 – 6 hours this stiffness last from 12- 32 hours.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ONSET OF LIVOR MORTIS

1. INTERNAL FACTORS
 State of the muscles
 Age
 Integrity of the nerves
2. EXTERNAL FACTORS
 Temperature
 Moisture

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Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis

A. Heat stiffening – a condition characterized by hardening of the muscle

due to congelation of muscle protein when the dead body is exposed to
intense heat as by burning or immersion in a hot water or liquid.

B. Cold stiffening – a condition characterized by hardening of the muscle

due to solidification of fats, muscle, and fluid when the dead body is
exposed to extremely cold temperature but when the body is exposed to
warm it disappears.
C. Cadaveric Spasm or Spontaneous rigidity – it is the instantaneous
rigidity of a certain group of muscles which occurs immediately at the
moment after death, it is associated with violent deaths in circumstances
of intense emotions or extreme nervous tension and is therefore
considered as a significant forensic record of the last act of life.

5. Stage of Secondary Flaccidity

A muscular change characterized by the softness and flaccidity of the
muscles in which no longer response to electrical or mechanical stimuli due to
dissolution of the muscle proteins that have been previously coagulated during the
stage of rigor mortis. This stage is the onset of putrefaction.

a. Desiccation – refers to the postmortem drying that occurs prominently on

mucous membranes. It happens when those areas protected from drying in life are
no longer protected. The dry ing of mucous membrane results in a dark red to
black discoloration that may looked like burned and could be misinterpreted as
injury or cyanosis.
b. Decomposition – is a sequence of physiochemical events that begin with death
and ends with dissolution of non-skeletal parts of the body. The epidermis
separates or become detached from the membrane and slipped off from the body.
After, the bacteria in the blood and in the body caused the gas production resulting
of distension and bloating of the body. Decomposition usually varies at different
point because of different factors that affects its changes. Decomposition has two
components: the autolysis and putrefaction. In several books and literature's
this are used similarly but what makes a difference in these two terms is that
bacterial process plays no role in the development autolytic changes.

AUTOLYTIC OR AUTODIGESTIVE CHANGES AFTER DEATH

After death proteolytic (breakdown proteins into smaller single amino

acids), glycolytic (glycolysis – convert glucose into pyruvate-enzyme), lipolytic
(lipolysis-breaking down lipids – fatty compounds that perform a variety of
functions in our body ferments of granular tissues continue to act which lead to the
autodigestion of organs

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A. Autolysis – refers to the process in which digestive enzymes breakdown into

complex proteins and carbohydrates in simpler compound.
 During life this digestive enzyme only acts on foods but after death it
will breakdown surrounding tissues.
 Autolysis develops faster in warm or ambient environment than in
cool or cold surroundings.
 Skin slippage or postmortem blistering is a sign of autolysis.
 This is also seen in the maceration of the dead fetus inside the
uterus. The stomach may be perforated, granular tissues become soft
after death due to auto digestion and the action of autolytic Enzyme.
B. Putrefaction – It is the decomposition of the body carried out by the
microbial action. It is the process of dissolution or breaking down of dead
tissues by the digestion action of its enzyme and bacteria that results to
softening or liquefaction of tissues, this is usually accompanied by the
liberation of foul-smelling gases and change of the color of the tissues.

TISSUE CHANGES DURING PUTREFACTION

1. Changes in the color of the tissues – hemolysis of the blood a few hours
after death within the blood vessel as a result hemoglobin is liberated.
Hemoglobin diffuses through the walls of the blood vessels and stain the
surrounding tissue thereby imparting a reddish or brown tissue. While in
tissues, hemoglobin undergoes chemical changes. Because of these change
the tissue gradually change into greenish yellow, greenish blue or greenish
black color.
2. Evolution of the gases in the tissues – one of the products of
putrefaction is the evolution of gases.
 Carbon dioxide
 ammonia (NH3)hydrogen, sulphurated hydrogen methane gases
 methyl mercaptans
The formation of gases causes the distention and bloating of the body. Gases
are formed in the subcutaneous tissue face and neck causing the swelling of the
body. Small bubbles are found in a solid visceral organ it gave rise to foamy
appearance of this organ.

