2.

Analysis
a) The method of solutions to solve the problem can be identified.
b) We also judge that which method gives best results among different methods of solution.

3. Design
a) Algorithms and flow charts will be prepared.
b) Focus on data, architecture, user interfaces and program components.

4. System Test
The algorithms and flow charts developed in the previous steps are converted into actual
programs in the high level languages like C.

a. Compilation
The process of translating the program into machine code is called as Compilation. Syntactic
errors are found quickly at the time of compiling the program. These errors occur due to the
usage of wrong syntaxes for the statements.
Eg: x=a*y+b
There is a syntax error in this statement, since, each and every statement in C language ends with
a semicolon (;).

b. Execution
The next step is Program execution. In this phase, we may encounter two types of errors.
Runtime Errors: these errors occur during the execution of the program and terminate the
program abnormally.
Logical Errors: these errors occur due to incorrect usage of the instructions in the program. These
errors are neither detected during compilation or execution nor cause any stoppage to the
program execution but produces incorrect output.

5. Maintenance
We are maintenance the software by updating the information, providing the security and license
for the software.

What is C?
C is a programming language developed at AT & T‟s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It
was designed and written by Dennis Ritche. Dennis Ritchie is known as the founder of c
language.

It was developed to overcome the problems of previous languages such as B, BCPL etc.

Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX operating system.

Features of C
1. Portability or machine independent
C PROGRAMMING Page 16
 2. Sound and versatile language
3. Fast program execution.
4. An extendible language.
5. Tends to be a structured language.
Historical developments of C(Background)
Year Language Developed by Remarks

1960 ALGOL International committee Too general, too abstract

1967 BCPL Martin Richards at Could deal with only specific

Cambridge university problems

1970 B Ken Thompson at AT & Could deal with only specific

T problems

1972 C Dennis Ritche at AT & T Lost generality of BCPL and B

restored

General Structure of a C program:

/* Documentation section */
/* Link section */
/* Definition section */
/* Global declaration section */
main()
{
Declaration part
Executable part (statements)
}
/* Sub-program section */

The documentation section is used for displaying any information about the
program like the purpose of the program, name of the author, date and time written
etc, and this section should be enclosed within comment lines. The statements in
the documentation section are ignored by the compiler.
The link section consists of the inclusion of header files.

C PROGRAMMING Page 17
 The definition section consists of macro definitions, defining constants etc,.
Anything declared in the global declaration section is accessible throughout
the program, i.e. accessible to all the functions in the program.
main() function is mandatory for any program and it includes two parts, the
declaration part and the executable part.

The last section, i.e. sub-program section is optional and used when we require
including user defined functions in the program.

First C Program
Before starting the abcd of C language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run the first
c program.

To write the first c program, open the C console and write the following code:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. printf("Hello C Language");
5. getch();
6. }

#include <stdio.h> includes the standard input output library functions. The printf() function
is defined in stdio.h .

#include <conio.h> includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is
defined in conio.h file.

void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in c language. The void
keyword specifies that it returns no value.

printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.

getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it blocks the
screen.

C TOKENS: The smallest individual units are known as tokens. C has six types of tokens.
1: Identifiers

C PROGRAMMING Page 18
 2: Keywords

3: Constants

4: Strings

5: Special Symbols

6: Operators

Identifiers:
Identifiers refer to the names of variables, constants, functions and arrays. These are user-defined
names is called Identifiers. These identifier are defined against a set of rules.
Rules for an Identifier
1. An Identifier can only have alphanumeric characters( a-z , A-Z , 0-9 ) and underscore( _
).

2. The first character of an identifier can only contain alphabet( a-z , A-Z ) or underscore ( _
).

3. Identifiers are also case sensitive in C. For example name and Name are two different
identifier in C.

4. Keywords are not allowed to be used as Identifiers.

5. No special characters, such as semicolon, period, whitespaces, slash or comma are

permitted to be used in or as Identifier.

6. C‟ compiler recognizes only the first 31 characters of an identifiers.

Ex : Valid Invalid

STDNAME Return

SUB $stay

TOT_MARKS 1RECORD

_TEMP STD NAME.

Y2K

C PROGRAMMING Page 19
Keywords: A keyword is a reserved word. All keywords have fixed meaning that means we
cannot change. Keywords serve as basic building blocks for program statements. All keywords
must be written in lowercase. A list of 32 keywords in c language is given below:

auto break case char

const continue default do

double enum else extern

float for goto if

int long return register

signed short static sizeof

struct switch typedef union

unsigned void volatile while

Note: Keywords we cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.

Data Types/Types:
 To store data the program must reserve space which is done using datatype. A datatype is a
keyword/predefined instruction used for allocating memory for data. A data type specifies
the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating, character etc . It used for
declaring/defining variables or functions of different types before to use in a program.

There are 4 types of data types in C language.

C PROGRAMMING Page 20
 Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

Note: We call Basic or Primary data type.

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both signed
and unsigned literals. The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system. Let‟s see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit
architecture.

Size and Ranges of Data Types with Type Qualifiers

Type Size (bytes) Range Control String

char or signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c

unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c

C PROGRAMMING Page 21
 int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767 %d or %i

unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u

short int or signed short 1 -128 to 127 %d or %i

int

unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 %d or %i

long int or signed long 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647 %ld

int

unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu

float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 %f or %g

double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 %lf

long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 %Lf

Variables
A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Variables are changeable,
we can change value of a variable during execution of a program. . It can be reused many
times.

Note: Variable are nothing but identifiers.

Rules to write variable names:

1. A variable name contains maximum of 30 characters/ Variable
name must be upto 8 characters.
2. A variable name includes alphabets and numbers, but it must start
with an alphabet.
3. It cannot accept any special characters, blank spaces except under
score( _ ).
4. It should not be a reserved word.

Ex : i rank1 MAX min Student_name

StudentName class_mark

C PROGRAMMING Page 22
Declaration of Variables : A variable can be used to store a value of any data type. The
declaration of variables must be done before they are used in the program. The general format
for declaring a variable.

Syntax : data_type variable-1,variable-2,------, variable-n;

Variables are separated by commas and declaration statement ends with a semicolon.

Ex : int x,y,z;
float a,b;
char m,n;

Assigning values to variables : values can be assigned to variables using the assignment
operator (=). The general format statement is :

Syntax : variable = constant;

Ex : x=100;
a= 12.25;
m=‟f‟;

we can also assign a value to a variable at the time of the variable is declared. The general format
of declaring and assigning value to a variable is :

Syntax : data_type variable = constant;

Ex ; int x=100;
float a=12.25;
char m=‟f‟;

Types of Variables in C

There are many types of variables in c:

1. local variable
2. global variable
3. static variable

Constants
Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.

Note: constants are also called literals.

C PROGRAMMING Page 23
 C supports several kinds of constants.

CONSTANTS

Numeric Constants Character Constants

Integer Constants Real Constants Single Character Constants String Constants

TYPES OF C CONSTANT:
1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Character constants
4. String constants
5. Backslash character constants

Integer constants:
An integer constant is a numeric constant (associated with number) without any fractional or
exponential part. There are three types of integer constants in C programming:

 decimal constant(base 10)

 octal constant(base 8)
 hexadecimal constant(base 16)

For example:

 Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc

 Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc
 Hexadecimal constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc

 In C programming, octal constant starts with a 0 and hexadecimal constant starts with a
0x.

C PROGRAMMING Page 24
1: Decimal Integer : the rules for represent decimal integer.
a) Decimal Integer value which consist of digits from 0-9.
b) Decimal Integer value with base 10.
c) Decimal Integer should not prefix with 0.
d) It allows only sign (+,-).
e) No special character allowed in this integer.

Ex : valid invalid

7 $77

77 077

+77 7,777

-77

2 : Octal : An integer constants with base 8 is called octal. These rules are :
a) it consist of digits from 0 to 7.
b) It should prefix with 0.
c) It allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.

EX : VALID INVALID
0123 123 -> it because no prefix with 0
+0123 0128 -> because digits from 0 to 7.
-0123

3 : Hexadecimal : An integer constant with base value 16 is called Hexadecimal.

a) It consist of digits from 0-9,a-f(capital letters & small leters.

Ex : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b) it should prefix with 0X or 0x.
c) it allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.

EX : OX1a, ox2f

Floating point/Real constants:

A floating point constant is a numeric constant that has either a fractional form or an exponent
form. For example:

C PROGRAMMING Page 25
-2.0

0.0000234

-0.22E-5

Note: E-5 = 10-5

Real Constants : Real constant is base 10 number, which is represented in decimal 0r

scientific/exponential notation.

Real Notation : The real notation is represented by an integer followed by a decimal point and
the fractional(decimal) part. It is possible to omit digits before or after the decimal point.

Ex : 15.25
.75
30
-9.52
-92
+.94

Scientific/Exponential Notation: The general form of Scientific/Exponential notation is

mantisha e exponent

The mantisha is either a real/floating point number expressed in decimal notation or an integer
and the exponent is an integer number with an optional sign. The character e separating the
mantisha and the exponent can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.

Ex : 1.5E-2
100e+3
-2.05e2

Character Constant:

Single Character Constant : A character constant is either a single alphabet, a single digit, a
single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.

a) it is value represent in „ „ (single quote).

b) The maximam length of a character constant can be 1 character.
EX : VALID INVALID
„a‟ “12”

C PROGRAMMING Page 26
 „A‟ „ab‟
String constant : A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quote, the
characters may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space etc

EX : “rama” , “a” , “+123” , “1-/a”

"good" //string constant

"" //null string constant

" " //string constant of six white space

"x" //string constant having single character.

"Earth is round\n" //prints string with newline

Escape characters or backslash characters:

a) \n newline
b) \r carriage return
c) \t tab
d) \v vertical tab
e) \b backspace
f) \f form feed (page feed)
g) \a alert (beep)
h) \‟ single quote(„)
i) \” double quote(“)
j) \? Question mark (?)
k) \\ backslash (\)

Two ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.
1. const keyword
2. #define preprocessor
3.
1) C const keyword
The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.
1. const float PI=3.14;
Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. const float PI=3.14;
5. clrscr();
6. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);

C PROGRAMMING Page 27
 7. getch();
8. }
Output:
The value of PI is: 3.140000

2) C #define preprocessor
The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.
C#define
The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can use any
basic data type.
Syntax:
#define token value
Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.
#include <stdio.h>
1. #define PI 3.14
2. main() {
3. printf("%f",PI);
4. }
Output:
3.140000

Formatted and Unformatted Console I/O Functions.

Input / Output (I/O) Functions : In „C‟ language, two types of Input/Output functions are
available, and all input and output operations are carried out through function calls. Several
functions are available for input / output operations in „C‟. These functions are collectively
known as the standard i/o library.
Input: In any programming language input means to feed some data into program. This can be
given in the form of file or from command line.
Output: In any programming language output means to display some data on screen, printer or
in any file.
The Standard Files
C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in the
same way as files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program
executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.

Standard File File Pointer Device

Standard input stdin Keyboard

C PROGRAMMING Page 28
Standard output stdout Screen

Standard error stderr Your screen

Input / Output functions are classified into two types

I / O Functions

Formated I/O Functions Unformated I/O Functions

Input Output Input Output

scanf() print() getc() putc()

fscanf() fprintf() getchar() putchar()

gets() puts()

getch()

getche()

. Formated I/O Functions : formatted I/O functions operates on various types of data.

1 : printf() : output data or result of an operation can be displayed from the computer to a
standard output device using the library function printf(). This function is used to print any
combination of data.

Syntax : printf(“control string “, variable1, variable2, -----------, variablen);

Ex : printf(“%d”,3977); // Output: 3977

printf() statement another syntax :

Syntax : printf(“fomating string”);

Formating string : it prints all the character given in doublequotes (“ “) except formatting
specifier.

C PROGRAMMING Page 29
Ex : printf(“ hello “);-> hello
printf(“a”); -> a
printf(“%d”, a); -> a value
printf(“%d”); -> no display

scanf() : input data can be entered into the computer using the standard input „C‟ library
function called scanf(). This function is used to enter any combination of input.

Syntax : scanf(“control string “,&var1, &var2,----, &varn);

The scanf() function is used to read information from the standard input device (keyboard).

Ex : scanf(“ %d “,&a);-> hello

Each variable name (argument) must be preceeded by an ampersand (&). The (&) symbol gives
the meaning “address of “ the variable.

Unformatted I/O functions:

a) Character I/O
b) String I/O

a) character I/O:

1. getchar(): Used to read a character from the standard input

2. putchar(): Used to display a character to standard output
3. getch() and getche(): these are used to take the any alpha numeric characters
from the standard input
getche() read and display the character
getch() only read the single character but not display
4. putch(): Used to display any alpha numeric characters to standard output

a) String I/O:

1. gets(): Used for accepting any string from the standard input(stdin)
eg:gets()

2. puts(): Used to display a string or character array Eg:puts()

3. Cgets():read a string from the console eg; cgets(char *st)
4. Cputs():display the string to the console eg; cputs(char *st)

C PROGRAMMING Page 30
OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS:
Operators : An operator is a Symbol that performs an operation. An operators acts some
variables are called operands to get the desired result.

Ex : a+b;
Where a,b are operands and + is the operator.

Types of Operator :
1) Arithmetic Operators.
2) Relational Operators.
3) Logical Operators.
4) Assignment Operators.
5). Unary Operators.
6) Conditional Operators.
7) Special Operators.
8) Bitwise Operators.
9) Shift Operators.

Arithmetic Operators
An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction and
multiplication on numerical values (constants and variables).
C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a = 9,b = 4, c;

c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n",c);

c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n",c);

c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n",c);

c=a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n",c);

c=a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);

C PROGRAMMING Page 31
Output
a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1

Relational Operators. A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands.
If the relation is true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.
Operands may be variables, constants or expressions.

