Applied Chemistry for CSE Stream

Module: 1

Sensors and Energy Systems

Syllabus
Sensors: Introduction, working principle and applications of Conductometric
sensors, Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors, and Optical sensors.
Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical sensors for
the pharmaceuticals, surfactants, hydrocarbons. Electrochemical gas sensors for
SOx and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications
of Lithium ion and Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells
(QDSSC’s)- Principle, Properties and Applications.
Self-learning: Types of electrochemical sensor, Gas sensor - O2 sensor, Biosensor –
Glucose sensors.

Course Outcomes
CO1: Identify the terms and processes involved in scientific and engineering applications
CO2: Explain the phenomena of chemistry to describe the methods of engineering processes

CO3: Solve for the problems in chemistry that are pertinent in engineering applications

CO4: Apply the basic concepts of chemistry to explain the chemical properties and processes
CO5: Analyze properties and processes associated with chemical substances in
multidisciplinary situations

Energy Systems:

Introduction:-

 A device enables the energy liberated in a chemical reaction to be converted

directly into electricity.
 A battery is a portable energy source with three basic components an Anode, a
Cathode and an Electrolyte.
 A battery is a device that consists of two (or) more galvanic cells connected in
series (or) parallel (or) both which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy through redox reactions.
Ex: - Lead-Acid battery, Nickel-Cadmium battery, etc….
 The size of the present day batteries range from a fraction of a cubic centimeter
to several cubic decimeters.

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 Batteries are used in calculators, digital watches, telephones, tape-records, car

engines, etc….
 A battery is always designed and manufactured for specific performance.
Ex: - To power a tourch.
To start a car engine
To supply emergency power to a hospital.

Basic components of a Battery:-

A battery is made up of anode and cathode which are surrounded by their

electrolytes. The anode and cathode are separated by separator. The outer surface
of the battery is covered by plastic layer and in modern batteries the ventilator are
also provided to escape the accumulated gases during the process.

A battery consists of four major components.

Ventilator

Cathode
Anode

Electrolyte

Separator

1. Anode: - In a battery anode is a negative e-de. It releases electrons into the

external circuit by undergoing oxidation reaction. In rechargeable battery it
acts as positive terminal (cathode) during charging. It gives the electrons to
the external circuit.
M(S) Mn+(aq) + ne-

Zinc, Lithium, Nickel, Cadmium, and Lead are extensively used as

anodes and of these Lithium tops, the list because it readily gives
off electrons. (Reduction potential is highest. (-3.05V)).

2. Cathode: - In a battery cathode is a positive e-de. It accepts the electrons

from the external circuit. There by reduction of the active species occurs. In
rechargeable battery it acts as negative terminal (anode) during charging.
Mn+(aq) + ne- M(S)

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Graphite rod, Zinc, Lead, Nickel and Cadmium are used as cathodes.
Sometimes both anode and cathode are made up of same material like lead
as in the case of lead-acid battery.
3. Electrolyte: - It provides the medium for transfer of ions inside the cell b/w
the anode and cathode. A solution of an acid, alkali (or) salt having high
ionic conductivity is commonly used as an electrolyte.
4. Separator: - It is used to separate anode and cathode compartments in a
battery to prevent internal short circuiting. The main function of the
separator is to transport ions from anode to cathode and vice versa. It is
highly resistance towards electrolyte.
Ex: - Cellulose, vinyl polymer, polyolifine membranes etc….
In addition cathode & anode current collector, terminals, seal and
container make a battery complete.

Classification of Batteries:-

Batteries are classified as, 1. Primary Batteries (Non-rechargeable Batteries)

2. Secondary Batteries (Rechargeable Batteries)
3. Reserve Batteries.
1. Primary Battery: -
The batteries which produce electrical energy at the expense of free
energy of active materials and produce energy only as long as active materials
are present.
(OR)
The battery which cannot be recharged and discarded when the battery
has delivered all its electrical energy is called as a primary battery.
Ex: - Zn-Mno2 battery, Li-Mno2 battery, etc…..
In these batteries, the reaction is spontaneous but irreversible. These
batteries have a higher capacity and initial voltage than rechargeable batteries.

