Edexcel IGCSE Biology Your notes

Nutrition
Contents
The Process of Photosynthesis
Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis
Leaf: Structure & Adaptations
Plants & Mineral Ions
Practical: Investigating Photosynthesis
Balanced Diet
Human Alimentary Canal: Structure & Function
Peristalsis
Role of Digestive Enzymes
Bile
Small Intestine: Structure & Adaptations
Practical: Energy Content of a Food Sample

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 The Process of Photosynthesis
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Photosynthesis Theory
Photosynthesis is a process in which energy from sunlight is transferred to the chloroplasts in
green plants
Energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment found inside
chloroplasts
Green plants use this energy to make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials
carbon dioxide and water
At the same time, oxygen is made and released as a waste product
Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates
from raw materials using energy from light
Plants are producers – they can make their own food and so are the first organism at the start
of all food chains

The products of photosynthesis

Plants use the glucose they make as a source of energy in respiration
They can also use it to
Produce starch for storage
Synthesise lipids for an energy source in seeds
To form cellulose to make cell walls
Produce amino acids (used to make proteins) when combined with nitrogen and other
mineral ions absorbed by roots

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 Your notes

Once the carbon from carbon dioxide is taken into the plant and converted to glucose in
photosynthesis, it can then be converted and used in many different types of biological
molecule.

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If asked for the raw materials required for photosynthesis, the answer is carbon dioxide
and water. Although required for the reaction to take place, light energy is not a
substance and therefore cannot be a raw material.

Photosynthesis Equations
Photosynthesis can be summarised in a word equation as shown below:

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 Your notes

Word equation for photosynthesis

Sources of the reactants and uses of the products of photosynthesis

This equation can also be shown as a balanced chemical symbol equation
Six carbon dioxide molecules combine with six water molecules to make one glucose
molecule and six oxygen molecules

The balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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The photosynthesis equation is the exact reverse of the aerobic respiration equation so if
you have learned one you also know the other one!
Your notes

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 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis
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Limiting Factors
Plants do not have unlimited supplies of their raw materials so their rate of photosynthesis is
limited by whatever factor is the lowest at that time
So a limiting factor can be defined as something present in the environment in such short
supply that it restricts life processes
There are three main factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis:
Temperature
Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration
Although water is necessary for photosynthesis, it is not considered a limiting factor as the
amount needed is relatively small compared to the amount of water transpired from a plant
so there is hardly ever a situation where there is not enough water for photosynthesis
The number of chloroplasts or the amount of chlorophyll in the chloroplasts can also affect
the rate of photosynthesis

Temperature
The temperature of the environment affects how much kinetic energy all particles have – so
temperature affects the speed at which carbon dioxide and water move through a plant
The lower the temperature, the less kinetic energy particles have, resulting in fewer
successful collisions occurring over a period of time
Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, increasing the likelihood of
collisions between reactants and enzymes which results in the formation of products
At higher temperatures, however, enzymes that control the processes of photosynthesis
can be denatured (where the active site changes shape and is no longer complementary to
its substrate) – this reduces the overall rate of photosynthesis

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 Your notes

The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity
The intensity of the light available to the plant will affect the amount of energy that it has to
carry out photosynthesis
The more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate
from increasing further because it is now in short supply, this factor becomes the limiting
factor

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 Your notes

Graph showing the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide concentration
Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis
This means the more carbon dioxide that is present, the faster the reaction can occur
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the rate
from increasing further because it is now in short supply, this factor becomes the limiting
factor

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 A graph showing the effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on the rate of
photosynthesis
Your notes
Chlorophyll
The number of chloroplasts (as they contain the pigment chlorophyll which absorbs light
energy for photosynthesis) will affect the rate of photosynthesis
The more chloroplasts a plant has, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
The amount of chlorophyll can be affected by:
Diseases (such as tobacco mosaic virus)
Lack of nutrients (such as magnesium)
Loss of leaves (fewer leaves means fewer chloroplasts)
Genetic factors in the plants, such as whether they have variegated leaves

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Interpreting graphs of limiting factors can be confusing for many students, but it’s quite
simple. In the section of the graph where the rate is increasing (the line is going up), the
limiting factor is whatever the label on the x axis (the bottom axis) of the graph is. In the
section of the graph where the rate is not increasing (the line is horizontal), the limiting
factor will be something other than what is on the x axis – choose from temperature, light
intensity or carbon dioxide concentration.