Relational operators are used in decision making and loops.

Operator Meaning Example Return value

< is less than 2<9 1
<= is less than or equal to 2<=2 1
> is greater than 2>9 0
>= is greater than or equal to 3>=2 1
== is equal to 2==3 0
!= is not equal to 2!=2 0

// C Program to demonstrate the working of relational operators

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;

printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, b, a == b); // true

printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, c, a == c); // false

printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, b, a > b); //false

printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, c, a > c); //false

C PROGRAMMING Page 32
 printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, b, a < b); //false

printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, c, a < c); //true

printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, b, a != b); //false

printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, c, a != c); //true

printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, b, a >= b); //true

printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, c, a >= c); //false

printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, b, a <= b); //true

printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, c, a <= c); //true

return 0;

Output

5 == 5 = 1

5 == 10 = 0

5>5=0

5 > 10 = 0

5<5=0

5 < 10 = 1

5 != 5 = 0

5 != 10 = 1

5 >= 5 = 1

5 >= 10 = 0

C PROGRAMMING Page 33
5 <= 5 = 1

5 <= 10 = 1

Logical Operators.

These operators are used to combine the results of two or more conditions. An expression
containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether expression results true
or false. Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C programming.

Operator Meaning Example Return value

&& Logical AND (9>2)&&(17>2) 1
|| Logical OR (9>2) || (17 = = 7) 1
! Logical NOT 29!=29 0
Logical AND : If any one condition false the complete condition becomes false.

Truth Table
Op1 Op2 Op1 && Op2
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false false

Logical OR : If any one condition true the complete condition becomes true.

Truth Table
Op1 Op2 Op1 // Op2
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false

Logical Not : This operator reverses the value of the expression it operates on i.e, it makes a
true expression false and false expression true.

Op1 Op1 !
true false
false true

// C Program to demonstrate the working of logical operators

#include <stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 34
int main()

int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;

result = (a = b) && (c > b);

printf("(a = b) && (c > b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a = b) && (c < b);

printf("(a = b) && (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a = b) || (c < b);

printf("(a = b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a != b) || (c < b);

printf("(a != b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = !(a != b);

printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = !(a == b);

printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);

return 0;

Output

(a = b) && (c > b) equals to 1

(a = b) && (c < b) equals to 0

(a = b) || (c < b) equals to 1

C PROGRAMMING Page 35
(a != b) || (c < b) equals to 0

!(a != b) equals to 1

!(a == b) equals to 0

Assignment Operators. Assignment operators are used to assign a value (or) an expression
(or) a value of a variable to another variable.

Syntax : variable name=expression (or) value (or) variable

Ex : x=10;
y=a+b;
z=p;

Compound assignment operator:

„C‟ provides compound assignment operators to assign a value to variable in order to assign a
new value to a variable after performing a specified operation.

Operator Example Meaning

+= x+=y x=x+y
-= x-=y x=x-y
*= x*=y x=x*y
/= x/=y x=x/y
%= x%=y X=x%y

// C Program to demonstrate the working of assignment operators

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 5, c;

c = a;

C PROGRAMMING Page 36
 printf("c = %d \n", c);

c += a; // c = c+a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c -= a; // c = c-a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c *= a; // c = c*a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c /= a; // c = c/a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c %= a; // c = c%a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

return 0;

Output

c=5

c = 10

c=5

c = 25

c=5

c=0

Increment and Decrement Operators /Unary Operators:

C PROGRAMMING Page 37
Unary operators are having higher priority than the other operators. Unary operators, meaning
they only operate on a single operand.

Increment Operator in C Programming

1. Increment operator is used to increment the current value of variable by adding integer 1.

2. Increment operator can be applied to only variables.

3. Increment operator is denoted by ++.

We have two types of increment operator i.e Pre-Increment and Post-Increment Operator.

Pre-Increment

Pre-increment operator is used to increment the value of variable before using in the expression. In
the Pre-Increment value is first incremented and then used inside the expression.

b = ++y;

In this example suppose the value of variable „y‟ is 5 then value of variable „b‟ will be 6 because
the value of „y‟ gets modified before using it in a expression.

Post-Increment

Post-increment operator is used to increment the value of variable as soon as after executing
expression completely in which post increment is used. In the Post-Increment value is first used
in a expression and then incremented.

b = x++;

In this example suppose the value of variable „x‟ is 5 then value of variable „b‟ will be 5 because
old value of „x‟ is used.

Note :

We cannot use increment operator on the constant values because increment operator operates on
only variables. It increments the value of the variable by 1 and stores the incremented value back
to the variable

C PROGRAMMING Page 38
b = ++5;

or

b = 5++;

The syntax of the operators is given below.

++<variable name> --<variable name>
<variable name>++ <variable name>--
The operator ++ adds 1 to the operand and – subtracts 1 from the operand. These operators in
two forms : prefix (++x) and postfix(x++).

Operator Meaning
++x Pre increment
- -x Pre decrement
x++ Post increment
x-- Post decrement

Where
1 : ++x : Pre increment, first increment and then do the operation.
2 : - -x : Pre decrement, first decrements and then do the operation.
3 : x++ : Post increment, first do the operation and then increment.
4 : x- - : Post decrement, first do the operation and then decrement.

// C Program to demonstrate the working of increment and decrement operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;
printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);
printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);
return 0;
}

Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
++d = 99.500000

C PROGRAMMING Page 39
Multiple increment operators inside printf
#include<stdio.h>
void main() {
int i = 1;
printf("%d %d %d", i, ++i, i++);
}
Output : 3 3 1

Pictorial representation

Explanation of program

I am sure you will get confused after viewing the above image and output of program.
1. Whenever more than one format specifiers (i.e %d) are directly or indirectly related with
same variable (i,i++,++i) then we need to evaluate each individual expression from right
to left.
2. As shown in the above image evaluation sequence of expressions written inside printf
will be – i++,++i,i
3. After execution we need to replace the output of expression at appropriate place
No Step Explanation

Evaluate
1 At the time of execution we will be using older value of i = 1
i++

Evaluate At the time of execution we will be increment value already modified after
2
++i step 1 i.e i = 3

2 Evaluate i At the time of execution we will be using value of i modified in step 2

C PROGRAMMING Page 40
Postfix and Prefix Expression in Same Statement
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int i = 0, j = 0;
j = i++ + ++i;
printf("%d\n", i);
printf("%d\n", j);
}

Output :
2
2

Explanation of Program

Conditional Operator/ Ternary operator:

conditional operator checks the condition and executes the statement depending of the condition.
A conditional operator is a ternary operator, that is, it works on 3 operands.
Conditional operator consist of two symbols.

1 : question mark (?).

2 : colon ( : ).

C PROGRAMMING Page 41
 Syntax : condition ? exp1 : exp2;

It first evaluate the condition, if it is true (non-zero) then the “exp1” is

evaluated, if the condition is false (zero) then the “exp2” is evaluated.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char February;
int days;
printf("If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: ");
scanf("%c",&February);
// If test condition (February == 'l') is true, days equal to 29.
// If test condition (February =='l') is false, days equal to 28.
days = (February == '1') ? 29 : 28;
printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);
return 0;
}

Output
If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: 1
Number of days in February = 29

Bitwise Operators:
Bitwise operators are used to manipulate the data at bit level. It operates on integers only. It
may not be applied to [Link] arithmetic-logic unit (which is within the CPU), mathematical
operations like: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are done in bit-level which
makes processing faster and saves power. To perform bit-level operations in C programming,
bitwise operators are used.

Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
<< Shift left
>> Shift right
~ One‟s complement.

Bitwise AND operator &

The output of bitwise AND is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands is 1. If either bit of an
operand is 0, the result of corresponding bit is evaluated to 0.
Let us suppose the bitwise AND operation of two integers 12 and 25.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
C PROGRAMMING Page 42
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
& 00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)
Example #1: Bitwise AND
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a&b);
return 0;
}
Output
Output =8

Bitwise OR operator |
The output of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one corresponding bit of two operands is 1. In C
Programming, bitwise OR operator is denoted by |.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)

Example #2: Bitwise OR

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a|b);
return 0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 43
}
Output
Output =29

Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) operator ^

The result of bitwise XOR operator is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands are opposite. It
is denoted by ^.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise XOR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00010101 = 21 (In decimal)

Example #3: Bitwise XOR

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a^b);
return 0;
}

Output
Output = 21

Bitwise complement operator ~

Bitwise compliment operator is an unary operator (works on only one operand). It changes 1 to 0
and 0 to 1. It is denoted by ~.
35 = 00100011 (In Binary)
Bitwise complement Operation of 35

C PROGRAMMING Page 44
~ 00100011
________
11011100 = 220 (In decimal)
Twist in bitwise complement operator in C Programming

The bitwise complement of 35 (~35) is -36 instead of 220, but why?

For any integer n, bitwise complement of n will be -(n+1). To understand this, you should have
the knowledge of 2's complement.

2's Complement

Two's complement is an operation on binary numbers. The 2's complement of a number is equal
to the complement of that number plus 1. For example:

Decimal Binary 2's complement

0 00000000 -(11111111+1) = -00000000 = -0(decimal)

1 00000001 -(11111110+1) = -11111111 = -256(decimal)

12 00001100 -(11110011+1) = -11110100 = -244(decimal)

220 11011100 -(00100011+1) = -00100100 = -36(decimal)

Note: Overflow is ignored while computing 2's complement.

The bitwise complement of 35 is 220 (in decimal). The 2's complement of 220 is -36. Hence, the
output is -36 instead of 220.

Bitwise complement of any number N is -(N+1). Here's how:

bitwise complement of N = ~N (represented in 2's complement form)

2'complement of ~N= -(~(~N)+1) = -(N+1)

Example #4: Bitwise complement

#include <stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 45
int main()

printf("complement = %d\n",~35);

printf("complement = %d\n",~-12);

return 0;

Output

Complement = -36

Complement = 11

There are two Bitwise shift operators in C programming:

 Right shift operator

 Left shift operator.

Right Shift Operator

Right shift operator shifts all bits towards right by certain number of specified bits. It is denoted
by >>.

Left Shift Operator

Left shift operator shifts all bits towards left by certain number of specified bits. It is denoted by
<<.

Special Operators

1 ) Comma Operator :The comma operator is used to separate the statement elements such as
variables, constants or expressions, and this operator is used to link the related expressions
together, such expressions can be evaluated from left to right and the value of right most
expressions is the value of combined expressions

Ex : val(a=3, b=9, c=77, a+c)

First signs the value 3 to a, then assigns 9 to b, then assigns 77 to c, and finaly80(3+77) to
value.

C PROGRAMMING Page 46
2 ) Sizeof Operator : The sizeof() is a unary operator, that returns the length in bytes o the
specified variable, and it is very useful to find the bytes occupied by the specified variable in the
memory.

Syntax : sizeof(variable-name);

int a;
Ex : sizeof(a); //OUTPUT-----2bytes

Example #6: sizeof Operator

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, e[10];
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
printf("Size of integer type array having 10 elements = %lu bytes\n", sizeof(e));
return 0;
}
Output

Size of int = 4 bytes

Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte
Size of integer type array having 10 elements = 40 bytes

Expressions

Expressions : An expression is a combination of operators and operands which reduces to a

single value. An operator indicats an operation to be performed on data that yields a value. An
operand is a data item on which an operation is performed.

A simple expression contains only one operator.

Ex : 3+5 is a simple expression which yields a value 8, -a is also a single expression.

A complex expression contain more than one operator.

C PROGRAMMING Page 47
 Ex : complex expression is 6+8*7.

Ex ; Algeberic Expressions C-expression

1 : ax2+bx+c 1: a*x*x+b*x+c
2 : a+bx 2 : a+b*x.
3 : 4ac/b 3 : 4*a*c/b.
4 : x2/y2-1 4 : x*x/y*y-1

Operator Precedence : Arithmetic Operators are evaluvated left to right using the
precedence of operator when the expression is written without the [Link] are two
levels of arithmetic operators in C.

1 : High Priority * / %
2 : Low Priority + -.

Arithmetic Expression evaluation is carried out using the two phases from left to right.

1 : First phase : The highest priority operator are evaluated in the 1st phase.
2 : Second Phase : The lowest priority operator are evaluated in the 2nd phase.

Ex : a=x-y/3+z*2+p/4.
x=7, y=9, z=11, p=8.
a= 7-9/3+11*2+8/4.

1st phase :
1 : a = 7-3+11*2+8/4
2 : a = 7-3+22+8/4
3 : a = 7-3+22+2
2nd phase :
1 : a = 4+22+2
2 : a = 26+2
3 : a = 28

The order of evaluation can be changed by putting paranthesis in an expression.

Ex : 9-12/(3+3)*(2-1)

Whenever parentheses are used, the expressions within parantheses highest priority. If two or
more sets of paranthesis appear one after another. The expression contained in the left-most set is
evaluated first and the right-most in the last.
1st phase :
1 : 9-12/6*(2-1)
2 : 9-12/6*1
nd
2 phase :
1 : 9-2*1
2 : 9-2.
3rd phase :

C PROGRAMMING Page 48
 1 : 7.

Rules for Evaluation of Expression :

1 : Evaluate the sub-expression from left to right. If parenthesized.

2 : Evaluate the arithemetic Expression from left to right using the rules of precedence.
3 : The highest precedence is given to the expression with in paranthesis.
4 : When parantheses are used, the expressions within parantheses assume highest priority.
5 : Apply the associative rule, if more operators of the same precedence occurs.

Operator Precedence and Associativity :

Every operator has a precedence value. An expression containing more than one
oerator is known as complex expression. Complex expressions are executed according to
precedence of operators.

Associativity specifies the order in which the operators are evaluated with the same
precedence in a complex expression. Associativity is of two ways, i.e left to ringht and right to
left. Left to right associativity evaluates an expression starting from left and moving towards
right. Right to left associativity proceds from right to left.