2. Secondary Battery: -
The batteries which produce electrical energy at the expense of free energy
of active materials. These active materials are capable of restoring at respective
electrodes on recharge and prepare for discharge once again. These are
rechargeable batteries and can be used again and again.
(OR)

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A battery which after discharge, can be charged again by passing the electric
current through it in the opposite direction to that of the discharge is known as
secondary battery.
Ex: - Lead-Acid battery, Nickel-Cadmium battery, etc…..
In these batteries the reaction is reversible.
3. Reserve Battery: -
These are batteries which may be stored in inactive state and are made
activated just before they are needed. The activation involving by adding electrolyte
because one component of the electrolyte is isolated and stored separately when
the battery is required.
Ex: - Mg-H2O activated battery, Zn-Ag2O battery, Li-V2O5 battery etc…….

Na-ion battery:

Construction:-

Anode: Sodium Hard Carbon Material (NaxC6)

Cathode: Sodium Layered Transition Metal Oxides (Na1-xMO2)

Electrolyte: Sodium Salts (NaPF6) Dissolved in Polar Organic Solvents

Separator: Porous Separator

𝑒−
⇄ V

𝑒 −⇅ ⇅𝑒 −

Anode Cathode
Na+ Na+
(NaxC6) (Na1-xMO2)

Separator Electrolyte

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Working:

+
6e-
Anode Reaction : NaxC6 Nax + 6C +
+ -
Cathode Reaction : Na1-xMO2 + Nax + 6e NaMO2

D
Net Reaction : NaxC6 + Na1-xMO2
R
NaMO2 + 6C

Applications:
 Electric vehicles
 Energy storage systems for solar, wind
 Power backup in electric utilities
 Portable LCD TV, CD player

Li – ion Battery:-

The batteries in which lithium ions are used instead of lithium metal and
movement of lithium ion through electrolyte takes place from one electrode to
another electrode, such batteries ae called Lithium – ion batteries.

Ex: Li – Polymer Battery, Li Cobalt oxide Battery, etc,

Construction and working of LiCoO2 Battery:-

Construction:- 𝑒 −⇅ ⇅𝑒 −

Anode: Lithium Carbon Material (LixC6)

Cathode: Lithiated Cobalt Oxide (Li1-xCoO2) Li+

Cathode
(Li1-xCoO2)
Electrolyte: Lithium Salts Dissolved in
Organic Solvents. Anode
Separator: Polyethylene or Polypropylene (LixC6)

Separator
Li – Salts in org.
Solvents (Electrolyte)

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Working: -

Applications:-
 Mobile devices
 Radio controlled aircraft
 Electric vehicles, Digital Camera
 Fertilizer and Fish feeding devices
 Blood pressure devices, Blood sugar indicators, Insulin pump etc.,

Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s):-

Introduction:-

Quantum dots are the small semiconductor nanoparticles with dimensions

of nanometer.

Ex:- Cadmium Selenide (CdSe), Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Lead Sulfide (PbS), Zinc
Sulphide (ZnS), etc.,

In Quantum dots, the lectrons and holes are confirmed in all three
dimensions, leading to discrete energy levels.

Construction and Working of Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells

(QDSSC’s):-

These are the type of Photovoltaic cells that uses Quantum dots as the light
absorbing material.

Construction: -

A QDSSCs consists of

1. Photo anode: It is working electrode in the cell, over which a wide band gap
semiconductor like TiO2, ZnO etc., is coated with thickness of 10
mm. Outer layer of photoanode is coated with sensitizer
quantum dots (QDs).

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2. Electrolyte: Poly sulphide redox couple is

most commonly used
electrolyte. It is hole
conductor which can
effectively take up the holes
from QDs.

3. Cathode electrode (CE): It is used to

regenerate electrolyte and to
complete the circuit.

Working:-

 Upon absorption of photon a quantum dot excited from ground state to

higher energy state.
Excitation: 𝑄𝐷𝑠 + ℎ𝜈⟶ 𝑄𝐷𝑠∗
 The absorption process results in creation of electron – hole pair.
Electron hole – pair formation: 𝑄𝐷𝑠∗ ⟶𝑄𝐷𝑠 (𝑒−∗+ ℎ+∗)
 The excited electron injected to conduction band of TiO2 semiconductor
leaving holes on the surface of quantum dots.
Injection process: 𝑄𝐷𝑠 (𝑒−∗+ ℎ+∗) + 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 ⟶ 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 (𝑒−∗) + 𝑄𝐷𝑠 (ℎ+∗)
 Injected electrons transported between the TiO2 nano particles and then it
moves to photoanode, from photoanode it moves to cathode electrode (CE)
through external circuit by generating electricity.
Energy generation: 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 (𝑒−∗) + 𝐶𝐸 ⟶ 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 + 𝐶𝐸 (𝑒−∗) + 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
 Holes will be taken up by electrolyte and it gets reduced and regenerate.