 EFFECT OF THE PRESSURE OF GASES IN PUTREFACTION

a. Displacement of the blood
b. Bloating of the body
c. Fluid coming out from both nostrils and mouth- froth (bubbles or
foam)
d. Floating of the body
e. Liquefaction of Soft Tissue

FACTORS MODIFYING THE RATE OF PUTREFACTION

EXTERNAL FACTORS

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a. Environment – the rate of putrefaction increases with the increase of

temperature. The optimum Temperature 21 to 38 degrees while it stops
below 0 degrees or above 48 degrees
b. Moisture – if the body is submerged in water or is not exposed to air the
putrefaction process slows down. Moisture and air help in the
development of microbes hence speeding up degradation
c. Light – light inhibits putrefaction process. The insect prefers to lay eggs
inn dark areas. Therefore, the areas expos ed to light decay slowly
compare to areas exposed to dark
d. Soil – dry absorbent soil retard decomposition while wet fertile soil
accelerates decomposition.
e. Water- cadaver in a running water decomposed earlier than in still
water.

INTERNAL FACTORS
a. Age – healthy adults decompose later than younger persons.
b. Condition of the body - obese person decomposed rapidly than
thinner or lean one. This is because fats retain more heat and carries
more fluid to the body.
c. Cause of death – bodies died due to infection decomposed early
compare to a body who did not die due to microorganism
d. External injuries – injuries of the body before death or during
postmortem are more prone to bacterial invasion and hence would
accelerate the putrefaction process.

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Formation of adipocere during decomposition process is also observable as

early as few weeks. Adipocere or “grave wax or corpse wax” – it is the formation
of a soft friable, brownish or yellowish white greasy wax like substance which is
friable when dry it is also formed by hydrolysis and dehydrogenation of body fats.
Adipocere formation is also known as saponification. Depending on the
environmental condition, adiopocere formation may be observed as early as few
weeks. It starts early in body areas where there is more fat such as cheeks,

buttocks, and female breast. It is also more frequently seen in females, the well-
nourished and the obese than those individuals with lower adipose tissue content
such as underweight and malnourished.
Note: adipocere is found or seen most often on corpses that have decomposed
without having been exposed to air. examples: buried human remains or
submerged in water for a long period of time.

Maceration may also be formed during autolyctic process, it is the condition of

dead body, usually the fetus, characterized by the softening and discoloration of
the tissues as well as the formation of blisters in the skin due to the action of
autolytic or proteolytic enzymes.

Methods that Delays Decomposition

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a. Mummification – it is a condition where removal of body fluid before

decomposition sets in that resulted to sinking and preservation of the body. It is
a product of desiccation or the drying up process of soft [Link] is therefore a
modification of putrefaction characterized by the dehydration or desiccation of
tissues (Diangson, 2015). The body retain its natural shape and the facial
features are preserved, but the skin become firm, parchment - like and leathery
though often turning to yellow – brown to black.
 Natural mummification – usually occurs under dry conditions, usually
in hot dry environment life in desert. However, it also occurs in bodies
located in frozen environments.
 Artificial mummification – or embalming is a form of
mummification which preserves the body by addition of some chemicals like
formalin, alcohol, phenol, mercury and arsenic and covering the skin with
plaster of paris.

Embalming - the art and science of preserving human remains by treating

them to forestall decomposition. This is usually done to make the deceased
suitable for public or private viewing as part of a funeral ceremony to keep also
preserved for medical purposed in an anatomical laboratory.

Sequence of Events in Putrefaction of dead body in Tropical Country

1. After 1 – 2 days (24 – 48 hours) –Rigor mortis is absent, putrefaction
changes, muscle become soft and flaccid. Greenish discoloration over the
abdomen. Some veins beneath the skin seen as interlacing purplish brown
network over the shoulder, chest and abdomen known as marbolization.
2. 3rd day (72 hours) – abdomen distended with gases, trunk bloated, hair
and nail loosened from its attachment. Blister formation appears. Face
grossly swollen and discolored, and maggots seen.
3. 1 week (7 days) – further bloating of the body and discoloration of the
skin. Bursting of Blisters and denudation of the skin. Soft tissue continues
to putrefy.
4. 2 weeks (14 days) – total detachment of all hairs and nails from its
attachment. Bursting of the thorax and abdomen. Further dissolution of
more resistant viscera.
5. 1 month (Body completely skeletonized) – the speed in which the process
s of destruction occurs depends on whether the body ids decaying in air,
water or under the earth.
6. Changes in the hair – the rate of growth of hair loss has been estimated
from 0.4 mm – 0.5 mm/ day.
7. Changes in the urinary bladder – the amount of urine in the bladder may
indicate the time of death when taken into consideration the time when
persons urinate or evacuate his urinary bladder.
8. State of clothing – if the dead person is well dressed it is more likely that
death occurs in daytime but wearing pajamas or night gown it is possible
that death occurs at night and probably at home.
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9. Presence and absence of Fleas in the clothing of the dead pers on in water
– if fleas in a clothing of a dead person are still alive, then the person has
been in water less than 24 hours. Survival of the fleas is not possible if
they are in the water for more than 24 hours.

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