The precedence and associativity of various operators in C.

Operator Description Precedence Associativity
() Function call 1 L-R (left to right)
[] Square brackets.
+ Unary plus 2 R-L (right to left)
- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
! Not operator
~ Complement
* Pointer operator
& Address operator
sizeof Sizeof operator
* Multiplication 3 L-R (left to right)
/ Division
% Modulo division
+ Addition 4 L-R (left to right)
- Subtraction
<< Left shift 5 L-R (left to right)
>> Right shift

C PROGRAMMING Page 49
 < <= > >= Relational Operator 6 L-R (left to right)
== Equality 7 L-R (left to right)
!= Inequality
& Bitwise AND 8 L-R (left to right)
^ Bitwise XOR 9 L-R (left to right)
| Bitwise OR 10 L-R (left to right)
&& Logical AND 11 L-R (left to right)
|| Logical OR 12 L-R (left to right)
?: Conditional 13 R-L (right to left)
= *= /= %= += Assignment operator 14 R-L (right to left)
-= &= ^= <<=
>>=
, Comma operator 15 L-R (left to right)

Type Conversion/Type casting:

Type conversion is used to convert variable from one data type to another data type, and after
type casting complier treats the variable as of new data type.
For example, if you want to store a 'long' value into a simple integer then you can type cast
'long' to 'int'. You can convert the values from one type to another explicitly using the cast
operator. Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler automatically,
or it can be specified explicitly through the use of the cast operator.

Syntax:
(type_name) expression;

Without Type Casting:

1. int f= 9/4;
2. printf("f : %d\n", f );//Output: 2

With Type Casting:

1. float f=(float) 9/4;

2. printf("f : %f\n", f );//Output: 2.250000

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 50
{

printf( "%c\n", (char)65 );

getchar();

or
Type Casting - C Programming

Type casting refers to changing an variable of one data type into another. The compiler will
automatically change one type of data into another if it makes sense. For instance, if you assign
an integer value to a floating-point variable, the compiler will convert the int to a float. Casting
allows you to make this type conversion explicit, or to force it when it wouldn‟t normally
happen.

Type conversion in c can be classified into the following two types:

1. Implicit Type Conversion

When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without programmers
intervention, such type of conversion is known as implicit type conversion or type promotion.

int x;

for(x=97; x<=122; x++)

printf("%c", x); /*Implicit casting from int to char thanks to %c*/

2. Explicit Type Conversion

The type conversion performed by the programmer by posing the data type of the expression of
specific type is known as explicit type conversion. The explicit type conversion is also known as
type casting.

C PROGRAMMING Page 51
Type casting in c is done in the following form:

(data_type)expression;

where, data_type is any valid c data type, and expression may be constant, variable or
expression.

For example,

int x;

for(x=97; x<=122; x++)

printf("%c", (char)x); /*Explicit casting from int to char*/

The following rules have to be followed while converting the expression from one type to
another to avoid the loss of information:

All integer types to be converted to float.

All float types to be converted to double.

All character types to be converted to integer.

Example

Consider the following code:

int x=7, y=5 ;

float z;

z=x/y; /*Here the value of z is 1*/

If we want to get the exact value of 7/5 then we need explicit casting from int to float:

C PROGRAMMING Page 52
int x=7, y=5;

float z;

z = (float)x/(float)y; /*Here the value of z is 1.4*/

Integer Promotion

Integer promotion is the process by which values of integer type "smaller" than int or unsigned
int are converted either to int or unsigned int. Consider an example of adding a character with an
integer −

#include <stdio.h>

main()

int i = 17;

char c = 'c'; /* ascii value is 99 */

int sum;

sum = i + c;

printf("Value of sum : %d\n", sum );

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −

Value of sum : 116

Here, the value of sum is 116 because the compiler is doing integer promotion and
converting the value of 'c' to ASCII before performing the actual addition operation.

Usual Arithmetic Conversion

C PROGRAMMING Page 53
The usual arithmetic conversions are implicitly performed to cast their values to a common
type. The compiler first performs integer promotion; if the operands still have different types,
then they are converted to the type that appears highest in the following hierarchy –

UNIT II

STATEMENTS

A statement causes the computer to carry out some definite action. There are three different
classes of statements in C:

Expression statements, Compound statements, and Control statements.

C PROGRAMMING Page 54
Null statement

A null statement consisting of only a semicolon and performs no operations. It can appear
wherever a statement is expected. Nothing happens when a null statement is executed.

Syntax: - ;

Statements such as do, for, if, and while require that an executable statement appear as the
statement body. The null statement satisfies the syntax requirement in cases that do not need a
substantive statement body.

The Null statement is nothing but, there is no body within loop or any other statements in
C.

Example illustrates the null statement:

for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++) ;

or

for (i=0;i<10;i++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 55
//empty body

Expression

Most of the statements in a C program are expression statements. An expression statement is

simply an expression followed by a semicolon. The lines

i = 0;

i = i + 1;

and printf("Hello, world!\n");

are all expression statements. In C, however, the semicolon is a statement terminator. Expression
statements do all of the real work in a C program. Whenever you need to compute new values for
variables, you'll typically use expression statements (and they'll typically contain assignment
operators). Whenever you want your program to do something visible, in the real world, you'll
typically call a function (as part of an expression statement). We've already seen the most basic
example: calling the function printf to print text to the screen.

Note -If no expression is present, the statement is often called the null statement.

Return

The return statement terminates execution of a function and returns control to the calling
function, with or without a return value. A function may contain any number
of return statements. The return statement has

syntax: return expression(opt);

If present, the expression is evaluated and its value is returned to the calling function. If
necessary, its value is converted to the declared type of the containing function's return value.

A return statement with an expression cannot appear in a function whose return type is void . If
there is no expression and the function is not defined as void , the return value is undefined. For
example, the following main function returns an unpredictable value to the operating
system:

main ( )

C PROGRAMMING Page 56
 return;

Compound statements

A compound statement (also called a "block") typically appears as the body of another statement,
such as the if statement, for statement, while statement, etc

A Compound statement consists of several individual statements enclosed within a pair of

braces { }. The individual statements may themselves be expression statements, compound
statements or control statements. Unlike expression statements, a compound statement does not
end with a semicolon. A typical Compound statement is given below.

pi=3.14;

area=pi*radius*radius;

The particular compound statement consists of two assignment-type expression

statements.

Example:

C PROGRAMMING Page 57
Selection Statement/Conditional Statements/Decision Making Statements

A selection statement selects among a set of statements depending on the value of a controlling
expression. Or

Moving execution control from one place/line to another line based on condition

Or

Conditional statements control the sequence of statement execution, depending on the value of a
integer expression

C‟ language supports two conditional statements.

1: if

2: switch.

1: if Statement: The if Statement may be implemented in different forms.

1: simple if statement.

2: if –else statement

3: nested if-else statement.

4: else if ladder.

if statement.

The if statement controls conditional branching. The body of an if statement is executed if the
value of the expression is nonzero. Or if statement is used to execute the code if condition
is true. If the expression/condition is evaluated to false (0), statements inside the body of if is
skipped from execution.

Syntax : if(condition/expression)

true statement;

C PROGRAMMING Page 58
 }

statement-x;

If the condition/expression is true, then the true statement will be executed otherwise the true
statement block will be skipped and the execution will jump to the statement-x. The „true
statement‟ may be a single statement or group of statement.

If there is only one statement in the if block, then the braces are optional. But
if there is more than one statement the braces are compulsory

Flowchart

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a=15,b=20;

C PROGRAMMING Page 59
if(b>a)

printf("b is greater");

Output

b is greater

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number;

printf("Enter an integer: ");

scanf("%d", &number);

// Test expression is true if number is less than 0

if (number < 0)
{
printf("You entered %d.\n", number);
}

printf("The if statement is easy.");

return 0;
}
Output 1
Enter an integer: -2
You entered -2.
The if statement is easy.

Output 2
Enter an integer: 5
The if statement in C programming is easy.

If-else statement : The if-else statement is an extension of the simple if statement. The
general form is. The if...else statement executes some code if the test expression is true (nonzero)
and some other code if the test expression is false (0).

C PROGRAMMING Page 60
 Syntax : if (condition)
{
true statement;
}
else
{
false statement;
}
statement-x;

If the condition is true , then the true statement and statement-x will be executed and if the
condition is false, then the false statement and statement-x is executed.
Or
If test expression is true, codes inside the body of if statement is executed and, codes inside the
body of else statement is skipped.
If test expression is false, codes inside the body of else statement is executed and, codes inside
the body of if statement is skipped.

Flowchart

Example:
// Program to check whether an integer entered by the user is odd or even

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{

C PROGRAMMING Page 61
 int number;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&number);

// True if remainder is 0
if( number%2 == 0 )
printf("%d is an even integer.",number);
else
printf("%d is an odd integer.",number);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter an integer: 7
7 is an odd integer.

Nested if-else statement

When a series of decisions are involved, we may have to use more than on if-else statement in
nested form. If –else statements can also be nested inside another if block or else block or both.

Syntax : if(condition-1)
{ {
if (condition-2)
{
statement-1;
}
else
{
statement-2;
}
}
else
{
statement-3;

C PROGRAMMING Page 62
 }
statement-x;
If the condition-1 is false, the statement-3 and statement-x will be executed. Otherwise it
continues to perform the second test. If the condition-2 is true, the true statement-1 will be
executed otherwise the statement-2 will be executed and then the control is transferred to the
statement-x
Flowchart

Example
#include<stdio.h>
int var1, var2;
printf("Input the value of var1:");
scanf("%d", &var1);
printf("Input the value of var2:");
scanf("%d",&var2);
if (var1 !=var2)
{
printf("var1 is not equal to var2");
//Below – if-else is nested inside another if block
if (var1 >var2)
{
printf("var1 is greater than var2");
}
else
{
printf("var2 is greater than var1");
}
}
else

C PROGRAMMING Page 63
{
printf("var1 is equal to var2");
}
…

Else if ladder.
The if else-if statement is used to execute one code from multiple conditions.
Syntax : if( condition-1)
{
statement-1;
}
else if(condition-2)
{
statement-2;
}
else if(condition-3)
{
statement-3;
}
else if(condition-n)
{
statement-n;
}
else
{
default-statement;
}
statement-x;

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 64
Example

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
printf("number is equal to 100");
}
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
getch();
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 65
Points to Remember

1. In if statement, a single statement can be included without enclosing it into curly braces { }
2. int a = 5;

3. if(a > 4)

4. printf("success");

No curly braces are required in the above case, but if we have more than one statement

inside if condition, then we must enclose them inside curly braces.

5. == must be used for comparison in the expression of if condition, if you use = the expression will

always return true, because it performs assignment not comparison.

6. Other than 0(zero), all other values are considered as true.

7. if(27)

8. printf("hello");

In above example, hello will be printed.

Switch statement : when there are several options and we have to choose only one option
from the available ones, we can use switch statement. Depending on the selected option, a
particular task can be performed. A task represents one or more statements.

Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case value-1:
statement/block-1;
break;
case value-2:
statement/block t-2;
break;
case value-3:
statement/block -3;
break;
case value-4:
statement/block -4;
break;
default:
default- statement/block t;
break;

C PROGRAMMING Page 66
}

The expression following the keyword switch in any „C‟ expression that must yield an integer
value. It must be ab integer constants like 1,2,3 .

The keyword case is followed by an integer or a character constant, each constant in each
must be different from all the other.

First the integer expression following the keyword switch is evaluated. The value it gives
is searched against the constant values that follw the case statements. When a match is found, the
program executes the statements following the case. If no match is found with any of the case
statements, then the statements follwing the default are executed.

Rules for writing switch() statement.

1 : The expression in switch statement must be an integer value or a character constant.
2 : No real numbers are used in an expression.
3 : The default is optional and can be placed anywhere, but usually placed at end.
4 : The case keyword must terminate with colon ( : ).
5 : No two case constants are identical.
6 : The case labels must be constants.

Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case

switch(x) switch(f) case 3; case 2.5;
switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a'; case x;
switch(a+b-2) case 1+2; case x+2;
switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;

Example
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
printf("Please enter a no between 1 and 5: ");
scanf("%d",&a);
switch(a)
{
case 1:
printf("You chose One");
break;
case 2:

C PROGRAMMING Page 67
 printf("You chose Two");
break;
case 3:
printf("You chose Three");
break;
case 4:
printf("You chose Four");
break;
case 5: printf("You chose Five.");
break;
default :
printf("Invalid Choice. Enter a no between 1 and 5"); break;
}
}

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 68
Points to Remember

It isn't necessary to use break after each block, but if you do not use it, all the consecutive block

of codes will get executed after the matching block.

1. int i = 1;

2. switch(i)

3. {

4. case 1:

5. printf("A"); // No break

6. case 2:

7. printf("B"); // No break

8. case 3:

9. printf("C");

10. break;

11. }

Output : A B C

The output was supposed to be only A because only the first case matches, but as there is no

break statement after the block, the next blocks are executed, until the cursor encounters a

break.

default case can be placed anywhere in the switch case. Even if we don't include the default case

switch statement works.

Iteration Statements/ Loop Control Statements

How it Works

C PROGRAMMING Page 69
A sequence of statements are executed until a specified condition is true. This sequence of
statements to be executed is kept inside the curly braces { } known as the Loop body. After
every execution of loop body, condition is verified, and if it is found to be true the loop body is
executed again. When the condition check returns false, the loop body is not executed.

The loops in C language are used to execute a block of code or a part of the program several
times. In other words, it iterates/repeat a code or group of code many times.

Or Looping means a group of statements are executed repeatedly, until some logical condition
is satisfied.

Why use loops in C language?

