Chapter 3 Data Communication

1. Data
Data refers to raw facts and figures which by themselves have no meaning.
Data is the basic input given to a computer for processing.
Data becomes information after processing.
Examples of Data
• Numbers: 25, 100, 345
• Text: Ali, Karachi
• Symbols: @, #, %
• Pictures, sounds, videos

Types of Data (Table Form)

Type of Data Description Examples

Data that consists of numbers only and is used for
Numeric Data 10, 25, 100, marks, age
calculations.
Text (Alphabetic)
Data that consists of letters and words. Ali, Karachi, Computer
Data
RollNo12, Student5,
Alphanumeric Data Data that contains both letters and numbers.
ID2024
Image / Graphics
Data in the form of pictures or graphics. Photos, diagrams, logos
Data
Audio Data Data in the form of sound or voice. Music, voice recording
Video Data Data in the form of moving pictures with sound. Movies, video lectures

Data vs Information (Examples Table)

Data (Raw Facts & Figures) Information (Processed Data)

50, 65, 80 Marks obtained by a student

3, 7, 12 Total number of students

Ali, Ahmed, Sara List of students’ names

25, 30, 40 Ages of students in a class

1000, 1500, 2000 Monthly salaries of employees

A, B, C Grades of students
 2. Data Communication

Definition:
Data communication means the exchange of data between two or more devices (computers, mobiles, etc.)
through a transmission medium such as cables or wireless signals.
Example:
Sending an email, chatting on WhatsApp, or sharing a file between two computers.
BASIC Components/Elements of Data Communication:
1. Sender: Device that sends the message (e.g., computer)
2. Receiver: Device that receives the message
3. Message: Actual data or information being sent
4. Medium: Path through which data travels (e.g., wire, fiber optics, Wi-Fi)
5. Protocol: Set of rules for communication (e.g., TCP/IP)

3. Data Communications Standards

Definition:
Standards are rules and guidelines that ensure different devices and systems can communicate properly
across networks.
Purpose:
• To make sure data is transmitted correctly and uniformly
• To allow different brands of hardware/software to work together

Examples of Standards Organizations:

Organization Full Form Function

Institute of Electrical and Electronics

IEEE Defines LAN/Wi-Fi standards
Engineers

International Organization for

ISO Develops general networking standards
Standardization

American national standards; hardware + software

ANSA American National Standards Institute
compatibility
 4. Analogue and Digital Signals

Type Description Example Uses

Continuous signal that

Analogue Sound waves, radio
varies smoothly over time. Telephones, radio
Signal signals
Represented by waves.

Discrete signal with only Computers, internet

Digital Computer data, text,
two states — 0 and 1
Signal images
(binary form)

5. Transmission Modes: Asynchronous and Synchronous

When data is sent between devices, it can be transmitted bit-by-bit or in groups — this defines its mode of
transmission.
A. Asynchronous Transmission

In asynchronous transmission each character (usually 1 byte) is framed with a start bit (0) before the data
bits and one or more stop bits (1) after the data. Example (1 byte = 8 bits):
Start(0) | d7 d6 d5 d4 d3 d2 d1 d0 | Stop(1)
So the sender sends 0 11101011 1. The receiver detects the start (0), reads the next 8 bits as a byte, then
checks the stop bit(s). Gaps between characters are allowed in asynchronous mode.
Example:
Typing on a keyboard → each letter goes separately.
• Slower and less efficient due to start/stop bits.

B. Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous transmission, the sender and receiver share the same clock.
Data is sent in large blocks continuously with no start or stop bits.
This method is very fast and used in modern networking like Ethernet and broadband.
Key Points:
• Data is sent in continuous blocks (frames).
• Sender and receiver are synchronized by a clock signal.
• Used in fast networks (like LAN, Internet).
• Exp: Sending large files over a network.

6. Direction of Transmission
Communication between two devices depends on how data flows between them.
The direction of transmission tells us in which direction data is allowed to travel.

There are three types of transmission directions:

1. Simplex Transmission
Definition:
In simplex mode, data travels in only one direction.
One device is always the sender, and the other is always the receiver.
Key Points:
• One-way communication
• No reverse/back communication
• Receiver cannot send data back
Examples:
• Keyboard → Computer
• TV broadcasting (Transmission tower → TV)
• Fire alarm systems

2. Half-Duplex Transmission
Definition:
In half-duplex mode, data can travel in both directions,
BUT not at the same time.
When one device sends, the other must wait.

Key Points:
• Two-way communication
• Only one device can send at a time
 • Devices take turns
• Slower than full-duplex
Examples:
• Walkie-talkie
• Police radios
• Wireless communication where signals may interfere

3. Full-Duplex Transmission
Definition:
In full-duplex mode, data can travel in both directions at the same time.
Key Points:
• Two-way, simultaneous communication
• Faster communication
• Increases network efficiency
Examples:
• Mobile phone calls (You can speak and listen at the same time)
• Computer connected to the Internet
• Fiber optic communication

7. Data Communication Speed

Data Communication Speed refers to the rate at which data is transmitted from one device to another in
a communication system.
In simple words, it means how fast data travels from sender to receiver.
Data communication speed is usually measured in bits per second (bps).

