Engineering Mathematics - Complete Formula
Sheet & Notes
MODULE I: LINEAR ALGEBRA
1. HERMITIAN AND SKEW-HERMITIAN MATRIX
Key Concepts
• Hermitian Matrix: A = A* (conjugate transpose equals itself)
– All diagonal elements are real
– Eigenvalues are real
– Eigenvectors are orthogonal
• Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A = -A*
– All diagonal elements are purely imaginary or zero
– Eigenvalues are purely imaginary or zero
– Always diagonalizable
Formulas
• Conjugate Transpose: A* = Ā^T
• Properties: (A) = A, (AB)* = BA, (A^-1)* = (A*)^-1
Example Question
If A = [[2, 1+i], [1-i, 3]], verify whether A is Hermitian.
Solution: A* = [[2, 1-i], [1+i, 3]] = A � (Hermitian)
2. UNITARY MATRIX
Key Concepts
• AA = AA = I (matrix times its conjugate transpose = Identity)
• All eigenvalues have |�| = 1
• Rows and columns are orthonormal
• Always diagonalizable
Formulas
• A^(-1) = A*
• |det(A)| = 1
• Properties: (AB)* = BA, A^(-1) = A*
1
Example Question
Prove that A = (1/√2)[[1, i], [i, 1]] is unitary.
Solution: A*A = (1/2)[[1, -i], [-i, 1]][[1, i], [i, 1]] = [[1, 0], [0, 1]] = I �
3. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
Key Concepts
• A^T A = AA^T = I (real matrix version)
• det(A) = ±1
• Represents rotations and reflections
• Rows and columns are orthonormal
Formulas
• A^(-1) = A^T
• (AB)^T = B^T A^T
• Properties preserve length: ||Ax|| = ||x||
Example Question
Verify if A = [[cos �, -sin �], [sin �, cos �]] is orthogonal.
Solution: A^T A = [[cos �, sin �], [-sin �, cos �]][[cos �, -sin �], [sin �, cos �]] = I �
4. ELEMENTARY ROW TRANSFORMATION & ROW
ECHELON FORM
Key Concepts
• Row Echelon Form (REF):
1. All zero rows at bottom
2. Leading entry of each row right of leading entry above
3. Leading entry (pivot) � 0
• Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF):
1. REF conditions satisfied
2. Each pivot = 1
3. Pivots are only non-zero entries in their columns
Elementary Operations
1. Ri � Rj (swap rows)
2. kRi → Ri (multiply row by k � 0)
3. Ri + kRj → Ri (add k times row j to row i)
2
Example Question
Reduce [[2, 4, 6], [1, 3, 5], [3, 5, 7]] to row echelon form.
Solution: [[2, 4, 6], [1, 3, 5], [3, 5, 7]] → [[1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2], [0, 0, 0]]
5. RANK OF A MATRIX
Key Concepts
• Number of non-zero rows in row echelon form
• Maximum number of linearly independent rows/columns
• For m×n matrix: rank(A) � min(m,n)
Formulas
• rank(A) = rank(A^T)
• rank(A) + nullity(A) = n (Rank-Nullity theorem)
• rank(AB) � min(rank(A), rank(B))
Example Question
Find rank of A = [[1, 2, 3], [2, 4, 6], [3, 6, 9]].
Solution: R2 → R2 - 2R1, R3 → R3 - 3R1 [[1, 2, 3], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]] →
rank(A) = 1
6. CONSISTENCY OF LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS
Key Concepts
• System AX = B is consistent if rank(A) = rank([A|B])
• Unique solution: rank(A) = rank([A|B]) = n
• Infinite solutions: rank(A) = rank([A|B]) < n
• No solution: rank(A) � rank([A|B])
Example Question
Check consistency: x + 2y = 3, 2x + 4y = 7
Solution: [A|B] = [[1, 2, 3], [2, 4, 7]] rank(A) = 1, rank([A|B]) = 2 1 � 2 →
Inconsistent (No solution)
3
7. GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD
Procedure
1. Augment matrix [A|B]
2. Convert to row echelon form using elementary operations
3. Back substitution to find variables
Example Question
Solve using Gauss elimination: x + 2y + z = 9 2x + y - z = 8 3x - y + 2z = 13
Solution: Augmented matrix → REF → Back substitution → x=2, y=3, z=1
8. GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD
Procedure
1. Augment matrix [A|B]
2. Convert to reduced row echelon form
3. Direct solution (no back substitution needed)
Example Question
Same as above system using Gauss-Jordan method.