Suppose that you have to print table of 2, then you need to write 10 lines of [Link] using the
loop statement, you can do it by 2 or 3 lines of code only.

A looping process would include the following four steps.

1 : Initialization of a condition variable.

2 : Test the condition.

3 : Executing the body of the loop depending on the condition.

4 : Updating the condition variable.

C PROGRAMMING Page 70
C language provides three iterative/repetitive loops.

1 : while loop

2 : do-while loop

3 : for loop

While Loop: Syntax :

variable initialization ;

while (condition)

statements ;

variable increment or decrement ;

while loop can be addressed as an entry control loop. It is completed in 3 steps.

 Variable initialization.( e.g int x=0; )

 condition( e.g while( x<=10) )

 Variable increment or decrement ( x++ or x-- or x=x+2 )

The while loop is an entry controlled loop statement, i.e means the condition is evaluated
first and it is true, then the body of the loop is executed. After executing the body of the loop,
the condition is once again evaluated and if it is true, the body is executed once again, the
process of repeated execution of the loop continues until the condition finally becomes false and
the control is transferred out of the loop.

Example : Program to print first 10 natural numbers

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main( )

C PROGRAMMING Page 71
int x;

x=1;

while(x<=10)

printf("%d\t", x);

x++;

getch();

Output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

C Program to reverse number

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

int n, reverse=0, rem;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d", &n);

C PROGRAMMING Page 72
 while(n!=0)

rem=n%10;

reverse=reverse*10+rem;

n/=10;

printf("Reversed Number: %d",reverse);

getch();

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 73
do-while loop
Syntax : variable initialization ;

do{

statements ;

variable increment or decrement ;

}while (condition);

The do-while loop is an exit controlled loop statement The body of the loop are executed first
and then the condition is evaluated. If it is true, then the body of the loop is executed once again.
The process of execution of body of the loop is continued until the condition finally becomes
false and the control is transferred to the statement immediately after the loop. The statements
are always executed at least once.

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 74
Example : Program to print first ten multiple of 5

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int a,i;

a=5;

i=1;

do

printf("%d\t",a*i);

i++;

}while(i <= 10);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 75
Output

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Example

main()

int i=0

do

printf("while vs do-while\n");

}while(i= =1);

printf("Out of loop");

Output:

while vs do-while

Out of loop

For Loop:
 This is an entry controlled looping statement.

 In this loop structure, more than one variable can be initialized.

 One of the most important features of this loop is that the three actions can be taken at a
time like variable initialization, condition checking and increment/decrement.

 The for loop can be more concise and flexible than that of while and do-while loops.

Syntax : for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

Statements;

C PROGRAMMING Page 76
Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main( )

int x;

for(x=1; x<=10; x++)

printf("%d\t",x);

getch();

Output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Various forms of FOR LOOP

I am using variable num in all the below examples –

1) Here instead of num++, I‟m using num=num+1 which is nothing but same as num++.

for (num=10; num<20; num=num+1)

2) Initialization part can be skipped from loop as shown below, the counter variable is declared
before the loop itself.

int num=10;

for (;num<20;num++)

Must Note: Although we can skip init part but semicolon (;) before condition is must, without
which you will get compilation error.

C PROGRAMMING Page 77
3) Like initialization, you can also skip the increment part as we did below. In this case
semicolon (;) is must, after condition logic. The increment part is being done in for loop body
itself.

for (num=10; num<20; )

//Code

num++;

4) Below case is also possible, increment in body and init during declaration of counter variable.

int num=10;

for (;num<20;)

//Statements

num++;

5) Counter can be decremented also, In the below example the variable gets decremented each
time the loop runs until the condition num>10 becomes false.

for(num=20; num>10; num--)

Program to calculate the sum of first n natural numbers

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int num, count, sum = 0;

printf("Enter a positive integer: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

// for loop terminates when n is less than count

C PROGRAMMING Page 78
 for(count = 1; count <= num; ++count)

sum += count;

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;

Output

Enter a positive integer: 10

Sum = 55

Factorial Program using loop

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int i,fact=1,number;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d",&number);

for(i=1;i<=number;i++){

fact=fact*i;

printf("Factorial of %d is: %d",number,fact);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 79
 Output:

Enter a number: 5

Factorial of 5 is: 120

Flow Chart of for Loop :

C PROGRAMMING Page 80
Infinitive for loop in C

If you don't initialize any variable, check condition and increment or decrement variable in for
loop, it is known as infinitive for loop. In other words, if you place 2 semicolons in for loop, it is
known as infinitive for loop.

for(; ;){

C PROGRAMMING Page 81
 printf("infinitive for loop example by javatpoint");

Basis of Difference For Loop While Loop Do While Loop

The for loop is

appropriate
The other two loops i.e. while and do
when we know in
while loops are more suitable in the
advance
situations where it is not known before
how many times the
hand when the loop will terminate.
loop
will be executed.

In case if the
Where to
test condition In case if the test
Use for Loop, while Loop
fails at the condition fails at the
and do while Loop
beginning, and beginning, and you
you may not may want to execute
want to execute the body of the loop
the body of the atleast once even in
loop even once the failed condition,
if it fails, then then the do while
the while loop loop should be
should be preferred.
preferred.

A for loop initially A while loop A do while loop will

initiates a counter will always always executed the
variable (initialization- evaluate the code in the do {} i.e.
expression), then it test-expression body of the loop
checks the initially. It the block first and then
How all the three loops
test-expression, and test-expression evaluates the
works?
executes the body of becomes true, condition. In this
the loop if the test then the body of case also, the counter
expression is true. the loop will be variable is initialized
After executing the executed. The outside the body of
body of the loop, update the loop.

C PROGRAMMING Page 82
 the update-expression expression
is executed which should be
updates the value of updated inside
counter variable. the body of the
while. However,
the counter
variable is
initialized
outside the body
of the loop.

Position of the statements

:
In for loop, all the
 Initialization In while and do while loop, they are
three statements are
placed in different position.
 test-expression placed in one position

 update-expression

for (

initialization-
exp.(s);
while(test- do {
test-expression(s); expression)
body-of-the-
update- { loop;
expression(s)
body-of-the- update-
Syntax of Loops
) loop; expression(s);

{ update- }
expression(s);
body-of-the-loop while (test-
; } expression);

C PROGRAMMING Page 83
 do while loop is an
exit controlled loop,
Which one is Entry
Both loops i.e. for loop and while loop are means means that
Controlled Loop
entry controlled loop, means condition is condition is placed
and
checked first and if the condition is true after the body of the
Which one is Exit
then the body of the loop will executes. loop and is evaluated
Controlled Loop ?
before exiting from
the loop.

int i = 1; int i = 1;

: :
:
: :
Conversion of one Loop :
to another Loop do
while (i<=10)
or for (int i=1; i<=10;
Example : Print numbers i++) { {
from 1 to 10 using all the
{ Printf(“%d”,i);
three loops.
Printf(“%d”,i); ++i;
Printf(“%d”,i); }
++i }
} while (i<=10)

Nested for loop

We can also have nested for loops, i.e one for loop inside another for loop. nesting is often used
for handling multidimensional arrays.

Syntax:

for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

C PROGRAMMING Page 84
 {

statement ;

Example:

main()

for (int i=0; i<=5; i++)

for (int j=0; j<=5; j++)

printf("%d, %d",i ,j);

Example : Program to print half Pyramid of numbers

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main( )

int i,j;

for(i=1;i<5;i++)

printf("\n");

C PROGRAMMING Page 85
 for(j=i;j>0;j--)

printf("%d",j);

getch();

Output

21

321

4321

54321

Jump Statements
Jumping statements are used to transfer the program‟s control from one location to another, these
are set of keywords which are responsible to transfer program‟s control within the same block or
from one function to another.

There are four jumping statements in C language:

 goto statement

 return statement

 break statement

 continue statement

goto statement : goto statement doesnot require any condition. This statement passes control
anywhere in the program i.e, control is transferred to another part of the program without testing
any condition.

C PROGRAMMING Page 86
 Syntax : goto label;

.....

.....

label:

statements;

Inthissyntax, label isan identifier.

When, the control of program reaches to goto statement, the control of the program will jump to
the label: and executes the code below it.

Or

The goto statement requires a label to identify the place to move the execution. A label is a valid
variable/identifier name and must be ended with colon ( : )

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 87
Example
int main()

int age;

Vote:

printf("you are eligible for voting");

NoVote:

printf("you are not eligible to vote");

printf("Enter you age:");

scanf("%d", &age);

if(age>=18)

goto Vote;

else

goto NoVote;

return 0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 88
}

Output

Enter you age:19

you are eligible for voting

Enter you age:15

you are not eligible to vote

Break Statement

Break is a keyword. The break statement terminates the loop (for, while and do...while loop)
immediately when it is encountered. The break statement is used/ associated with decision
making statement such as if ,if-else.

Syntax of break statement

break;

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 89
How break statement works?

C PROGRAMMING Page 90
Example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main(){

int i=1;//initializing a local variable

clrscr();

//starting a loop from 1 to 10

for(i=1;i<=10;i++){

C PROGRAMMING Page 91
 printf("%d \n",i);

if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will break the loop

break;

}//end of for loop

getch();

Output

12345

Continue Statement

Continue is keyword exactly opposite to break. The continue statement is used for continuing
next iteration of loop statements. When it occurs in the loop it does not terminate, but it skips
some statements inside the loop / the statements after this statement. . The continue statement is
used/ associated with decision making statement such as if ,if-else.

Syntax of continue Statement

continue;

Flowchart of continue Statement

C PROGRAMMING Page 92
How continue statement works?

Example

C PROGRAMMING Page 93
 1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. int i=1;//initializing a local variable
5. clrscr();
6. //starting a loop from 1 to 10
7. for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
8. if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will continue the loop
9. continue;
10. }
11. printf("%d \n",i);
12. }//end of for loop
13. getch();
14. }

Output
1234678910

Comparision between break and continue statements

Break Continue

1 : break statement takes the control to the 1 :continue statement takes the control to
ouside of the loop the beginning of the loop..

2 : it is also used in switch statement. 2 : This can be used only in loop

statements.

3 : Always associated with if condition in 3 : This is also associated with if

loops. condition.

ARRAYS
Using Arrays in C

C PROGRAMMING Page 94
C supports a derived data type known as array that can be used to handle large amounts of data
(multiple values) at a time.

Definition:

An array is a group (or collection) of same data types.

Or

An array is a collection of data that holds fixed number of values of same type.

Or

Array is a collection or group of elements (data). All the elements of array

are homogeneous (similar). It has contiguous memory location.

Or

An array is a data structured that can store a fixed size sequential collection of elements of same
data type.

What‟s the need of an array?

Suppose you have to store marks of 50 students, one way to do this is allotting 50
variables. So it will be typical and hard to manage. For example we can not access the
value of these variables with only 1 or 2 lines of code.

Another way to do this is array. By using array, we can access the elements easily. Only
few lines of code is required to access the elements of array.

Where arrays are used

 to store list of Employee or Student names,

 to store marks of a students,
 or to store list of numbers or characters etc.

Advantage of C Array

1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.

2) Easy to traverse data: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the elements of an array easily.

C PROGRAMMING Page 95
3) Easy to sort data: To sort the elements of array, we need a few lines of code only.

4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the array.

Disadvantage of Array

Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of array, we can't exceed the
limit. So, it doesn't grow the size dynamically like LinkedList

Declaration of an Array
data-type variable-name[size/length of array];

For example:

int arr[10];

int arr[ 5];

Here int is the data type, arr is the name of the array and 10 is the size of array. It means
array arr can only contain 10 elements of int type. Index of an array starts from 0 to size-1 i.e
first element of arr array will be stored at arr[0] address and last element will occupy arr[9].

Initialization of an Array

C PROGRAMMING Page 96
After an array is declared it must be initialized. Otherwise, it will contain garbage value(any
random value). An array can be initialized at either compile time or at runtime.

Compile time Array initialization

Compile time initializtion of array elements is same as ordinary variable initialization.

Syntax : data_type array_name[size]={v1,v2,…vn/list of values ;

Example

int age[5]={22,25,30,32,35};

int marks[4]={ 67, 87, 56, 77 }; //integer array initialization

float area[5]={ 23.4, 6.8, 5.5 }; //float array initialization

int marks[4]={ 67, 87, 56, 77, 59 }; //Compile time error

Different ways of initializing arrays :

1 : Initilizing all specified memory locations

2 : Partial array initialization.

3 : Intilization without size.

4 : String initialization.

1 : Initilizing all specified memory locations : If the number of values to be initialized is equal
to size of array. Arrays can be initialized at the time of declaration. Array elements can be
initialized with data items of type int,float,char, etc.

Ex : consider integer initialization

int a[5]={10,20,30,40,50};

C PROGRAMMING Page 97
 During compilation, 5 contiguous memory locations are reserved by the compiler for the
variable a and all these locations are initialized.

The array a is initialized as

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

10 20 30 40 50

1000 1002 1004 1006 1008

If the size of integer is 2 bytes, 10 bytes will be allocated for the variable a.

Ex : consider character initialization

char b[8] = {„C‟,‟O‟,‟M‟,‟P‟,‟U‟,‟T‟,‟E‟,‟R‟};

The array b is initialized as

b[0] b[1] b[2] b[3] b[4] b[5] b[6] b[7]

C O M P U T E R

Other Examples : char b[5]={„J‟,‟B‟,‟R‟,‟E‟,‟C‟,‟B‟};

//error : number of initial values are more than the size of array.

Other Example : int a[5]={10,20,30,40,50,60};

C PROGRAMMING Page 98
//error : Number of initial values are more than the size of array.

2 : Partial Array Initilization : partial array initialization is possible in C language. If the

number of values to be initialized is less than the size of the array, then the elements are
initialized in the order from 0th location. The remaining locations will be initialized to zero
automatically.