Properties:-

 High light absorption.

 Tunable band gap.
 Low cost
 Long life span.

Applications:-

 Portable electronics.
 Building – integrated photovoltaics.
 Off – grid power.
 Automotive (Electric Vehicles).

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 Space applications.
 Artificial photosynthesis.

Sensors:-
Introduction:-

The word “sensor” derives from from Latin word “sensus” and means feeler.

Sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment.

Ex:- Pressure Sensors, Accelerometer, Photodetector, Pyrometer etc..

It is type of Transducer.

Transducer: It is a device that converts energy from one form to another

Sensor: Converts an Physical input into a electrical signal

Ex: - Potentiometer, Conductometer, Colorimeter,

Actuator: Converts an electrical signal to physical output.

Ex: - Alarm, LED, Electric motor, etc.,

Types of Sensors:-

1. Based on Conversion:
i. Thermoelectric
ii. Photoelcetric

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iii. Electromagnetic
2. Based on output
i. Temperature and light source
3. Based on Detection:
i. Chemical
ii. Biological
iii. Electric

Chemical Sensor:

It is a device that is capable to giving real time analytical information about

test sample.

Example: - Electrochemical, Conductometric, Optical Sensors etc…..

It interacts with a specific chemical analyte, detects it and produces the

signal proportional to its quantity.

In chemical sensors, Analyte (Test Solution) is the target species which is

being detected and measured using a sensor.

It consists of there major components

a. Receptor
b. Transducer
c.
d. Electrical Signal and Display

Analyte

Product Display
Signal Processor &
Amplifier

Receptor Transducer

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Conductometric Sensors

Principle:-

 Conductometric Sensors are the

Electrochemical Sensors, Based on the
measurement of electrical conductance of
analyte solution.
 In which, determination of concentration of
analyte is based on measurement of changes
occurs in electrolyte solution.
 The electrode (Conductivity Cell) used to
measure change in electrolytic conduction of an electrolyte.
 Conduction of a solution is based on

1. Number of ions present in the solution.

2. Mobility of ions.

Applications:

 Used to estimate acids and bases in a sample.

 Used to estimate the amount of acids in a their mixtures.
 Used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water sample.
 Used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
 Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environmental
monitoring.
 Used in biotechnology and agriculture related applications.

Electrochemical Sensors

Principle:-

 Electrochemical Sensors are measures the concentration of analyte solution

by oxidizing or reducing the analyte solution at an electrode.
 The transducer component of Electrochemical Sensor consists of working or
sensing, counter and reference electrode and electrolyte solution.
 The sensing electrode is chemically modified, therefore it ensures the sensing
of oxidation and reduction of the analyte solution.
 The electrolyte is a part of electric circuit of an electrochemical sensor
system.

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 Electrolyte is transport charge within the sensor, stabilize the reactants and
products for efficient transport and stable under all the conditions of sensor
operation.

Application:-

 Used for detection of dissolved oxygen in water boiler. (oxygen sensor)

 Used for water analysis and Environmental monitoring like detection of
nitrogen, Sulphur and carbon monoxide and pH of water.
 Used in diagnostic and health care applications like monitoring of glucose,
bold Ca2+, Fe2+ etc.
 Used in soil parameter analysis and agriculture application.
 Used in security and defense applications.

Thermometric Sensors

These are based on the measurement of thermal changes during the

interaction between analyte and receptor.

In which thermal changes are converted to measurable change in the

temperature.

Working Principle:-

 It consists of a small tabular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature

transducer.
 Analyte is fed into the reactor.
 The wall of the reactor is coated with a catalyst, which catalyzing the
reaction, liberating heat energy.
 Heat liberated is quantified by means of a temperature transducer.
 The change in temperature is converted to the output voltage by transducer,
which is amplified and fed to the data storage and processing unit.

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Applications:-

 Thermal Biosensors are used in enzymatic reactions.

 Thermometric chemical sensors are used for determination of combustible
gases.
 Used to measure and control temperature in industrial process.