Solution: Augmented matrix → RREF → Directly read solution
9. EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Key Concepts
• Characteristic equation: det(A - �I) = 0
• For each eigenvalue �, solve (A - �I)X = 0 for eigenvector X
• Sum of eigenvalues = trace(A) = Σaii
• Product of eigenvalues = det(A)
Formulas
• Characteristic polynomial: |A - �I| = 0
• Eigenvalue equation: AX = �X
• Geometric multiplicity � algebraic multiplicity
Example Question
Find eigenvalues of A = [[4, 1], [2, 3]].
Solution: |A - �I| = (4-�)(3-�) - 2 = �² - 7� + 10 = 0 �� = 5, �� = 2
4
10. CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM
Key Concept
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation. If |A - �I| = �� +
c����¹ + … + c� = 0, then A� + c�A��¹ + … + c�I = 0
Formula
p(A) = 0, where p(�) is the characteristic polynomial
Example Question
Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for A = [[1, 2], [3, 4]].
Solution: Characteristic polynomial: �² - 5� - 2 = 0 Verify: A² - 5A - 2I = 0
11. DIAGONALIZATION OF A MATRIX
Key Concepts
• A = PDP�¹ where D = diagonal matrix of eigenvalues
• P = matrix of eigenvectors
• A is diagonalizable if it has n linearly independent eigenvectors
Formulas
• D = P�¹AP
• A� = PD^nP�¹ (useful for computing powers)
• A is diagonalizable if algebraic multiplicity = geometric multiplicity for
all eigenvalues
Example Question
Diagonalize A = [[3, 1], [0, 2]].
Solution: Eigenvalues: ��=3, ��=2 P = [[1, 1], [0, -1]], D = [[3, 0], [0, 2]]
12. VECTOR SPACE
Key Concepts
• Non-empty set with operations + and scalar multiplication
• Closure, associativity, distributivity laws satisfied
• Contains zero vector and additive inverses
5
• Basis: maximal linearly independent set
• Dimension: number of vectors in any basis
Example Question
Show that V = {(x, y, 0) : x, y � �} is a vector space.
Solution: Verify closure, associativity, distributivity, zero element, inverses →
Vector space �
13. LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDENCE
Key Concepts
• Linearly independent: c�v� + c�v� + … + c�v� = 0 only when all c� = 0
• Linearly dependent: at least one c� � 0 satisfies the above
• Determinant = 0 for dependent vectors in matrix form
Example Question
Check if {(1,2,3), (2,4,6)} are linearly independent.
Solution: (2,4,6) = 2(1,2,3) → Linearly dependent
14. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
Key Concepts
• T: V → W where T(u+v) = T(u) + T(v) and T(cv) = cT(v)
• Kernel: {v � V : T(v) = 0}
• Range: {T(v) : v � V}
• Rank-Nullity theorem: dim(V) = dim(ker T) + dim(range T)
Example Question
Find kernel of T(x,y) = (x+y, x-y).
Solution: T(x,y) = 0 → x+y=0, x-y=0 → x=0, y=0 → ker(T) = {(0,0)}
MODULE II: INFINITE SERIES
6
1. SEQUENCE AND LIMITS
Key Concepts
• Sequence {a�} converges to L: for �>0, �N such that |a�-L|N
• Bounded sequence: |a�| � M for all n
• Monotonic sequence: increasing or decreasing
Example Question
Determine if a� = (n+1)/(2n) converges.
Solution: lim(n→∞) (n+1)/(2n) = 1/2 → Converges to 1/2
2. SERIES: CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE
Key Concepts
• Series Σa� has partial sum S� = a� + a� + … + a�
• Series converges if lim(n→∞) S� = L exists
• Necessary condition for convergence: lim(n→∞) a� = 0
Example Question
Test convergence of Σ 1/n.
Solution: Harmonic series diverges (proven by integral test or p-series with
p=1)
3. COMPARISON TEST
Formula
If 0 � a� � b� for all n: - If Σb� converges, then Σa� converges - If Σa� diverges,
then Σb� diverges
Example Question
Test convergence of Σ 1/(n²+1) using comparison test.
Solution: 1/(n²+1) < 1/n² and Σ 1/n² converges (p-series, p=2>1) → Σ
1/(n²+1) converges
7
4. D’ALEMBERT’S RATIO TEST
Formula
L = lim(n→∞) |a���/a�| - L < 1: Converges absolutely - L > 1: Diverges - L =
1: Inconclusive
Example Question
Test Σ n!/n� using ratio test.