Ex : Consider the partial initilization

int a[5]={10,15};

Eventhough compiler allocates 5 memory locations, using this declaration

statement, the compiler initializes first two locations with 10 and 15, the next set of memory
locations are automatically initialized to zero.

The array a is partial initialization as

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

10 15 0 0 0

1000 1002 1004 1006 1008

How to access the elements of an array?

You can access elements of an array by indices/index. You can use array subscript (or index) to
access any element stored in array. Subscript starts with 0, which means array_name[0] would be
used to access first element in an array.

In general array_name[n-1] can be used to access nth element of an array. where n is any integer
number.

Example

float mark[5];

Suppose you declared an array mark as above. The first element is mark[0], second element
is mark[1] and so on.

C PROGRAMMING Page 99
Few key notes:

 Arrays have 0 as the first index not 1. In this example, mark[0]

 If the size of an array is n, to access the last element, (n-1) index is used. In this
example, mark[4]
 Suppose the starting address of mark[0] is 2120d. Then, the next address, a[1], will be
2124d, address of a[2] will be 2128d and so on. It's because the size of a float is 4 bytes.

Input data into array

As you can see, in above example that I have used „for loop‟ and „scanf statement‟ to enter data
into array. You can use any loop for data input.

Code:

for (x=0; x<=19;x++)

printf("enter the integer number %d\n", x);

scanf("%d", &num[x]);

Reading out data from an array

For example you want to read and display array elements, you can do it just by using any
loop. Suppose array is mydata[20].

for (int i=0; i<20; i++)

printf("%d\n", mydata[x]);

C PROGRAMMING Page 100

 Exmaple

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int i;

int arr[]={2,3,4}; //Compile time array initialization

for(i=0 ; i<3 ; i++) {

printf("%d\t",arr[i]);

getch();

Output

2 3 4

Exmaple

1. include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. int i=0;
5. int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array
6. clrscr();
7.
8. //traversal of array
9. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
10. printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
11. }
12.
13. getch();
14. }

C PROGRAMMING Page 101

Output
20
30
40
50
60

Runtime Array initialization

An array can also be initialized at runtime using scanf() function. This approach is usually
used for initializing large array, or to initialize array with user specified values.

Example

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int arr[4];

int i, j;

printf("Enter array element");

for(i=0;i<4;i++)

scanf("%d",&arr[i]); //Run time array initialization

for(j=0;j<4;j++)

printf("%d\n",arr[j]);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 102

 }

Two‐Dimensional Arrays

The two dimensional array in C language is represented in the form of rows and columns,
also known as matrix. It is also known as array of arrays or list of arrays.

The two dimensional, three dimensional or other dimensional arrays are also known
as multidimensional arrays.

Declaration of two dimensional Array

data_type array_name[size1][size2];

Example

int twodimen[4][3];

Example :

int a[3][4];

Initialization of 2D Array

int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

C PROGRAMMING Page 103

Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements

An element in a two-dimensional array is accessed by using the subscripts, i.e., row index
and column index of the array.

Example

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. int i=0,j=0;
5. int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
6. clrscr();
7. //traversing 2D array
8. for(i=0;i<4;i++){
9. for(j=0;j<3;j++){
10. printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);
11. }//end of j
12. }//end of i
13. getch();
14. }

Output
arr[0][0] = 1
arr[0][1] = 2
arr[0][2] = 3
arr[1][0] = 2
arr[1][1] = 3
arr[1][2] = 4
arr[2][0] = 3
arr[2][1] = 4
arr[2][2] = 5
arr[3][0] = 4
arr[3][1] = 5
arr[3][2] = 6

Example Write a C program Addition of Two Matrices

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 104

 void main()

int a[25][25],b[25][25],c[25][25],i,j,m,n;

clrscr();

printf("enter the rows and colums of two matrics:\n");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

printf("\nenter the elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&a[i][j]);

printf("\nenter the elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&b[i][j]);

printf("\nThe elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 105

 printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);

printf("\nThe elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);

printf("\nThe additon of two matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];

printf("\t%d",c[i][j]);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 106

 Write a C program Multiplication of Two Matrices.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int a[25][25],b[25][25],c[25][25],i,j,m,n,k,r,s;

clrscr();

printf("enter the rows and colums of A matrics:\n");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

printf("enter the rows and colums of B matrics:\n");

scanf("%d%d",&r,&s);

printf("\nenter the elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&a[i][j]);

printf("\nenter the elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&b[i][j]);

C PROGRAMMING Page 107

}

printf("\nThe elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);

printf("\nThe elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",b[i][j]);

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

c[i][j]=0;

for(k=0;k<m;k++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 108

 c[i][j]=c[i][j]+a[i][k]*b[k][j];

printf("\nThe Multiplication of two matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",c[i][j]);

getch();

Multidimensional Arrays
How to initialize a multidimensional array?

Initialization of a three dimensional array.

You can initialize a three dimensional array in a similar way like a two dimensional array. Here's
an example

int test[2][3][4] = {

{ {3, 4, 2, 3}, {0, -3, 9, 11}, {23, 12, 23, 2} },

{ {13, 4, 56, 3}, {5, 9, 3, 5}, {3, 1, 4, 9} }

};

Example

C PROGRAMMING Page 109

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

// this array can store 12 elements

int i, j, k, test[2][3][2];

printf("Enter 12 values: \n");

for(i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {

for (j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {

for(k = 0; k < 2; ++k ) {

scanf("%d", &test[i][j][k]);

// Displaying values with proper index.

printf("\nDisplaying values:\n");

for(i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {

for (j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {

for(k = 0; k < 2; ++k ) {

printf("test[%d][%d][%d] = %d\n", i, j, k, test[i][j][k]);

return 0;

Output

C PROGRAMMING Page 110

Enter 12 values:

123456789101112

Displaying Values:

test[0][0][0] = 1

test[0][0][1] = 2

test[0][1][0] = 3

test[0][1][1] = 4

test[0][2][0] = 5

test[0][2][1] = 6

test[1][0][0] = 7

test[1][0][1] = 8

test[1][1][0] = 9

test[1][1][1] = 10

test[1][2][0] = 11

test[1][2][1] = 12

STRINGS:
String Concepts

String is an array of characters that is terminated by \0 (null character). This null

character indicates the end of the string. Strings are always enclosed by double quotes ( "
" ). Whereas, character is enclosed by single quotes.

Or

C PROGRAMMING Page 111

 In „C‟ language the group of characters, digits, and symbols enclosed within double
quotation ( " " ) marks are called as string otherwise a string is an array of characters and
terminated by NULL character which is denoted by the escape sequence „\0‟.

C Strings

Declaration of String: C does not support string as a data type. However, it allows us to
represent strings as character arrays. In C, a string variable is any valid C variable name and it is
always declared as an array of characters.

The general form of declaration of a string variable is :

Syntax: char string_name[size];

The size determines the number of characters in the string name.

Note: In declaration of string size must be required to mention otherwise it gives an error.

Ex: char str[]; // Invalid

char str[0]; // Invalid

char str[-1]; // Invalid

char str[10]; // Valid

char a[9]; //Valid

Using this declaration the compiler allocates 9 memory locations for the variable a
ranging from 0 to 8.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Here, the string variable a can hold maximum of 9 characters including NULL(\0)
character.

Initializing Array string

Syntax : char string_name[size]={“string” };

Note: In Initialization of the string if the specific number of character is not initialized it then
rest of all character will be initialized with NULL.

C PROGRAMMING Page 112

char str[5]={'5','+','A'};

str[0]; ---> 5

str[1]; ---> +

str[2]; ---> A

str[3]; ---> NULL

str[4]; ---> NULL

Note: In initialization of the string we can not initialized more than size of string elements.

Ex:

char str[2]={'5','+','A','B'}; // Invalid

Different ways of initialization can be done in various ways :

1 : Initilizing locations character by character.

2 : Partial array initialization.

3 : Intilization without size.

4 : Array initialization with a string .

1 : Initilizing locations character by character

Consider the following declaration with initialization,

Char b[9]={„C‟,‟O‟,‟M‟,‟P‟,‟U‟,‟T‟,‟E‟,‟R‟};

The compiler allocates 9 memory locations ranging from 0 to 8 and these locations are
initialized with the characters in the order specified. The remaining locations are automatically
initialized to null characters.

C O M P U T E R \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 : Partial Array Initilization : If the characters to be initialized is less than the size of the
array, then the characters are stored sequentially from left to [Link] remaining locations will
be initialized to NULL characters automatically.
C PROGRAMMING Page 113
Ex : Consider the partial initilization

int a[10]={„R‟,‟A‟,‟M‟,‟A‟ };

The compiler allocates 10 bytes for the variable a ranging from 0 to 9 and
initializes first four locations with the ASCII characters of „R‟, „A‟, „M‟, „A‟.The remaining
locations are automatically filled with NULL characters (i.e,\0).

R A M A \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3 : Initilization without size : consider the declaration along with the initialization

char b[]={„C‟,‟O‟,‟M‟,‟P‟,‟U‟,‟T‟,‟E‟,‟R‟};

In this declaration, The compiler will set the array size to the total number of
initial values i.e 8. The character will be stored in these memory locations in the order specified.

b[0] b[1] b[2] b[3] b[4] b[5] b[6] b[7]

C O M P U T E R

4) Array Initilization with a String : consider the declaration with string initialization.

char b[ ] = “COMPUTER”;

Here, the string length is 8 bytes. But , string size is 9 bytes. So the compiler reserves
8+1 memory locations and these locations are initialized with the characters in the order
specified. The string is terminated by \0 by the compiler.

C O M P U T E R \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The string “COMPUTER” contin 8 charactes, because it is a string. It always ends with
null character. So, the array is 9 bytes (i.e string length+1 byte for null character).

C PROGRAMMING Page 114

Reading and Writing Strings : The „%s‟ control string can be used in scanf() statement to read
a string from the teriminal and the same may be used to write string to the terminal in printf()
statement.

Example : char name[10];

scanf(“%s”,name);

printf(“%s”,name);

Example:

1. #include <stdio.h>

2. void main ()

3. {

4. char ch[13]={'c', 'p', 'r', 'o', 'g', 'r', 'a', 'm', 'm', i', „n‟, „g‟, „\0‟};

5. char ch2[13]="cprogramming";

6.

7. printf("Char Array Value is: %s\n", ch);

8. printf("String Literal Value is: %s\n", ch2);

9. }

Output

Char Array Value is: cprogramming

String Literal Value is: cprogramming

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

char name[20];

printf("Enter name: ");

scanf("%s", name);

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 printf("Your name is %s.", name);

return 0;

Output

Enter name: Dennis Ritchie

Your name is Dennis.

String Input/output Functions

The strings can be read from the keyboard and can be displayed onto the monitor
using various functions.

The various input and output functions that are associated with can be classified
as

I / O Functions

Formated I/O Functions Unformated I/O Functions

Input Output
Input Output

scanf() print()
getc() putc()
fscanf() fprintf()
getchar() putchar()

gets() puts()

getch()

getche()

C PROGRAMMING Page 116

Unformated I/O Functions

1 : getchar() function : A single character can be given to the computer using „C‟ input library

function getchar().

Syntax : char variable=getchar();

The getchar() function is written in standared I/O library. It reads a single character from a
standared input device. This function do not require any arguments, through a pair of
parantheses, must follow the statements getchar().

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<ctype.h>

void main()

char ch;

clrscr();

printf("Enter any character/digit:");

ch=getchar();

if(isalpha(ch)>0)

printf("it is a alphabet:%c\n",ch);

else if(isdigit(ch)>0)

printf("it is a digit:%c\n",ch);

else

printf("it is a alphanumeric:%c\n",ch);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 117

}.

OUTPUT : Enter any character/Digit : abc

it is a alphabet:a

2 : putchar() function :The putchar() function is used to display one character at a time on the
standared output device. This function does the reverse operation of the single character input
function.

Syntax : putchar(character varaiable);

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<ctype.h>

void main()

char ch;

printf("Enter any alphabet either in lower or uppercase:");

ch=getchar();

if(islower(ch))

putchar(toupper(ch));

else

putchar(tolower(ch));

getch();

OUTPUT :Enter any alphabet either in lower or uppercase :a

C PROGRAMMING Page 118

3 : gets() : The gets() function is used to read the string (String is a group of characters) from the
standard input device (keyboard).

Syntax : gets(char type of array variable);

Ex :#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[40];

clrscr();

printf("Enter String name:");

gets(str);

printf("Print the string name%s:",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string : reddy

Print the string :reddy

4 : puts() :The puts() function is used to display the string to the standared output device
(Monitor).

Syntax : puts(char type of array variable);

Program using gets() function and puts() function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[40];

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puts("Enter String name:");

gets(str);

puts("Print the string name:");

puts(str);

getch();

OUTPUT :Enter string name :

subbareddy

Print the string name

subbareddy

getch() function :The getch function reads a single character directly from the keyboard,
without echoing to the screen.

Syntax : int getch();

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

void main()

char c;

c=getch();

getche() function :The getche() function reads a single character from the keyboard and echoes
it to the current text window.

Syntax : int getche();

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

void main()

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 char c;

c=getche();

getc() function : This function is used to accept a single character from the standared input to a
character variable.

Syntax : character variable=getc();

putc() function :This function is used to display a single character in a character variable to
standared output device.

Syntax : putc(character variable);

Array of Strings

String Manipulation Functions/ String Handling Functions

The various string handling functions that are supported in C language are as shown

String Function Description

strlen(str) Returns the length of the string str.

strcpy(str1,str2) Copies the string str2 to string str1

strcat(str1,str2) Append string str2 to string str1.

strlwr(str) Converts the string str to lowercase

strupr(str) Converts the string str to uppercase.

strrev(str) Reverse the string str.

strcmp(str1,str2) Compare two strings str1 and str2.