Ex: - Chemical reaction, Manufacturing and Power generation.

 Used in Air conditioning systems.

 Used in medical equipment such as Thermometers, Fever Scanners etc.,
 Used in Automotive applications.

Ex: - Battery management, Air Conditioning Control, Engine Temperature

Monitoring, etc.,

 Used for Environmental Monitoring.

Ex: - Monitoring the Weather Stations, Climate Change.

 Used in Research and Development to measure temperature in Laboratory

Experiments.
 Used in Food processing and Packing, Temperature monitoring systems.

Optical Sensors

Sensors based on the transduction of interaction of electromagnetic

radiation with the chemical species are called optical sensors.

These sensors are the devices that converts light energy into electrical
signals.

These sensors are having ability to detect electromagnetic radiations.

Working:-

 Optical transduction based on emission, absorption, reflection and

scattering of light by the analyte.
 The optical signals arises from the interaction of the analyte with an incident
radiation.
 The interaction depends on the wavelength of the light and molecules
present in the analyte.
 The intensity of light converts into a signals and send it to photoelectric
display.

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Applications:-

 Used in smartphones for adjusting the brightness of the screen.

 Used in Smart Watches to measure the heartbeat of the person.
 Used in biomedical applications for breath analysis and heart rate
monitoring.
 Used as water level indicators.
 Used in imaging's, remote sensing satellite, metrology medical devices.
 Used in medical and healthcare services.

Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Electrochemical DO sensors, are also called as amperometric sensors,

measures dissolved oxygen concentration in water based on electrical current
produced.

Galvanic sensors is an electrochemical sensors, which is used to measure

DO.

Construction:-

Anode: - It is made up of Zn or Pb or other active metals.

Cathode: - It is made up of gold or Silver.

Electrolyte: - Active electrolytes like NaOH, KOH, NaCl,

NaBr are used.

Membrane: - It allows the diffusion of oxygen from

analyte solution to electrode. (Teflon
layer used as membrane)

Principle:-

 DO sensors is immersed in water sample.

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 In which O2 diffuses through oxygen permeable membrane and the rate of

diffusion proportional to the pressure of O2 in the water.
 The oxygen reduces to OH- at the cathode.
 This reaction produces an electrochemical current, which is directly related
to the O2 concentration.

Reactions:-

Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Pharmaceuticals

Consider an example of Diclofenac as a Pharmaceutical compound.

Diclofenac: - It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for treatment of

diseases, like acute muscle pain and osteoarthritis. Under low
concentration dose, it does not causes any side effects, but on
overdose due to its poor biodegradation it can cause adverse effects
in the human body. So determination of its concentration is very
important and is determined using electrochemical sensors.

Measurement of Pharmaceutical (Diclofenac) using Electrochemical Sensors:-

By using Electrochemical Sensors with Modified Carbon Electrode,

Pharmaceuticals (Diclofenac) concentration was determined.

Construction:-

 It consists of carbon paste with MWCNT coated with graphene act as working
electrode.
 It consists of carbon paste with MWCNT with or without graphene act as
counter electrode.
 It consists of Ag/Agcl electrode act as reference electrode.

Working:-

 When sensors was immersed in the sample having Diclofenac, oxidation of

Diclofenac occurs at carbon electrode to release electrons to form radical
intermediates and followed by hydrolysis of radical intermediate species.
 The reactions on the electrode cause the current flow.

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 The generation of current equivalent to the quality of diclofenac oxidized.

 The concentration of diclofenac can be evaluated with aid of electronic
devices.

Reactions:-

Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Hydrocarbons:-

Consider 1-Hydroxypyrrene as an example for Hydrocarbon.

Construction:- Note:-

PAMAM: Dendrimer
Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO (Composite) polyamidoamine

Cr-MOF: Chromium-centered
Counter Electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
metal–organic framework
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl Operating GO: Graphene Oxide

Voltage: +0.7 to −0.5 V

Working:-
 When electrode are immersed and voltage is applied, hydroxyl groups in 1-
Hydroxypyrene get oxidized on working electrode.
 This electrochemical reactions generates electrons.
 The current produced is directly proportional to the concentration of 1-
Hydroxypyrrene.

+𝐻 + +2𝑒 − + H2O

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Electrochemical Gas Sensors:-

Electrochemical gas sensors are devices that detect the presence of certain
gases in the environment by converting the gas molecules into an electrical signal
through electrochemical reactions.