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 Leaf: Structure & Adaptations
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Leaf Structure
Plant leaves have complex structures with layers of different tissues containing specially
adapted cells
The table below describes the different structures in a leaf and their functions

Leaf structures table

Structure Description

Wax cuticle Protective layer on upper and lower sides of the leaf, prevents water loss

Upper Thin and transparent to allow light to enter palisade mesophyll layer
epidermis underneath it

Palisade Column-shaped cells tightly packed with chloroplasts to absorb more light,
mesophyll maximising photosynthesis

Spongy Contains internal air spaces that increase the surface area to volume ratio for
mesophyll the diffusion of gases (mainly carbon dioxide)

Lower Contains guard cells and stomata

epidermis

Guard cell Absorbs and loses water to open and close the stomata to allow carbon
dioxide to diffuse in, oxygen to diffuse out

Stomata Where gas exchange takes place: opens during the day, closes during the
night. Evaporation of water also takes place from here. In most plants, more
stomata are found on the underside of the leaf to reduce water loss

Vascular Contains xylem and phloem to transport substances to and from the leaf
bundle

Xylem Transports water into the leaf for mesophyll cells to use in photosynthesis and
for transpiration from stomata

Phloem Transports sucrose and amino acids around the plant

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 Your notes

Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis:

Leaves have a large surface area to increase the area for the diffusion of carbon dioxide
and absorption of light for photosynthesis
Leaves are thin, which allows carbon dioxide to diffuse to palisade mesophyll cells
quickly
Cells in the leaf have chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll; chlorophyll absorbs light
energy required for photosynthesis to take place
The network of veins in the leaf allows the transport of water to the cells of the leaf and
carbohydrates from the leaf for photosynthesis (water is used for photosynthesis, and
carbohydrates are a product of photosynthesis)
Stomata in the leaf allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse
out
The epidermis is thin and transparent, allowing more light to reach the palisade cells
The thin cuticle made of wax protects the leaf without blocking sunlight

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The palisade cell layer at the top of the leaf maximises the absorption of light as it will hit
the chloroplasts in the cells directly
Your notes
The spongy layer contains air spaces that allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through the
leaf, increasing the surface area for exchange

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 Plants & Mineral Ions
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Mineral Ions
Photosynthesis provides a source of carbohydrates, but plants contain and require many
other types of biological molecule; such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids (DNA)
As plants do not eat, they need to make these substances themselves
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but proteins, for
example, contain nitrogen as well (and certain amino acids contain other elements too)
Two fundamental mineral ions required by plants are nitrate and magnesium, without a
source of these elements, plants cannot photosynthesise or grow properly
Plants obtain these elements in the form of mineral ions actively absorbed from the soil by
root hair cells
‘Mineral’ is a term used to describe any naturally occurring inorganic substance

Mineral ion function and deficiencies in plants table

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 Your notes

The effect of mineral deficiencies on plants

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 Practical: Investigating Photosynthesis
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Practical: Evolution of Oxygen

We can demonstrate the evolution of oxygen (from the process of photosynthesis) using a
water plant such as Elodea
As photosynthesis occurs, oxygen gas produced is released
As the plant is in water, the oxygen released can be seen as bubbles leaving the cut end of
the pondweed

Apparatus
Beaker
Pondweed
Funnel
Boiling tube
Splint
Bunsen burner (for the oxygen test)
Heat proof mat

Method
Take a bundle of shoots of a type of pondweed
Submerge them in a beaker of water underneath an upturned funnel
Fill a boiling tube with water and place it over the end of the funnel
As oxygen is produced, the bubbles of gas will collect in the boiling tube and displace the
water

Results and analysis

Show that the gas collected is oxygen by relighting a glowing splint
The quantity of bubbles / volume of oxygen can also be measured in order to investigate
the rate of photosynthesis over a certain amount of time

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 Your notes

Experiment to show the evolution of oxygen from a water plant

Practical: Investigating Light &

Photosynthesis
Although plants synthesise glucose during photosynthesis, their leaves cannot be tested for
its presence as the glucose produced is quickly used up, converted into other substances
and transported or stored as starch
Starch is stored in the chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch
is a reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising

Apparatus
A plant
Aluminium foil
Safety goggles
Beakers
Boiling tubes
Water bath/kettle
Forceps
Ethanol
Iodine solution
White tile

Investigating the requirement for light in

photosynthesis

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 Before testing for starch, complete the following procedure:

Method Part 1 - Preparing the leaf to be tested Your notes

De-starch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not
affect the results of the experiment
Following de-starching, partially cover a leaf of the plant with aluminium foil and place the
plant in sunlight for a day
Remove the covered leaf and test for starch using the method below

Method Part 2 - Testing the leaf for starch

Safety notes:
Ethanol is highly flammable and must be kept away from naked flames. Use a water bath
or a beaker of water boiled in a kettle instead of a Bunsen burner to heat ethanol
Safety goggles must be worn when handling ethanol and iodine solution
Handle hot liquids carefully
Remove the foil from the leaf and drop the leaf in a beaker of just boiled water for 5 minutes
This denatures enzymes and softens the leaf
Using forceps, transfer the leaf to a boiling tube and add enough ethanol to cover the leaf.
Place the boiling tube in a beaker of hot water or in a water bath for 5-10 minutes, or until all of
the green colouring (chlorophyll) has been removed from the leaf
Placing the leaf in boiling ethanol removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from
iodine can be seen more clearly
Using forceps, place the leaf in a beaker of warm water
This softens the leaf tissue after being in ethanol
Using forceps, spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution

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 Your notes

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 Your notes

Results and analysis

When tested for starch, a green leaf fully exposed to light should turn blue-black as
photosynthesis is occurring in all areas of the leaf
The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain yellow-brown as it did
not receive any sunlight and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to sunlight
will turn blue-black

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 Your notes

When the cells of the leaf can't photosynthesise they break down starch to use the
glucose for respiration
This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch

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 Your notes

Photosynthesis cannot occur in sections of the leaf where light cannot reach the chloroplasts
In the experiment example shown above, after testing for starch the majority of the leaf
would appear blue-black, however there would be a strip of orange-brown with a blue-black
triangle in the centre

Safety
Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable
The safest way to heat the ethanol is to use an electric water bath or water from a just-boiled
kettle

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

When designing a practical investigation, remember to consider CORMS

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 Your notes

CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, the CORMS should look something like this:
C - changing whether there is light or no light onto the leaf
O - leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and size of the plant
R - repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
M1 - observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied
M2 - ...after 1 day
S - control the temperature of the room

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that when using CORMS you must make sure to use the word same when
stating your Organism e.g. same species. Then you have to pick a different factor for your
Same part of the answer. There are often two marks available for listing two different
control variables for the Same part of the answer.

Practical: Investigating Carbon Dioxide &

Photosynthesis
The iodine test for starch can be used to investigate the requirement for carbon dioxide in
photosynthesis
Before testing for starch, complete the following procedure:

Apparatus

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 Conical flasks
Potassium hydroxide solution Your notes
Clamps
Clamp stands
A plant
Beakers
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Gauze platform
Prongs
Ethanol
Safety goggles
Iodine solution
White tile

Method
De-starch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not
affect the results of the experiment
Following de-starching, enclose one leaf with a conical flask containing potassium
hydroxide
The potassium hydroxide will absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air
Enclose another leaf with a conical flask containing no potassium hydroxide (control
experiment)
Place the plant in bright light for several hours
Test both leaves for starch using iodine solution
Drop the leaf in boiling water
Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
Rinse the leaf in cold water
Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution

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 Your notes

Experiment to test if carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis

Results
The leaf from the conical flask containing potassium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as
it could not photosynthesise due to lack of carbon dioxide
The leaf from the control conical flask not containing potassium hydroxide should turn blue-
black as it had all necessary requirements for photosynthesis

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
C - We are changing whether there is carbon dioxide or no carbon dioxide

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 O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and size of plant
R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable Your notes
M1 - We will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied
M2 - ...after 1 day
S - We will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity

Practical: Investigating Chlorophyll and

Photosynthesis
Starch is stored in chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch is a
reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising
This method can also be used to test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis by
using a variegated leaf (one that is partially green and partially white)

Apparatus
Beakers
Leaf tissue (leaves must be variegated)
Bunsen burner
Tripod
Gauze platform
Prongs
Ethanol
Safety goggles
Iodine solution
White tile

Method
Drop the leaf in boiling water
This kills the tissue and breaks down the cell walls
Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
This removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
Rinse the leaf in cold water
This is done to soften the leaf tissue after being in ethanol
Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution

Safety
Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at
that stage of the experiment, the Bunsen burner should be turned off

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 The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over
a Bunsen burner with an open flame
Results and analysis Your notes

The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the areas
that contain chlorophyll stain blue-black
The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no photosynthesis is occurring
here and so no starch is stored

Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work

When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
C - We are changing whether there is chlorophyll or no chlorophyll
O - The leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age and size of the
plant
R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
M1 - We will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied
M2 - ...after 1 day
S - We will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Don't forget that CORMS questions in your exams will likely ask about unfamiliar
experiments so you need to practice applying CORMS to lots of different practical

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scenarios.