Solution: L = lim (n+1)!/(n+1)��¹ · n�/n! = lim n�/(n+1)� = 1/e < 1 →
Converges
5. RAABE’S TEST
Formula
R = lim(n→∞) n(a�/a��� - 1) - R > 1: Converges - R < 1: Diverges - R = 1:
Inconclusive
Use When
Ratio test gives L = 1 (inconclusive)
Example Question
Test convergence of Σ (2n)!/(n!)² using Raabe’s test.
6. CAUCHY’S NTH ROOT TEST
Formula
L = lim(n→∞) �√|a�| - L < 1: Converges absolutely - L > 1: Diverges - L = 1:
Inconclusive
Example Question
Test Σ (n/(2n+1))� using root test.
Solution: L = lim (n/(2n+1)) = 1/2 < 1 → Converges
8
7. LOGARITHMIC TEST
Formula
L = lim(n→∞) ln(1/a�)/ln n - L > 1: Converges - L < 1: Diverges - L = 1:
Inconclusive
Example Question
Test Σ 1/(n(ln n)²) using logarithmic test.
8. ALTERNATING SERIES - LEIBNITZ’S TEST
Conditions
For Σ(-1)�a�: 1. a� is decreasing 2. lim(n→∞) a� = 0
→ Series converges
Estimation of Error
|Error| < a���
Example Question
Test Σ (-1)�/n for convergence.
Solution: 1/n is decreasing and lim 1/n = 0 → Converges
9. ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE
Definitions
• Absolutely convergent: Σ|a�| converges
• Conditionally convergent: Σa� converges but Σ|a�| diverges
Key Point
Absolutely convergent → Convergent
Example Question
Is Σ (-1)�/n absolutely or conditionally convergent?
Solution: Σ (-1)�/n converges (Leibnitz test) Σ 1/n diverges (harmonic series)
→ Conditionally convergent
9
10. POWER SERIES AND INTERVAL OF CONVER-
GENCE
Formula
Σ a�(x-c)� where c is center
Radius of Convergence: R = 1/lim(n→∞) �√|a�| or R = lim(n→∞) |a�/a���|
Interval of Convergence: (c-R, c+R) or [c-R, c+R] (check endpoints)
Example Question
Find radius and interval of convergence for Σ x�/n!.
Solution: R = lim (n+1)!/n! = ∞ Interval: (-∞, ∞)
MODULE III: COMPLEX ANALYSIS
1. DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM AND ROOTS
Formula
(cos � + i sin �)� = cos(n�) + i sin(n�) Or: (e^(i�))� = e^(in�)
nth Roots of Complex Number
If z = r(cos � + i sin �), then z^(1/n) = r^(1/n)[cos((� + 2k�)/n) + i sin((� +
2k�)/n)] for k = 0, 1, …, n-1
Example Question
Find all cube roots of z = 8i.
Solution: 8i = 8(cos �/2 + i sin �/2) z^(1/3) = 2[cos(�/6 + 2k�/3) + i sin(�/6
+ 2k�/3)] k=0,1,2 give three cube roots
2. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Formula
log z = ln|z| + i(arg z + 2�n), n � � Principal value: Log z = ln|z| + i(arg z)
10
Example Question
Find log(-1).
Solution: log(-1) = ln 1 + i(� + 2�n) = i(� + 2�n)
3. CIRCULAR AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Formulas
Circular Functions: - sin z = (e^(iz) - e^(-iz))/2i - cos z = (e^(iz) + e^(-iz))/2
Hyperbolic Functions: - sinh z = (e^z - e^(-z))/2 - cosh z = (e^z + e^(-z))/2
- tanh z = sinh z/cosh z
Key Relations
• sin z = -i sinh(iz)
• cos z = cosh(iz)
• cosh²z - sinh²z = 1
4. LIMITS, CONTINUITY, DERIVATIVES
Definitions
• Limit: lim(z→z�) f(z) = L
• Continuity: lim(z→z�) f(z) = f(z�)
• Derivative: f’(z�) = lim(h→0) [f(z�+h) - f(z�)]/h
Example Question
Check continuity of f(z) = z² at z = 1+i.
Solution: f(1+i) = (1+i)² = 2i lim(z→1+i) z² = 2i → Continuous �
5. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
Definition
f(z) is analytic at z� if f’(z�) exists in a neighborhood of z�
Properties
• Sum, product, quotient (�0) of analytic functions are analytic
• Composition of analytic functions is analytic
• If f analytic, then f’ is also analytic
11
6. CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS
Equations
If f(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y), then f is analytic iff: - �u/�x = �v/�y - �u/�y = -�v/�x
(Sufficient condition: partial derivatives continuous and C-R equations satisfied)
Example Question
Verify if f(z) = z² satisfies C-R equations.