All these functions are defined in string.h header file.

1 : strlen(string) – String Length : This function is used to count and return the number of
characters present in a string.

C PROGRAMMING Page 121

 Syntax : var=strlen(string);

Ex : Progrm using strlen() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char name[]="JBREC";

int len1,len2;

clrscr();

len1=strlen(name);

len2=strlen("JBRECECE");

printf("The string length of %s is: %d\n",name,len1);

printf("The string length of %s is: %d","JBRECECE",len2);

getch();

OUTPUT :

The string length of JBREC is : 5

The string length of JBRECECE is :8

Write a program to find the length of string

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 122

 char str[10];

int index;

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

for(index=0;str[index]!=0;index++);

printf("The length of string is:%d",index);

getch();

OUTPUT :

Enter the string : subbareddy

The length of string is :10

2 : strcpy(string1,string2) – String Copy : This function is used to copy the contents of one string
to another string.

Syntax : strcpy(string1,string2);

Where

string1 : is the destination string.

string 2: is the source string.

i.e the contents of string2 is assigned to the contents of string1.

Ex : Progrm using strcpy() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 123

char str1[]="REDDY";

char str2[10];

strcpy(str2,str1);

printf("The string1 is :%s\n",str1);

printf("The string2 is :%s\n",str2);

strcpy(str2,str1+1);

printf("The string1 is :%s\n",str1);

printf("The string2 is :%s",str2);

OUTPUT :

The string1 is : REDDY

The string2 is : REDDY

The string1 is : REDDY

The string2 is : EDDY

//Write a program to copy contents of one string to another string.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str1[10],str2[20];

int index;

printf("Enter the string\n");

scanf(“%s”,str1);

for(index=0;str1[index]!='\0';index++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 124

 str2[index]=str1[index];

str2[index]='\0';

printf("String1 is :%s\n",str1);

printf("String2 is :%s\n",str2);

getch();

OUTPUT :

Enter the string : cprogramming

String1 is : cprogramming

String2 is : cprogramming

3 : strlwr(string) – String LowerCase : This function is used to converts upper case letters of the
string in to lower case letters.

Syntax : strlwr(string);

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str[]="JBREC";

clrscr();

strlwr(str);

printf("The lowercase is :%s\n",str);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 125

OUTPUT : The lowercase is : jbrec

Write a program to which converts given string in to lowercase.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[10];

int index;

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

for(index=0;str[index]!='\0';index++)

if(str[index]>='A' && str[index]<='Z')

str[index]=str[index]+32;

printf("After conversionis :%s",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string : SUBBAREDDY

After conversion string is :subbareddy

4 : strupr(string) – String UpperCase : This function is used to converts lower case letters of the
string in to upper case letters.

C PROGRAMMING Page 126

Syntax : strupr(string);

Program using strupr() function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str[]="jbrec";

strupr(str);

printf("UpperCase is :%s\n",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : UpperCase is : JBREC

Write a program to which converts given string in to uppercase.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[10];

int index;

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

for(index=0;str[index]!='\0';index++)

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 if(str[index]>='a' && str[index]<='z')

str[index]=str[index]-32;

printf("After conversionis :%s",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string : subbareddy

After conversion string is :SUBBAREDDY

5 : strcmp(string1,string2) – String Comparision : This function is used to compares two strings

to find out whether they are same or different. If two strings are compared character by character
until the end of one of the string is reached. If the two strings are same strcmp() returns a value
zero. If they are not equal, it returns the numeric difference between the first non-matching
characters.

Syntax : strcmp(string1,string2);

Program using strcmp() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str1[]="reddy";

char str2[]="reddy";

int i,j,k;

i=strcmp(str1,str2);

j=strcmp(str1,"subba");

k=strcmp(str2,"Subba");

printf("%5d%5d%5d\n",i,j,k);

C PROGRAMMING Page 128

}

OUTPUT : 0 -1 32

Write a C program to find the comparision of two strings.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str1[10],str2[20];

int index,l1,l2,flag=1;

printf("Enter first string:");

scanf("%s",str1);

printf("Enter second string:");

scanf("%s",str2);

l1=strlen(str1);

l2=strlen(str2);

printf("Length of string1:%d\n",l1);

printf("Length of string2:%d\n",l2);

if(l1==l2)

for(index=0;str1[index]!='\0';index++)

if(str1[index]!=str2[index])

flag=0;

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 break;

else

flag=0;

if(flag==1)

printf("Strings are equal");

else

printf("Strings are not equal");

OUTPUT : Enter the first string :jbrec

Enter the second string:jbrec

Length of string1 :5

Length of string2 :5

Strings are equal

6: strcat(string1,string2) – String Concatenation : This function is used to concatenate or

combine, two strings together and forms a new concatenated string.

Syntax : strcat(sting1,string2);

Where

string1 : is the firdt string1.

string2 : is the second string2

when the above function is executed, string2 is combined with string1 and it
removes the null character (\0) of string1 and places string2 from there.

C PROGRAMMING Page 130

Program using strcat() function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str1[10]="jbrec";

char str2[]="ece";

strcat(str1,str2);

printf("%s\n",str1);

printf("%s\n",str2);

getch();

OUTPUT : jbrecece

ece

7 : strrev(string) - String Reverse :This function is used to reverse a string. This function takes
only one argument and return one argument.

Syntax : strrev(string);

Ex : Program using strrev() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 131

char str[20];

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

printf("The string reversed is:%s",strrev(str));

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string :subbareddy

The string reversed is : ydderabbus

UNIT – III

FUNCTIONS:

User‐Defined Functions

Definition: A function is a block of code/group of statements/self contained block of statements/

basic building blocks in a program that performs a particular task. It is also known
as procedure or subroutine or module, in other programming languages.

To perform any task, we can create function. A function can be called many times. It
provides modularity and code reusability.

C PROGRAMMING Page 132

Advantage of functions

1) Code Reusability

By creating functions in C, you can call it many times. So we don't need to write the same code
again and again.

2) Code optimization

It makes the code optimized we don't need to write much code.

3) Easily to debug the program.

Example: Suppose, you have to check 3 numbers (781, 883 and 531) whether it is prime number or
not. Without using function, you need to write the prime number logic 3 times. So, there is repetition of
code.

But if you use functions, you need to write the logic only once and you can reuse it several times.

Types of Functions

There are two types of functions in C programming:

1. Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C header files such as
scanf(), printf(), gets(), puts(), ceil(), floor() etc. You just need to include appropriate
header files to use these functions. These are already declared and defined in C
libraries. oints to be Remembered

System defined functions are declared in header files

System defined functions are implemented in .dll files. (DLL stands for Dynamic Link
Library).

To use system defined functions the respective header file must be included.

2. User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C programmer, so
that he/she can use it many times. It reduces complexity of a big program and optimizes
the code. Depending upon the complexity and requirement of the program, you can create
as many user-defined functions as you want.

C PROGRAMMING Page 133

ELEMENTS OF USER-DEFINED FUNCTINS :

In order to write an efficient user defined function, the programmer must familiar with the
following three elements.

1 : Function Declaration. (Function Prototype).

2 : Function Call.

3 : Function Definition

Function Declaration. (Function Prototype).

A function declaration is the process of tells the compiler about a function name.

Syntax

return_type function_name(parameter/argument);

return_type function-name();

Ex : int add(int a,int b);

int add();

C PROGRAMMING Page 134

Note: At the time of function declaration function must be terminated with ;.

Calling a function/function call

When we call any function control goes to function body and execute entire code.

Syntax : function-name();

function-name(parameter/argument);

return value/ variable = function-name(parameter/argument);

Ex : add(); // function without parameter/argument

add(a,b); // function with parameter/argument

c=fun(a,b); // function with parameter/argument and return values

Defining a function.

Defining of function is nothing but give body of function that means write logic inside function
body.

Syntax

return_ type function-name(parameter list) // function header.

declaration of variables;

body of function; // Function body

return statement; (expression or value) //optional

Eg: int add( int x, int y) int add( int x, int y)

{ {

int z; ( or ) return ( x + y );

z = x + y; }

C PROGRAMMING Page 135

 return z;

The execution of a C program begins from the main() function.

When the compiler encounters functionName(); inside the main function, control of the program
jumps to

void functionName()

And, the compiler starts executing the codes inside the user-defined function.

The control of the program jumps to statement next to functionName(); once all the codes inside
the function definition are executed.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 136

#include<conio.h>

void sum(); // declaring a function

clrsct();

int a=10,b=20, c;

void sum() // defining function

c=a+b;

printf("Sum: %d", c);

void main()

sum(); // calling function

Output

Sum:30

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int addNumbers(int a, int b); // function prototype

int main()

int n1,n2,sum;

printf("Enters two numbers: ");

scanf("%d %d",&n1,&n2);

sum = addNumbers(n1, n2); // function call

C PROGRAMMING Page 137

 printf("sum = %d",sum);

return 0;

int addNumbers(int a,int b) // function definition

int result;

result = a+b;

return result; // return statement

Return Statement

C PROGRAMMING Page 138

Syntax of return statement

Syntax : return; // does not return any value

or

return(exp); // the specified exp value to calling function.

For example,

return a;

return (a+b);

The return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns a value to the calling
function. The program control is transferred to the calling function after return statement.

In the above example, the value of variable result is returned to the variable sum in
the main() function.

PARAMETERS :

parameters provides the data communication between the calling function and called function.

They are two types of parametes

C PROGRAMMING Page 139

 1 : Actual parameters.

2 : Formal parameters.

1 : Actual Parameters : These are the parameters transferred from the calling function (main
program) to the called function (function).

2 : Formal Parameters :These are the parameters transferred into the calling function (main
program) from the called function(function).

 The parameters specified in calling function are said to be Actual Parameters.

 The parameters declared in called function are said to be Formal Parameters.

 The value of actual parameters is always copied into formal parameters.

Ex : main()

fun1( a , b ); //Calling function

fun1( x, y ) //called function

..... .

Where

a, b are the Actual Parameters

x, y are the Formal Parameters

Difference between Actual Parameters and Formal Parameters

Actual Parameters Formal Parameters

1 : Actual parameters are used in calling 1 : Formal parameters are used in the
function when a function is invoked. function header of a called function.

C PROGRAMMING Page 140

 Ex : c=add(a,b); Ex : int add(int m,int n);

Here a,b are actual parameters. Here m,n are called formal parameters.

2 : Actual parameters can be constants, 2 : Formal parametes should be only

variables or expression. variable. Expression and constants are not
allowed.
Ex : c=add(a,b) //variable
Ex : int add(int m,n); //CORRECT
c=add(a+5,b); //expression.
int add(int m+n,int n) //WRONG
c=add(10,20); //constants.
int add(int m,10); //WRONG

3 : Actual parameters sends values to the 3 : Formal parametes receive values from
formal parameters. the actual parametes.

Ex : c=add(4,5); Ex : int add(int m,int n);

Here m will have the value 4 and n will

have the value 5.

4 : Address of actual parameters can be sent 4 : if formal parameters contains address,

to formal parameters they should be declared as pointers.

PASSING PARAMETERS TO FUNCTIONS :There are two ways to pass value or data to
function in C language: call by value and call by reference. Original value is not modified in

C PROGRAMMING Page 141

call by value but it is modified in call by reference.

The called function receives the information from the calling function through the parameters.
The variables used while invoking the calling function are called actual parameters and the
variables used in the function header of the called function are called formal parameters.

C provides two mechanisms to pass parameters to a function.

1 : Pass by value (OR) Call by value.

2 : Pass by reference (OR) Call by Reference.

1 : Pass by value (OR) Call by value :

In call by value, value being passed to the function is locally stored by the function parameter in
stack memory location. If you change the value of function parameter, it is changed for the
current function only. It will not change the value of variable inside the caller method such as
main().

Or

C PROGRAMMING Page 142

 When a function is called with actual parameters, the values of actual parameters are copied into
formal parameters. If the values of the formal parametes changes in the function, the values of
the actual parameters are not changed. This way of passing parameters is called pass by value or
call by value.

Ex :

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void swap(int ,int );

void main()

int i,j;

printf("Enter i and j values:");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

printf("Before swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

swap(i,j);

printf("After swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

getch();

void swap(int a,int b)

int temp;

temp=a;

a=b;

b=temp;

Output

C PROGRAMMING Page 143

Enter i and j values: 10 20

Before swapping: 10 20

After swapping: 10 20

2 : Pass by reference (OR) Call by Reference : In pass by reference, a function is called with
addresses of actual parameters. In the function header, the formal parameters receive the
addresses of actual parameters. Now the formal parameters do not contain values, instead they
contain addresses. Any variable if it contains an address, it is called a pointer variable. Using
pointer variables, the values of the actual parameters can be changed. This way of passing
parameters is called call by reference or pass by reference.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void swap(int *,int *);

void main()

int i,j;

printf("Enter i and j values:");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

printf("Before swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

swap(&i ,&j);

printf("After swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

void swap(int *a,int *b)

int temp;

temp=*a;

*a=*b;

*b=temp;

C PROGRAMMING Page 144

 }

Output

Enter i and j values: 10 20

Before swapping:10 20

After swapping: 20 10

Differnce between Call by value and Call by reference

Call by value Call by Reference

1 : When a function is called the values of 1 : When a function is called the address of
variables are passed variables are passed.

2 : Change of formal parameters in the 2 : The actual parameters are changed since
function will not affect the actual the formal parameters indirectly manipulate
parameters in the calling function. the actual parametes.

3 : Execution is slower since all the values 3 : Execution is faster since only address
have to be copied into formal parameters. are copied.

1 : Functions with no Parameters and no Return Values.

2 : Functions with no Parameters and Return Values.

3 : Functions with Parameters and no Return Values.

4 : Functions with Parameters and Return Values.