Your notes

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 Balanced Diet
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The Importance of a Balanced Diet

A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions
The necessary key food groups are:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Dietary fibre
Vitamins
Minerals (mineral ions)
Water

Malnutrition
Having an unbalanced diet can lead to malnutrition
Malnutrition can cause a variety of different health problems in humans

Causes and effects of malnutrition table

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 Your notes

Sources & Functions of Dietary Elements

There are seven main food groups. These are:
Carbohydrates
Function: source of energy
Sources: bread, cereals, pasta, rice, potatoes
Protein
Function: growth and repair
Sources: meat, fish, eggs, pulses, nuts
Lipid (fats and oils)
Function: insulation and energy storage
Sources: butter, oil, nuts
Dietary fibre
Function: provides bulk (roughage) for the intestine to push food through it

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 Sources: vegetables, whole grains
Vitamins and minerals
Your notes
Function: needed in small quantities to maintain health
Sources: fruits and vegetables, meats, dairy products
Water
Function: needed for chemical reactions to take place in the body
Sources: water, juice, milk, fruits and vegetables
Some examples of vitamins and minerals include:
Calcium is needed for strong teeth and bones and is involved in the clotting of blood
Calcium is found in milk, cheese, and eggs
A deficiency can lead later in life to osteoporosis, a condition in which the bones
become less dense and more fragile, making them more likely to break (fracture)
Vitamin D helps the body to absorb calcium and is required for strong bones and teeth
Vitamin D can be found in oily fish and dairy products, and is also made naturally by
the body in sunlight
A severe deficiency of vitamin D can lead to rickets, a condition in children
characterised by poor bone development
Vitamin C forms an essential part of collagen protein, which makes up the skin, hair,
gums, and bones
A deficiency can cause scurvy. It is found in citrus fruits and some green vegetables
Vitamin A is needed to make the pigment in the retina for vision
It can be found in meat, liver, dairy, leafy green vegetables like spinach, and eggs
Iron is needed to make haemoglobin, the pigment in red blood cells that helps to carry
oxygen
It can be found in red meat, liver, leafy green vegetables, and spinach

Variation in Energy Requirements

The nutritional requirements for individuals will vary throughout their lifetime
An individual will still require the same key food groups, but in different quantities depending
on a number of factors such as age, height, sex, activity levels, pregnancy and breastfeeding
The amount of energy that young people need increases towards adulthood as this
energy is needed for growth. Children need a higher proportion of protein in their diet
than adults as this is required for growth
Energy needs of adults decrease as they age
The more active, the more energy required for movement as muscles are contracting
more and respiring faster
During pregnancy, energy requirements increase as energy is needed to support the
growth of the developing fetus, as well as the larger mass that the mother needs to carry

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around. Extra calcium and iron are also needed in the diet to help build the bones, teeth,
and blood of the fetus
For breastfeeding mothers, energy requirements increase and extra calcium is still Your notes
needed to make high-quality breast milk

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Human Alimentary Canal: Structure & Function
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The Structure & Function of the Alimentary

Canal
The digestive system is an example of an organ system
Digestion is a process in which relatively large, insoluble molecules in food (such as starch,
proteins) are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream and delivered to cells in the body
These small soluble molecules (such as glucose and amino acids) are used either to provide
cells with energy (via respiration), or with materials with which they can build other molecules
to grow, repair and function
The human digestive system is made up of the organs that form the alimentary canal and
accessory organs
The alimentary canal is the channel or passage through which food flows through the
body, starting at the mouth and ending at the anus
Digestion occurs within the alimentary canal
Accessory organs produce substances that are needed for digestion to occur (such as
enzymes and bile) but food does not pass directly through these organs

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 Your notes

The human digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory organs
that work together to break large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules
Alimentary canal and accessory structures table
Structure Function

Mouth / salivary Mechanical digestion: teeth chew food to break it into smaller pieces and
glands increase its surface area to volume ratio
Chemical digestion: amylase enzymes in saliva start digesting starch into
maltose
The food is shaped into a bolus (ball) and lubricated by saliva so it can be
swallowed easily

Oesophagus The tube that connects the mouth to the stomach

Wave-like contractions take place to push the food bolus down without
relying on gravity

Stomach Food is mechanically digested by churning actions while protease enzymes

start to chemically digest proteins.