Solution: f(z) = (x+iy)² = (x²-y²) + 2ixy u = x²-y², v = 2xy �u/�x = 2x =
�v/�y � �u/�y = -2y = -�v/�x � → Satisfies C-R equations
7. HARMONIC FUNCTIONS
Definition
u(x,y) is harmonic if �²u = �²u/�x² + �²u/�y² = 0 (Laplace equation)
Key Property
If f(z) = u + iv is analytic, then both u and v are harmonic
Harmonic Conjugate
For harmonic u, find v such that f = u + iv is analytic
Example Question
Find harmonic conjugate of u = x² - y².
Solution: Using C-R equations: v = 2xy + c
8. CONFORMAL MAPPING
Definition
Mapping that preserves angles between curves
Property
If f(z) is analytic and f’(z) � 0, then w = f(z) is conformal
12
Common Mappings
• w = z: identity
• w = e^z: exponential
• w = z²: quadratic
• w = 1/z: inversion
9. BILINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
Formula
w = (az + b)/(cz + d), where ad - bc � 0
Properties
• Maps circles to circles (or lines)
• Maps cross-ratios to cross-ratios
• Has at most two fixed points (unless identity)
Example Question
Find bilinear transformation mapping 0, 1, ∞ to 1, i, -1.
10. CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREM
Theorem
If f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C, then: �_C f(z)dz = 0
Corollary
Path independence: integral depends only on endpoints, not the path
11. CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA
Formula
If f(z) is analytic inside C and z� inside C: f(z�) = (1/2�i) �_C [f(z)/(z-z�)]dz
Higher Derivatives
f^(n)(z�) = (n!/2�i) �_C [f(z)/(z-z�)^(n+1)]dz
13
Example Question
Evaluate �_C [e^z/(z-1)]dz where C is |z|=2.
Solution: Using Cauchy formula: 2�i · e¹ = 2�ie
12. POWER SERIES IN COMPLEX PLANE
Formula
Σ a�(z-z�)� converges for |z-z�| < R
Radius of Convergence: 1/R = lim(n→∞) �√|a�|
Example Question
Find radius of convergence for Σ z�/n!.
Solution: R = ∞ → Converges for all z
13. TAYLOR AND LAURENT SERIES
Taylor Series
f(z) = Σ f^(n)(z�)/n!� (valid for |z-z�| < R)
Laurent Series
f(z) = Σ(n=-∞ to ∞) a�(z-z�)� (includes negative powers, valid in annulus r� <
|z-z�| < r�)
Example Question
Find Laurent series of f(z) = 1/[z(z-1)] about z=0.
14. ZEROES AND SINGULARITIES
Zero of Order n
f(z�) = 0 and f^(k)(z�) = 0 for k=1,…,n-1 but f^(n)(z�) � 0
Types of Singularities
1. Removable: lim(z→z�) f(z) exists
2. Pole of order n: f(z) ~ a��/(z-z�)�
3. Essential: more complex behavior
14
15. RESIDUES AND RESIDUE THEOREM
Definition of Residue
Residue of f at z� = coefficient of 1/(z-z�) in Laurent series
Calculation Methods
For simple pole at z�: Res(f, z�) = lim(z→z�) (z-z�)f(z)
For pole of order n at z�: Res(f, z�) = [1/(n-1)!] lim(z→z�) d(n-1)/dz (n-1)[(z-
z�)�f(z)]
Residue Theorem
�_C f(z)dz = 2�i Σ Res(f, z�) (sum over poles inside C)
Example Question
Find residue of f(z) = 1/(z²+1) at z = i.
Solution: Res(f, i) = lim(z→i) (z-i)/(z²+1) = 1/2i
16. EVALUATION OF REAL INTEGRALS
Using Residue Theorem
Choose appropriate contour, find residues, apply residue theorem
Common Integrals
��∞^∞ f(x)dx using semicircular contour ��^(2�) R(cos �, sin �)d� using z = e^(i�)
Example Question
Evaluate ��∞^∞ 1/(x²+1)dx.