Electrochemical Gas Sensors for NOx Determination:-

Construction: - The Electrochemical NO gas Sensor
consists of
 Au electrode as sensing / working electrode.
 Pt-wire as counter electrode.
 Ag/Agcl electrode as reference electrode.
 KOH or NaOH as electrolyte.
 It consists of hydrophobic membrane, which
allows the movement of NO gas and restricts the
penetration of moisture.

Working:-
 When gas contacting NOx comes in contact with hydrophobic membrane, it
allows only NOx gas molecules.
 When NOx gas reaches to the working electrode, the NOx gas undergo
oxidation reaction.
 This reaction generates an electric current the flows between the working
electrode and counter electrode.
 The current generated is proportional to the concentration of NOx gases in
the gas mixture.

Reaction:-
𝑁𝑂 𝑁𝑂+ + 𝑒 −
𝑁𝑂 + + 𝑂𝐻 − 𝐻𝑁𝑂2
𝐻𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑁𝑂3 − + 2𝑒 − + 3𝐻 +

Electrochemical Gas Sensors for SOx Determination:-

Construction: - The Electrochemical NO gas

Sensor consists of
 Au electrode as sensing / working electrode.
 Pt-wire as counter electrode.
 Ag/Agcl electrode as reference electrode.
 KOH or NaOH as electrolyte.

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 It consists of Wetting Filters, which allows the movement of SO gas and

restricts the penetration of moisture.

Working:-
 When SO2 gas enters the sensor, it undergoes oxidation to produce oxygen
free radicals.
 The free radicals then react with other oxygen molecules in the sensor to
produce molecular oxygen.
 During this process, electrons are consumed from the sensor's electrode for
the reduction of oxygen, and the number of electrons on the electrode
surface decreases.
 This change in the number of electrons creates an electrical signal that can
be measured and used to determine the concentration of SO2 gas in the
environment.

Reaction:-

Disposable Sensors:-
These are the sensors, designed for a single use and then disposed after its
usage.
Ex: - Blood glucose test strips sensors, Pregnancy test strips sensors, Drug and
Alcohol test strips sensors, Pulse Oximeter, Insulin pump sensors, etc.,

Advantages: -
 These are biodegradable and sustainable in nature.
 These are cheaper than classical sensors.
 These are convenient to use.
 These are small and light weight.
 These are portable in nature.
 Decreases the environmental pollution.
 Prevents the contamination of sample.
 Requires short duration for analysis.
 Reduced waste.

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Electrochemical Disposable sensor Determination of Biomolecule

(Ascorbic acid) (AA):-
Ascorbic acid, also known as Vitamin C, is an essential well-known
antioxidant and essential nutrient in human diets and is also used as a food
preservative. The detection of ascorbic acid can be important in various fields, such
as food safety and medical diagnosis.

Working:-
 The sample is then applied to the graphene-
based electrode, and an electrochemical
reaction occurs between AA and the electrode
surface.
 In this reaction, AA is oxidized to form DHA,
and electrons are released to the electrode
surface.
 The number of electrons released is proportional to the concentration of AA
in the sample.

Electrochemical Disposable sensor Determination of Pesticide (Glyphosate):-

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide and one of the most commonly
used pesticides in the world. Glyphosate has become a controversial pesticide due
to concerns about its potential impact on human health and the environment.
Some studies have suggested that exposure to glyphosate may be linked to health
problems such as cancer, developmental disorders, and endocrine disruption.

The sensor is a silicon- based chip comprising of three-electrode system. It

is fabricated by electro deposition technique.

Construction:-

 Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm

thickness gold nanoparticles.

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 Counter Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm

thickness gold nanoparticles.
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/Cl.
 Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and
minimizes the resistance between the working and counter electrode.

Working:-

 A potential of 0.78V is applied to the working electrode, which is made of

gold.
 When the glyphosate molecules come into contact with the electrode surface,
they undergo oxidation, which leads to a change in the current in the
electrolyte medium.
 The change in the current is directly proportional to the concentration of
glyphosate in the sample.

Reactions:
At the Anode: (working electrode, which is positively charged):
Glyphosate (Gly) + H2O → GlyO4P + H+ + 2e-
At the Cathode: (counter electrode, which is negatively charged):
2H+ + 2e- H2

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