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 Hydrochloric acid is present to kill bacteria in food and provide the
optimum pH for protease enzymes to work.
Your notes
Small intestine The first section is called the duodenum; this is where digestion of the food
exiting the stomach is completed by enzymes that are present in the
duodenum lining and secreted by the pancreas
The pH of the small intestine is slightly alkaline; around pH 8-9.
The second section is called the ileum and is where the absorption of water
and digested food molecules takes place; the ileum is long and lined with
villi to increase the surface area over which absorption can take place

Large intestine Water is absorbed from the remaining material in the colon to produce
faeces
Faeces are stored in the rectum and exit the body via the anus

Pancreas Produces all three types of digestive enzymes: amylase, protease and
lipase
Secretes enzymes in an alkaline fluid into the duodenum for digestion; this
raises the pH of fluid coming out of the stomach

Liver Amino acids that are not used to make proteins are broken down here
(deamination), producing urea
Produces bile to emulsify fats (break large droplets into smaller droplets),
an example of mechanical digestion

Gall bladder Stores bile to release into the duodenum

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 Peristalsis
Your notes

Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a mechanism that helps moves food along the alimentary canal
Firstly, muscles in the walls of the oesophagus create waves of contractions which force the
bolus along
Once the bolus has reached the stomach, it is churned into a less solid form, called chyme,
which continues on to the small intestine
Peristalsis is controlled by circular and longitudinal muscles
Circular muscles contract to reduce the diameter of the lumen of the oesophagus or
small intestine
Longitudinal muscles contract to reduce the length of that section the oesophagus or
the small intestine
Mucus is produced to continually lubricate the food mass and reduce friction
Dietary fibre provides the roughage required for the muscles to push against during
peristalsis

Muscles in the alimentary canal contract rhythmically to move the partially digested food
along in a wave-like action

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Role of Digestive Enzymes
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The Role of Digestive Enzymes

The purpose of digestion is to break down large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream
Food is partially digested mechanically (by chewing, churning and emulsification) in order to
break large pieces of food into smaller pieces of food which increases the surface area for
enzymes to work on
Digestion mainly takes place chemically, where bonds holding the large molecules together
are broken to make smaller and smaller molecules
Chemical digestion is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different areas of the
digestive system
Enzymes are biological catalysts – they speed up chemical reactions without themselves
being used up or changed in the reaction
There are three main types of digestive enzymes – carbohydrases, proteases and lipases

Carbohydrases
Carbohydrases are enzymes that break down carbohydrates to simple sugars such as
glucose
Two examples of carbohydrases are amylase and maltase
Amylase is a carbohydrase which breaks down starch into maltose
Amylase is made in the salivary glands, the pancreas and the small intestine
Amylase produced by the salivary glands gets denatured by acid in the stomach
The pancreas also produces amylase, which is released into the small intestine,
where it acts.
The small intestine also produces a small amount of amylase
Maltase then breaks down maltose into glucose
Maltase is made in the small intestine, which is where it also acts to breakdown the sugar
maltose into glucose

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 Starch is broken down into glucose using two enzymes: amylase and maltase

Proteases Your notes

Proteases are a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids
Pepsin is an enzyme made in the stomach which breaks down proteins into smaller
polypeptide chains
Protease enzymes made in the pancreas and small intestine break the polypeptide chains
into amino acids

Proteins are broken down using pepsin and other proteases

Lipases
Lipases are enzymes that break down lipids (fats) to glycerol and fatty acids
Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into the small intestine

Diagram showing the digestion of lipids

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The pancreas is an accessory organ in the digestive system. Food does not pass directly
through it, but it has a key role in producing digestive enzymes to be released into the

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small intestine, as well as the hormone insulin.

Your notes

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 Bile
Your notes

Bile Production & Storage

Bile is an alkaline substance produced by cells in the liver
Before being released into the small intestine, bile is stored in the gall bladder

Bile production and secretion

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Bile contains bile salts, which emulsify lipids. In exam answers, it is usually acceptable to
say that “bile emulsifies lipids,” but the molecule responsible is actually the bile salts.