Solution: Res at z=i: 1/2i � = 2�i · 1/2i = �
MODULE IV: STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
15
1. MOMENTS
Definitions
• rth moment about origin: �’� = E(X�) = Σ x� P(X=x)
• rth central moment: �� = E[(X-�)�] = Σ (x-�)� P(X=x)
Important Moments
• �’� = E(X) = mean
• �� = 0
• �� = E[(X-�)²] = variance = �²
• �’� = E(X²) = variance + mean²
Relation
�� = �’� - (�’�)²
Example Question
Find first two moments about mean for data: 2, 4, 6, 8.
Solution: � = 5, �� = 0, �� = 5
2. SKEWNESS
Formula
Karl Pearson’s coefficient: �� = ��/�³
Alternative: �� = ��²/��³ (Fisher’s measure)
Interpretation
• �� = 0: Symmetric distribution
• �� > 0: Right-skewed
• �� < 0: Left-skewed
Example Question
Calculate skewness if �� = 8, � = 2.
Solution: �� = 8/8 = 1 (right-skewed)
16
3. KURTOSIS
Formula
Excess kurtosis: �� = ��/�� - 3
Alternative: �� = ��/��²
Interpretation
• �� = 0: Normal distribution
• �� > 0: Leptokurtic (peaked)
• �� < 0: Platykurtic (flat)
4. RANDOM VARIABLES
Types
• Discrete: countable outcomes (binomial, Poisson)
• Continuous: uncountable outcomes (normal, exponential)
Probability Functions
• PDF (f(x)): For continuous, �f(x)dx = 1
• PMF (P(X=x)): For discrete, Σ P(X=x) = 1
• CDF (F(x)): P(X � x)
Example Question
If P(X=1)=0.3, P(X=2)=0.5, P(X=3)=0.2, find E(X).
Solution: E(X) = 1(0.3) + 2(0.5) + 3(0.2) = 1.9
5. BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Parameters
n = number of trials, p = probability of success
Formula
P(X=r) = C(n,r) · p^r · (1-p)^(n-r) where r = 0, 1, …, n
Formulas
• Mean: � = np
• Variance: �² = np(1-p)
17
• Standard deviation: � = √[np(1-p)]
Example Question
A coin is tossed 5 times. Find probability of exactly 3 heads.
Solution: P(X=3) = C(5,3) · (1/2)³ · (1/2)² = 10/32 = 5/16
6. POISSON DISTRIBUTION
Parameter
� = mean number of occurrences
Formula
P(X=r) = (e^(-�) · �^r)/r!, r = 0, 1, 2, …
Formulas
• Mean: � = �
• Variance: �² = �
• Standard deviation: � = √�
Example Question
If average calls per hour = 3, find P(exactly 2 calls).
Solution: P(X=2) = (e^(-3) · 3²)/2! = 9e^(-3)/2 � 0.224
7. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Formula
f(x) = [1/(�√(2�))] · e^(-(x-�)²/(2�²))
Parameters
• � = mean
• �² = variance
• � = standard deviation
Standard Normal (Z)
Z = (X - �)/� ~ N(0,1)
18
Properties
• Symmetric about �
• 68% within � ± �
• 95% within � ± 2�
• 99.7% within � ± 3�
Example Question
If X ~ N(50, 25), find P(X > 55).
Solution: Z = (55-50)/5 = 1 P(Z > 1) = 1 - Φ(1) � 0.1587
QUICK REFERENCE FORMULAS
Linear Algebra
• Hermitian: A = A*
• Unitary: A*A = I
• Orthogonal: A^T A = I
• rank + nullity = n
• A = PDP^(-1) (diagonalization)
Infinite Series
• Ratio Test: L = lim|a���/a�|
• Root Test: L = lim �√|a�|
• Raabe’s Test: R = lim n(a�/a��� - 1)
• Power Series: R = 1/lim �√|a�|
Complex Analysis
• C-R Equations: u� = v�, u� = -v�
• Residue (simple pole): lim(z→z�)(z-z�)f(z)
• Residue Theorem: �f(z)dz = 2�i Σ residues
• De Moivre: (cos � + i sin �)� = cos(n�) + i sin(n�)
Probability
• Binomial: P(X=r) = C(n,r)pr(1-p) (n-r), � = np
• Poisson: P(X=r) = (e(-�)� r)/r!, � = �
• Normal: Z = (X-�)/�
Study Tips: 1. Master each concept with the given examples 2. Practice sim-
ilar problems to strengthen understanding 3. Use formulas consistently and un-
derstand their derivation 4. Create visual representations for complex concepts
19
5. Review periodically to retain information 6. Connect topics to real-world
applications
Good luck with your Engineering Mathematics exam!
20