Units of Data Communication Speed (Table)

Unit Full Form Meaning

Number of bits
bps bits per second transmitted in one
second

kbps kilobits per second 1,000 bits per second

Mbps megabits per second 1,000 kbps

Gbps gigabits per second 1,000 Mbps

Note (units): 1 Byte = 8 bits. 1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes. 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB. (In some
contexts decimal prefixes are used where 1 KB = 1000 bytes, but for computer memory the binary
definition 1024 is standard.)

8. Data Communication Media

Communication Media is the physical or wireless path through which data is transmitted from the sender to
the receiver.
It determines the speed, reliability, distance, and quality of data transmission in a communication system.
Types of Communication Media
Communication media is divided into two main types:
1. Guided Media (Wired Media)
2. Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

Guided Media (Wired Media)

1. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted Pair Cable is a guided communication media consisting of two insulated copper wires
twisted together to reduce noise and interference.
It provides medium speed transmission, is low in cost, and is easy to install, but is affected by
electromagnetic interference.

Uses
• Telephone lines
• Local Area Networks (LAN)

2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable is a guided media that has a central copper conductor surrounded by insulation and
metallic shielding, which provides better protection against noise.
It supports higher speed and longer distance transmission than twisted pair cable.
• Uses: Cable television, CCTV systems
 3. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber Optic Cable is a guided communication media that transmits data using light signals through
glass or plastic fibers.
It provides very high speed, large bandwidth, high security, and is not affected by electromagnetic
interference.
Uses
• High-speed internet
• Long-distance communication
• Backbone networks

Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

Radio Waves
Radio Waves are unguided communication media that transmit data through the air using electromagnetic
waves.
They support wireless communication, can pass through walls, and provide low to medium speed
transmission.
Uses
• Radio broadcasting
• Wi-Fi
• Mobile communication

Microwave Transmission
Microwave Transmission is an unguided media that uses high-frequency radio waves and requires a line-of-
sight path between sender and receiver.
It provides high speed communication but can be affected by weather conditions.
Uses
• Cellular networks
• Long-distance telephone communication
• Satellite links

Satellite Transmission
Satellite Communication is an unguided media that uses artificial satellites to transmit data over very large
distances.
It provides wide coverage but is expensive and may cause signal delay.
Uses
• Television broadcasting
• GPS services
• International communication

Why Fiber Optic Cable is the Fastest Media?

• Uses light instead of electrical signals

• Very high bandwidth
• No signal loss due to noise
• Suitable for long distances

9. Network Devices
1. Hub
A Hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers in a single network. It broadcasts data
to all connected devices without checking which device is the actual recipient. Hubs are not intelligent and
can cause network congestion.
2. Switch
A Switch is an intelligent device that sends data only to the intended device based on the MAC address. It
helps in efficient data transfer and reduces unnecessary traffic compared to a hub.
3. Router
A Router connects different networks (for example, a LAN to the Internet). It determines the best path for
data packets to travel and ensures efficient communication between networks.
4. Bridge
A Bridge connects two or more LANs that use the same type of network protocols. It filters unnecessary
data and forwards only the relevant information between networks.
5. Gateway
A Gateway is a translator device that connects networks using different communication protocols. It
performs protocol conversion, allowing different systems to communicate with each other.
6. Repeater
A Repeater is a signal amplifier that boosts weak signals over long distances. It ensures that the data can
travel farther without loss of quality.
7. Modem (Modulator–Demodulator)
A Modem converts digital signals into analog signals (modulation) for transmission and converts analog
signals back to digital form (demodulation) when receiving. It enables computers to connect to the Internet
via telephone lines or broadband connections.

10. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework

that explains how data is transmitted from one computer to another over a network in
seven layers. The OSI model was developed by the ISO (International Organization
for Standardization) to standardize network communication.
Purpose of OSI Model
The OSI Model is used to:
• Standardize network communication
• Understand the working of networks easily
• Divide complex communication into simple layers
• Help in network design and troubleshooting

The OSI Model consists of seven layers.

Each layer has a specific role in data communication.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application Layer provides services directly to the end user and allows users to interact with the
network.
Main Functions
• Provides network services to applications
• Allows users to access network resources
• Supports communication applications

Examples
• E-mail services
• Web browsers
• File transfer services

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer is responsible for formatting, encrypting, and compressing data so that it can be
understood by the receiving system.
Main Functions
• Data translation
• Data encryption and decryption
• Data compression
Examples
• Converting data formats
• Encrypting data for secure transmission

Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between two devices.
Main Functions
• Establishes a session
• Maintains the session
• Terminates the session properly
Examples
• Login session
• Online meeting session

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer ensures reliable and error-free delivery of data from the sender to the receiver.
Main Functions
• Data segmentation
• Error detection and correction
• Flow control
• Reliable delivery
Examples
• TCP (reliable transmission)
• UDP (fast but unreliable transmission)

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer is responsible for routing data and selecting the best path to deliver data from source
to destination.
Main Functions
• Logical addressing
• Path selection
• Routing
Examples
• IP addressing
• Routers

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node delivery of data and ensures error-free transmission
between directly connected devices.
Main Functions
• Error detection
• Error correction
• Physical addressing (MAC address)
Examples
• Ethernet
• Switches
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The Physical Layer transmits raw bits (0s and 1s) over the physical communication medium.
Main Functions
• Defines cables and connectors
• Controls voltage levels
• Bit transmission
Examples
• Cables
• Connectors
• Network interface hardware