The Role of Bile

Bile has two main roles:
1. Neutralising the hydrochloric acid from the stomach
The alkaline properties of bile allow for this to occur
This neutralisation is essential as enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more
alkaline) optimum pH than those in the stomach
2. Breaking apart large drops of lipids (fats) into smaller ones (and so increasing their
surface area)

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 This is known as emulsification
The more alkaline conditions and larger surface area allows lipase to chemically break down
the lipid molecules into glycerol and fatty acids at a faster rate Your notes

Bile salts break large lipid droplets into smaller ones with a larger surface area

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of
paper. This is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking
something into smaller pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of
the molecules which make it up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.

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 Small Intestine: Structure & Adaptations
Your notes

Absorption of Food & Water

Absorption is the movement of small digested food molecules from the digestive system
into the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)
Absorption of small soluble molecules occurs through diffusion and sometimes active
transport
Water is absorbed (by osmosis) primarily in the small intestine, but also in the large intestine

Adaptations of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded surface
with millions of villi (tiny, finger-like projections)
These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the small intestine, allowing
absorption to take place faster and more efficiently
Peristalsis helps by mixing together food and enzymes and by keeping things moving along
the alimentary canal

The role of villi in the small intestine

Villi have several specific adaptations which allow for the rapid absorption of substances,
such as:
A large surface area
Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase the surface available for
absorption
A short diffusion distance
The wall of a villus is only one cell thick
A steep concentration gradient
The villi are well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose
and amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood
A lacteal (lymph vessel) runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids
and glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph
Enzymes produced in the walls of the villi assist with chemical digestion
The movement of villi helps to move food along and mix it with the enzymes present

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 Your notes

Adaptations of the small intestine

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 Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
The way in which the structure of a villus is related to its function comes up frequently in
exam questions so it is worth ensuring you have learned these adaptations and how they
influence the rate of absorption.

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 Practical: Energy Content of a Food Sample
Your notes

Practical: Energy Content of a Food

Sample
We can investigate the energy content of food in a simple calorimetry experiment

Apparatus
Boiling tube
Boiling tube holder
Bunsen burner
Mounted needle
Measuring cylinder
Balance/scales
Thermometer
Water
Food samples

Method
Use the measuring cylinder to measure out 25 cm3 of water and pour it into the boiling tube
Record the starting temperature of the water using the thermometer
Record the mass of the food sample
Set fire to the sample of food using the bunsen burner and hold the sample 2 cm from the
boiling tube until it has completely burned
Record the final temperature of the water
Repeat the process with different food samples
E.g. popcorn, nuts, crisps

Investigating the energy content of food samples diagram

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 Your notes

Different food samples can be burned in a simple calorimetry experiment to compare the
energy contents of the samples

Results
The larger the increase in water temperature, the more energy is stored in the sample
We can calculate the energy in each food sample using the following equation:

mass of water (g ) × temperature increase ( °C ) × 4 . 2

energy transferred per gram of food (J ) =
mass of food sample (g )
4.2 kJ is the specific heat capacity of water, meaning that it is the energy required to raise 1 kg
of water by 1 °C
1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1 g

The energy content of food samples table

Food Mass Mass Initial water Final water Change in Energy
sample of of temperature temperature water transferred
water food / °C / °C temperature / per gram of
/g /g °C food (J)

Popcorn 25 8.5 20.5 31.2 10.7 132.2

Walnut 25 8.1 20.4 34.1 13.7 177.6

Limitations
Incomplete burning of the food sample

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 Some food may not burn completely, so not all of the energy of the food is released
Solution: relight the food sample until it no longer lights up Your notes
Heat energy loss to the surroundings
Some of the energy from the burning food escapes into the air instead of heating the
water
This can make the calculated energy values lower than the true values
Ways to reduce heat loss:
Simple improvements:
Keep the boiling tube close to the burning food (but safely)
Use a piece of aluminium foil around the tube to reduce heat loss
An alternative is to use a calorimeter:
A calorimeter is a piece of equipment that captures almost all of the heat released
when food burns
Instead of burning food in open air to heat water in a boiling tube, the food is
burned inside the calorimeter
This reduces heat lost to the surroundings and transfers more of the food’s energy
to the water. As a result, the calculated energy content (from measuring the
temperature change in the water) is more accurate and closer to the true energy
stored in the food

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