1 : Functions with no Parameters and no Return Values :

1 : In this category, there is no data transfer between the calling function and called function.

2 : But there is flow of control from calling function to the called function.

3 : When no parameters are there , the function cannot receive any value from the calling
function.

4: When the function does not return a value, the calling function cannot receive any value from
the called function.

Ex #include<stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 145

 #include<conio.h>

void sum();

void main()

sum();

getch();

void sum()

int a,b,c;

printf("enter the values of a and b");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

c=a+b;

printf("sum=%d",c);

2 : Functions with no Parameters and Return Values.

1 : In this category, there is no data transfer between the calling function and called function.

2 : But there is data transfer from called function to the calling function.

3 : When no parameters are there , the function cannot receive any values from the calling
function.

4: When the function returns a value, the calling function receives one value from the called
function.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int sum();

C PROGRAMMING Page 146

 void main()

int c;

clrscr();

c=sum();

printf("sum=%d",c);

getch();

int sum()

int a,b,c;

printf("enter the values of a and b");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

c=a+b;

return c;

3 : Functions with Parameters and no Return Values.

1 : In this category, there is data transfer from the calling function to the called function using
parameters.

2 : But there is no data transfer from called function to the calling function.

3 : When parameters are there , the function can receive any values from the calling function.

4: When the function does not return a value, the calling function cannot receive any value from
the called function.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 147

 void sum(int a,int b);

void main()

int m,n;

clrscr();

printf("Enter m and n values:");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

sum(m,n);

getch();

void sum(int a,int b)

int c;

c=a+b;

printf("sum=%d",c);

4 : Functions with Parameters and Return Values.

1 : In this category, there is data transfer from the calling function to the called function using
parameters.

2 : But there is no data transfer from called function to the calling function.

3 : When parameters are there , the function can receive any values from the calling function.

4: When the function returns a value, the calling function receive a value from the called
function.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int sum(int a,int b);

C PROGRAMMING Page 148

 void main()

int m,n,c;

clrscr();

printf("Enter m and n values");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

c=sum(m,n);

printf("sum=%d",c);

getch();

int sum(int a,int b)

int c;

c=a+b;

return c;

Inter‐Function Communication
When a function gets executed in the program, the execution control is transferred from calling
function to called function and executes function definition, and finally comes back to the calling
function. In this process, both calling and called functions have to communicate each other to
exchange information. The process of exchanging information between calling and called
functions is called as inter function communication.

In C, the inter function communication is classified as follows...

 Downward Communication

 Upward Communication

C PROGRAMMING Page 149

  Bi-directional Communication

Downward Communication

In this type of inter function communication, the data is transferred from calling function to
called function but not from called function to calling function. The functions with parameters
and without return value are considered under downward communication. In the case of
downward communication, the execution control jumps from calling function to called function
along with parameters and executes the function definition,and finally comes back to the calling
function without any return value. For example consider the following program...

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int num1, num2 ;

void addition(int, int) ; // function declaration

clrscr() ;

num1 = 10 ;

num2 = 20 ;

printf("\nBefore swap: num1 = %d, num2 = %d", num1, num2) ;

addition(num1, num2) ; // calling function

getch() ;

C PROGRAMMING Page 150

Recursion
When function is called within the same function, it is known as recursion in C. The function
which calls the same function, is known as recursive function.

A function that calls itself, and doesn't perform any task after function call, is know as tail
recursion. In tail recursion, we generally call the same function with return statement.

Features :

 There should be at least one if statement used to terminate recursion.

 It does not contain any looping statements.

Advantages :

 It is easy to use.

 It represents compact programming structures.

Disadvantages :

 It is slower than that of looping statements because each time function is called.

Note: while using recursion, programmers need to be careful to define an exit condition from the
function, otherwise it will go into an infinite loop. Recursive functions are very useful to solve
many mathematical problems, such as calculating the factorial of a number, generating Fibonacci
series, etc.

Example of recursion.

recursionfunction(){

recursionfunction();//calling self function

C PROGRAMMING Page 166

Example of tail recursion in C

// print factorial number using tail recursion

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int factorial (int n)

if ( n < 0)

return -1; /*Wrong value*/

if (n == 0)

return 1; /*Terminating condition*/

return (n * factorial (n -1));

void main(){

C PROGRAMMING Page 167

 int fact=0;

clrscr();

fact=factorial(5);

printf("\n factorial of 5 is %d",fact);

getch(); } Outputfactorial of 5 is 120

C PROGRAMMING Page 168

POINTERS:
Introduction

Definition:

Pointer is a variable that stores/hold address of another variable of same data type/ t is
also known as locator or indicator that points to an address of a value. A pointer is a
derived data type in C

Benefit of using pointers

 Pointers are more efficient in handling Array and Structure.

 Pointer allows references to function and thereby helps in passing of function as

arguments to other function.

 It reduces length and the program execution time.

 It allows C to support dynamic memory management.

Declaration of Pointer

data_type* pointer_variable_name;

int* p;

Note: void type pointer works with all data types, but isn't used often.

Initialization of Pointer variable

Pointer Initialization is the process of assigning address of a variable to pointer variable.

Pointer variable contains address of variable of same data type

int a = 10 ;

int *ptr ; //pointer declaration

ptr = &a ; //pointer initialization

or,

C PROGRAMMING Page 197

int *ptr = &a ; //initialization and declaration together

Note:Pointer variable always points to same type of data.

float a;

int *ptr;

ptr = &a; //ERROR, type mismatch

Above statement defines, p as pointer variable of type int. Pointer example

As you can see in the above figure, pointer variable stores the address of number variable i.e.
fff4. The value of number variable is 50. But the address of pointer variable p is aaa3.

By the help of * (indirection operator), we can print the value of pointer variable p.

Reference operator (&) and Dereference operator (*)

& is called reference operator. It gives you the address of a variable. There is another operator
that gets you the value from the address, it is called a dereference operator (*).

Symbols used in pointer

Symbol Name Description

& (ampersand sign) address of operator determines the address of a variable.

* (asterisk sign) indirection operator accesses the value at the address.

C PROGRAMMING Page 198

Dereferencing of Pointer

Once a pointer has been assigned the address of a variable. To access the value of variable,
pointer is dereferenced, using the indirection operator *.

int a,*p;

a = 10;

p = &a;

printf("%d",*p); //this will print the value of a.

printf("%d",*&a); //this will also print the value of a.

printf("%u",&a); //this will print the address of a.

printf("%u",p); //this will also print the address of a.

printf("%u",&p); //this will also print the address of p.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT POINTERS IN C:

 Normal variable stores the value whereas pointer variable stores the address of the
variable.

 The content of the C pointer always be a whole number i.e. address.

 Always C pointer is initialized to null, i.e. int *p = null.

 The value of null pointer is 0.

 & symbol is used to get the address of the variable.

 * symbol is used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.

 If a pointer in C is assigned to NULL, it means it is pointing to nothing.

 Two pointers can be subtracted to know how many elements are available between these
two pointers.

 But, Pointer addition, multiplication, division are not allowed.

 The size of any pointer is 2 byte (for 16 bit compiler).

C PROGRAMMING Page 199

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;

clrscr();

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);

printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);

printf("Value of p variable is %d \n",*p);

getch();

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4

Value of p variable is 50

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int *ptr, q;

q = 50;

C PROGRAMMING Page 200

 /* address of q is assigned to ptr */

ptr = &q;

/* display q's value using ptr variable */

printf("%d", *ptr);

return 0;

Output

50

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int var =10;

int *p;

p= &var;

printf ( "\n Address of var is: %u", &var);

printf ( "\n Address of var is: %u", p);

printf ( "\n Address of pointer p is: %u", &p);

/* Note I have used %u for p's value as it should be an address*/

printf( "\n Value of pointer p is: %u", p);

printf ( "\n Value of var is: %d", var);

printf ( "\n Value of var is: %d", *p);

printf ( "\n Value of var is: %d", *( &var));

C PROGRAMMING Page 201

Output:

Address of var is: 00XBBA77

Address of var is: 00XBBA77

Address of pointer p is: 77221111

Value of pointer p is: 00XBBA77

Value of var is: 10

Value of var is: 10

Value of var is: 10

NULL Pointer

A pointer that is not assigned any value but NULL is known as NULL pointer. If you don't have
any address to be specified in the pointer at the time of declaration, you can assign NULL value.

Or

It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case you do not have
an exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of variable declaration. A pointer that is
assigned NULL is called a null [Link] *p=NULL;

Note: The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard libraries/
in most the libraries, the value of pointer is 0 (zero)

Example:

The value of ptr is 0

Pointers for Inter‐Function Communication

Pointers to Pointers

Pointers can point to other pointers /pointer refers to the address of another pointer.

pointer can point to the address of another pointer which points to the address of a value.

C PROGRAMMING Page 202

syntax of pointer to pointer

int **p2;

pointer to pointer example

Let's see an example where one pointer points to the address of another pointer.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

int **p2;//pointer to pointer

clrscr();

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

p2=&p;

printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);

printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);

C PROGRAMMING Page 203

 printf("Value of *p variable is %d \n",*p);

printf("Address of p2 variable is %x \n",p2);

printf("Value of **p2 variable is %d \n",**p);

getch();

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4

Value of *p variable is 50

Address of p2 variable is fff2

Value of **p variable is 50

Arrays and Pointers

When an array is declared, compiler allocates sufficient amount of memory to contain all the
elements of the array. Base address which gives location of the first element is also allocated by
the compiler.

Suppose we declare an array arr,

int arr[5]={ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

Assuming that the base address of arr is 1000 and each integer requires two byte, the five
element will be stored as follows

C PROGRAMMING Page 204

Here variable arr will give the base address, which is a constant pointer pointing to the
element, arr[0]. Therefore arr is containing the address of arr[0] i.e 1000.

arr is equal to &arr[0] // by default

We can declare a pointer of type int to point to the array arr.

int arr[5]={ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

int *p;

p = arr;

or p = &arr[0]; //both the statements are equivalent.

Now we can access every element of array arr using p++ to move from one element to another.

NOTE : You cannot decrement a pointer once incremented. p-- won't work.

Pointer to Array

we can use a pointer to point to an Array, and then we can use that pointer to access the array.
Lets have an example,

int i;

int a[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

int *p = a; // same as int*p = &a[0]

for (i=0; i<5; i++)

printf("%d", *p);

p++;

C PROGRAMMING Page 205

In the above program, the pointer *p will print all the values stored in the array one by one. We
can also use the Base address (a in above case) to act as pointer and print all the values.

Relation between Arrays and Pointers

Consider an array:

int arr[4];

In C programming, name of the array always points to address of the first element of an array.

In the above example, arr and &arr[0] points to the address of the first element.

&arr[0] is equivalent to arr

Since, the addresses of both are the same, the values of arr and &arr[0] are also the same.

arr[0] is equivalent to *arr (value of an address of the pointer)

C PROGRAMMING Page 206

Similarly,

&arr[1] is equivalent to (arr + 1) AND, arr[1] is equivalent to *(arr + 1).

&arr[2] is equivalent to (arr + 2) AND, arr[2] is equivalent to *(arr + 2).

&arr[3] is equivalent to (arr + 3) AND, arr[3] is equivalent to *(arr + 3).

&arr[i] is equivalent to (arr + i) AND, arr[i] is equivalent to *(arr + i).

Example: Program to find the sum of six numbers with arrays and pointers

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int i, classes[6],sum = 0;

printf("Enter 6 numbers:\n");

for(i = 0; i < 6; ++i)

// (classes + i) is equivalent to &classes[i]

scanf("%d",(classes + i));

// *(classes + i) is equivalent to classes[i]

sum += *(classes + i);

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;

Output

C PROGRAMMING Page 207

Enter 6 numbers:

Sum = 21

Pointer Arithmetic and Arrays

pointer holds address of a value, so there can be arithmetic operations on the pointer variable.

There are four arithmetic operators that can be used on pointers:

o Increment(++)
o Decrement(--)
o Addition(+)
o Subtraction(-)

Increment pointer:

1. Incrementing Pointer is generally used in array because we have contiguous memory in

array and we know the contents of next memory location.
2. Incrementing Pointer Variable Depends Upon data type of the Pointer variable.

The formula of incrementing pointer is given below:

new_address= current_address + i * size_of(data type)

Three rules should be used to increment pointer

Address + 1 = Address

Address++ = Address

C PROGRAMMING Page 208

 Address of p variable is 3214864300

After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is 3214864288

Passing an Array to a Function

If you want to pass a single-dimension array as an argument in a function, you would have to
declare a formal parameter in one of following three ways and all three declaration methods
produce similar results because each tells the compiler that an integer pointer is going to be
received. Similarly, you can pass multi-dimensional arrays as formal parameters.

1) Formal parameters as a pointer –

void myFunction(int *param) {
.
.
.
}
2) Formal parameters as a sized array –
void myFunction(int param[10]) {
.
.
.
}

3) Formal parameters as an unsized array −

void myFunction(int param[10]) {
.
.
.

}
Example1: pass an entire array to a function argument
#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
double getAverage(int arr[], int size);
int main () {
/* an int array with 5 elements */
int balance[5] = {1000, 2, 3, 17, 50};

C PROGRAMMING Page 213

 double avg;

/* pass pointer to the array as an argument */

avg = getAverage( balance, 5 ) ;
/* output the returned value */
printf( "Average value is: %f ", avg );
return 0;
}
double getAverage(int arr[], int size) {

int i;
double avg;
double sum = 0;

for (i = 0; i < size; ++i) {

sum += arr[i];
}

avg = sum / size;

return avg;
}

Output
Average value is: 214.400000

Example2: pass an entire array to a function argument

#include <stdio.h>
myfuncn( int *var1, int var2)
{
for(int x=0; x<var2; x++)
{
printf("Value of var_arr[%d] is: %d \n", x, *var1);
/*increment pointer for next element fetch*/
var1++;
}
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 214

 int main()
{
int var_arr[] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77};
myfuncn(&var_arr, 7);
return 0;
}
Output
Value of var_arr[0] is: 11
Value of var_arr[1] is: 22
Value of var_arr[2] is: 33
Value of var_arr[3] is: 44
Value of var_arr[4] is: 55
Value of var_arr[5] is: 66
Value of var_arr[6] is: 77

Example: Call by value method –

#include <stdio.h>
disp( char ch)
{
printf("%c ", ch);
}
int main()
{
char arr[] = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h', 'I', 'j'};
for (int x=0; x<=10; x++)
{
/* I‟m passing each element one by one using subscript*/
disp (arr[x]);
}

return 0;
}
Output:
abcdefghij

C PROGRAMMING Page 215

 In this method of calling a function, the actual arguments gets copied into formal
arguments. In this example actual argument(or parameter) is arr[x] and formal parameter
is ch.

Example: Call by reference method: Using pointers

#include <stdio.h>

disp( int *num)

printf("%d ", *num);

int main()

int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0};

for (int i=0; i<=10; i++)

/* I‟m passing element‟s address*/

disp (&arr[i]);

return 0;

Output:

1234567890

C PROGRAMMING Page 216

Array of Pointers

An array of pointers would be an array that holds memory locations. An array of pointers is an
indexed set of variables in which the variables are pointers (a reference to a location in memory).

Syntax:

data_type_name * variable name

Example

int *ptr[MAX];

Array alpha[] Pointer a

alpha[0] *a

alpha[1] *(a+1)

alpha[2] *(a+2)

alpha[3] *(a+3)

alpha[n] *(a+n)

Example1:

#include <stdio.h>

const int MAX = 3;

int main () {

int var[] = {10, 100, 200};

int i, *ptr[MAX];

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {

C PROGRAMMING Page 217

 ptr[i] = &var[i]; /* assign the address of integer. */

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {

printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr[i] );

return 0;

Output

Value of var[0] = 10

Value of var[1] = 100

Value of var[2] = 200

Example2:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main() {
clrscr();
int *array[3];
int x = 10, y = 20, z = 30;
int i;
array[0] = &x;
array[1] = &y;
array[2] = &z;
for (i=0; i< 3; i++) {
printf("The value of %d= %d ,address is %u\t \n", i, *(array[i]),
array[i]);
}
getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 218

 return 0;
}

Output

Example3:

#include <stdio.h>

const int MAX = 4;

int main () {

char *names[] = {

"Zara Ali",

"Hina Ali",

"Nuha Ali",

"Sara Ali"

};

int i = 0;

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {

printf("Value of names[%d] = %s\n", i, names[i] );

return 0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 219

Program name : c:/tc/bin/mycmd.c
1st arg : this
2nd arg : is
3rd arg : a
4th arg : program
5th arg : (null)
Explanation: In the above example.
argc = 5
argv[0] = "mycmd"
argv[1] = "this"
argv[2] = "is"
argv[3] = "a"
argv[4] = "program"
argv[5] = NULL
Why command line arguments program not directly run form TC IDE
Command line arguments related programs are not execute directly from TC IDE because
arguments can not be passed.
Edit Command Line Argument Program
To Edit the Command Line Argument Program use edit Command.
Syntax
C:/cprogram>edit mycmd.c

UNIT IV
STRUCTURES, UNIONS, ENUMERATIONS AND TYPEDEF

Structure Definition
Structure is a user defined data type which hold or store heterogeneous/different types data item
or element in a single variable. It is a Combination of primitive and derived data type.

or

C PROGRAMMING Page 238

A structure is a collection of one or more data items of different data types, grouped together
under a single name.

Variables inside the structure are called members of structure.

Each element of a structure is called a member.

struct keyword is used to define/create a structure. struct define a new data type which is a
collection of different type of data.

Syntax

struct structure_name /tag name

data_type member1;

data_type member2;

data_type member n;

};

Note: Don't forget the semicolon }; in the ending line.

Example

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

};

C PROGRAMMING Page 239

 Here, struct is the keyword, employee is the tag name of
structure; id, name and salary are the members or fields of the structure. Let's
understand it by the diagram given below:

Syntax to create structure variable

struct tagname/structure_name variable;

Declaring structure variable

We can declare variable for the structure, so that we can access the member of structure easily.
There are two ways to declare structure variable:

1. By struct keyword within main() function/ Declaring Structure variables separately

2. By declaring variable at the time of defining structure/ Declaring Structure Variables

with Structure definition

1st way:

Let's see the example to declare structure variable by struct keyword. It should be declared
within the main function.

struct employee

{ int id;

C PROGRAMMING Page 240

 char name[50];

float salary;

};

Now write given code inside the main() function.

struct employee e1, e2;

2nd way:

Let's see another way to declare variable at the time of defining structure.

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

}e1,e2;

Which approach is good

But if no. of variable are not fixed, use 1st approach. It provides you flexibility to declare the
structure variable many times.

If no. of variables are fixed, use 2nd approach. It saves your code to declare variable in main()
function.

Structure Initialization
structure variable can also be initialized at compile time.

struct Patient

float height;

int weight;

C PROGRAMMING Page 241

int age;

};

struct Patient p1 = { 180.75 , 73, 23 }; //initialization

or

struct patient p1;

[Link] = 180.75; //initialization of each member separately

[Link] = 73;

[Link] = 23;

Accessing Structures/ Accessing members of structure

There are two ways to access structure members:

1. By . (member or dot operator)

2. By -> (structure pointer operator)

When the variable is normal type then go for struct to member operator.

When the variable is pointer type then go for pointer to member operator.

Any member of a structure can be accessed as:

structure_variable_name.member_name

Example

struct book

char name[20];

char author[20];

int pages;

};

C PROGRAMMING Page 242

struct book b1;

for accessing the structure members from the above example

[Link], [Link], [Link]:

Example

struct emp

int id;

char name[36];

int sal;

};

sizeof(struct emp) // --> 40 byte (2byte+36byte+2byte)

Example of Structure in C

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

struct emp

int id;

char name[36];

float sal;

};

void main()

struct emp e;

clrscr();

printf("Enter employee Id, Name, Salary: ");

C PROGRAMMING Page 243

scanf("%d",&[Link]);

scanf("%s",&[Link]);

scanf("%f",&[Link]);

printf("Id: %d",[Link]);

printf("\nName: %s",[Link]);

printf("\nSalary: %f",[Link]);

getch();

Output

Output: Enter employee Id, Name, Salary: 5 Spidy 45000

Id : 05

Name: Spidy

Salary: 45000.00

Example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

}e1; //declaring e1 variable for structure

int main( )

//store first employee information

C PROGRAMMING Page 244

 [Link]=101;

strcpy([Link], "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", [Link]);

printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", [Link]);

return 0;

Output:

employee 1 id : 101

employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

Difference Between Array and Structure

Structure is the collection of

1 Array is collection of homogeneous data.
heterogeneous data.
Structure elements are access using .
2 Array data are access using index.
operator.
3 Array allocates static memory. Structures allocate dynamic memory.
Array element access takes less time than Structure elements takes more time than
4
structures. Array.

Nested Structures
structure can have another structure as a member. There are two ways to define nested structure
in c language:

1. By separate structure

2. By Embedded structure

1) Separate structure

We can create 2 structures, but dependent structure should be used inside the main structure as a
member. Let's see the code of nested structure.
C PROGRAMMING Page 245
 struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

};

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date doj;

}emp1;

2) Embedded structure

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

}doj;

}emp1;

C PROGRAMMING Page 246

Accessing Nested Structure

We can access the member of nested structure by Outer_Structure.Nested_Structure.member as

given below:

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

Arrays of Structures
Array of structures to store much information of different data types. Each element of the array
representing a structure variable. The array of structures is also known as collection of
structures.

Ex : if you want to handle more records within one structure, we need not specify the number of
structure variable. Simply we can use array of structure variable to store them in one structure
variable.

Example : struct employee emp[5];

Example of structure with array that stores information of 5 students and prints it.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

struct student{

int rollno;

char name[10];

};

void main(){

int i;

struct student st[5];

clrscr();

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 printf("Enter Records of 5 students");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nEnter Rollno:");

scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);

printf("\nEnter Name:");

scanf("%s",&st[i].name);

printf("\nStudent Information List:");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);

getch();

Output:

Enter Records of 5 students

Enter Rollno:1

Enter Name:Sonoo

Enter Rollno:2

Enter Name:Ratan

Enter Rollno:3

Enter Name:Vimal

Enter Rollno:4

Enter Name:James

Enter Rollno:5

Enter Name:Sarfraz

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Unions are conceptually similar to structures. The syntax of union is also similar to that of
structure. The only difference is in terms of storage. In structure each member has its own
storage location, whereas all members of union use a single shared memory location which is
equal to the size of its largest data member.

We can access only one member of union at a time. We can‟t access all member values at the
same time in union. But, structure can access all member values at the same time. This is
because, Union allocates one common storage space for all its members. Where as Structure
allocates storage space for all its members separately.

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syntax

union union_name

data_type member1;

data_type member2;

data_type memeberN;

};

Example
union employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

};

Example

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 #include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

union employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

}e1; //declaring e1 variable for union

int main( )

//store first employee information

[Link]=101;

strcpy([Link], "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", [Link]);

printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", [Link]);

return 0;

Output:

employee 1 id : 1869508435

employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

As you can see, id gets garbage value because name has large memory size. So only name will
have actual value.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

union item

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{

int a;

float b;

char ch;

};

int main( )

union item it;

it.a = 12;

it.b = 20.2;

[Link]='z';

clrscr();

printf("%d\n",it.a);

printf("%f\n",it.b);

printf("%c\n",[Link]);

getch();

return 0;

Output

-26426

20.1999

As you can see here, the values of a and b get corrupted and only variable c prints the expected
result. Because in union, the only member whose value is currently stored will have the memory.

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Difference between Structure and Union

Structure Union

For defining structure use

1 For defining union we use union keyword
struct keyword.

Structure occupies more

2 Union occupies less memory space than Structure.
memory space than union.

In Structure we can access

3 all members of structure at a In union we can access only one member of union at a time.
time.

Structure allocates separate Union allocates one common storage space for its all
4 storage space for its every members. Union find which member need more memory
members. than other member, then it allocate that much space

Bit‐Fields

Syntax
struct {

type [member_name] : width ;

};

The following table describes the variable elements of a bit field −

Elements Description

type An integer type that determines how a bit-field's value is interpreted.

The type may be int, signed int, or unsigned int.

member_name The name of the bit-field.

width The number of bits in the bit-field. The width must be less than or equal
to the bit width of the specified type.

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The variables defined with a predefined width are called bit fields. A bit field can hold more
than a single bit; for example, if you need a variable to store a value from 0 to 7, then you can
define a bit field with a width of 3 bits as follows −

struct {

unsigned int age : 3;

} Age;

The above structure definition instructs the C compiler that the age variable is going to use only
3 bits to store the value. If you try to use more than 3 bits, then it will not allow you to do so. Let
us try the following example –

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct {

unsigned int age : 3;

} Age;

int main( ) {

[Link] = 4;

printf( "Sizeof( Age ) : %d\n", sizeof(Age) );

printf( "[Link] : %d\n", [Link] );

[Link] = 7;

printf( "[Link] : %d\n", [Link] );

[Link] = 8;

printf( "[Link] : %d\n", [Link] );

return 0;

Output

Sizeof( Age ) : 4

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[Link] : 4

[Link] : 7

[Link] : 0

typedef
The typedef is a keyword that allows the programmer to create a new data type name for an
existing data type. So, the purpose of typedef is to redefine the name of an existing variable type.

Syntax

typedef datatype alias_name;

Example of typedef

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

typedef int Intdata; // Intdata is alias name of int

void main()

int a=10;

Integerdata b=20;

typedef Intdata Integerdata; // Integerdata is again alias name of Intdata

Integerdata s;

clrscr();

s=a+b;

printf("\n Sum:= %d",s);

getch();

Output

Sum: 20

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Advantages of typedef :

1 : Provides a meaningful way of declaring the variable.

2 : Increase the readability of the program.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

typedef int digits;

digits a,b,sum;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a and b values:");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

sum=a+b;

printf("The sum is:%d",sum);

getch();

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typedef and Pointers

typedef can be used to give an alias name to pointers also. Here we have a case in which use of
typedef is beneficial during pointer declaration.

In Pointers * binds to the right and not the left.

int* x, y ;

By this declaration statement, we are actually declaring x as a pointer of type int, whereas y will
be declared as a plain integer.

typedef int* IntPtr ;

IntPtr x, y, z;

But if we use typedef like in above example, we can declare any number of pointers in a single
statement.

NOTE : If you do not have any prior knowledge of pointers, do study Pointers first.

Enumerations
An enum is a keyword, it is an user defined data type. All properties of integer are applied on
Enumeration data type so size of the enumerator data type is 2 byte. It work like the Integer.

It is used for creating an user defined data type of integer. Using enum we can create sequence of
integer constant value.

Syntax

enum tagname {value1, value2, value3,....};

 In above syntax enum is a keyword. It is a user defiend data type.

 In above syntax tagname is our own variable. tagname is any variable name.

 value1, value2, value3,.... are create set of enum values.

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It is start with 0 (zero) by default and value is incremented by 1 for the sequential identifiers in
the list. If constant one value is not initialized then by default sequence will be start from zero
and next to generated value should be previous constant value one.

Example of Enumeration in C

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

enum ABC {x,y,z};

void main()

int a;

clrscr();

a=x+y+z; //0+1+2

printf("Sum: %d",a);

getch();

Output

Sum: 3

Example of Enumeration in C

#include<stdio.h>

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