DOCUMENT NUMBER

GSM-C-CSYA

DOCUMENT TITLE

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

CHAPTER 9: PROPELLERS

Version 1.1
May 2021

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 CHAPTER 9 AIRCRAFT GENERAL
PROPELLERS KNOWLEDGE

CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ PAGE

CHAPTER 9: PROPELLERS ......................................................................................... 3

9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 3
9.2 FAMILIARISATION AND TERMINOLOGY ..................................................................... 5
9.3 THE MOTION OF THE PROPELLER ............................................................................. 6
9.3.1 Rotational Velocity.................................................................................................... 6
9.3.2 Forward and Resultant Velocity ................................................................................ 6
9.3.3 Blade Twist............................................................................................................... 8
9.3.4 Propeller Pitch (Advance per revolution) .................................................................10
9.3.5 Forces on a Blade Element .....................................................................................10
9.3.6 Blade Angle .............................................................................................................11
9.3.7 Helix Angle ..............................................................................................................11
9.3.8 Angle of Attack ........................................................................................................11
9.3.9 Geometric Pitch .......................................................................................................12
9.4 TAKE OFF EFFECTS ....................................................................................................12
9.4.1 Torque Reaction ......................................................................................................12
9.4.2 Slipstream Effect .....................................................................................................13
9.4.3 Symmetric Blade Effect ...........................................................................................13
9.4.4 Gyroscopic Effect ....................................................................................................13
9.5 FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS ........................................................................................14
9.5.1 Power changes .......................................................................................................14
9.6 WINDMILLING PROPELLER ........................................................................................15
9.7 CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLERS .............................................................................15
9.8 TWISTING MOMENTS...................................................................................................16
9.8.1 Centrifugal Twisting Moment ...................................................................................16
9.8.2 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment................................................................................16
9.9 CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER ................................................................................16
9.9.1 The Constant Speed Unit (CSU) or Governor..........................................................17
9.9.2 Maintaining the RPM ...............................................................................................18
9.9.3 RPM Control............................................................................................................18
9.10 ON-SPEED, UNDER-SPEED AND OVER-SPEED ........................................................23
9.11 POWER OUTPUT ..........................................................................................................23
9.11.1 Setting Power ..........................................................................................................24
9.12 OTHER PITCH MODES .................................................................................................24
9.12.1 Feather....................................................................................................................24
9.13 REVERSE THRUST .......................................................................................................25
9.14 CSU FAILURE ...............................................................................................................25
9.15 COUNTERWEIGHT PROPELLERS ..............................................................................26

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CHAPTER 9: PROPELLERS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The propeller converts engine power;
Brake Horse Power (BHP) into an
aerodynamic force, Thrust Horse Power
(THP)
The measure of a Propeller’s efficiency
can be determined by the ratio of Thrust
Horse Power to Brake Horse Power.
The forward acting component of this force
is known as thrust; the component acting
in the opposite direction of rotation is
known as torque. In un-accelerated level
flight, the propeller torque balances the
engine torque whilst thrust balances
aircraft aerodynamic drag. The thrust
conversion efficiency depends on the propeller configuration and aircraft speed. The
simple fixed pitch configuration is inefficient at most speeds. The variable pitch,
constant speed propeller is reasonably efficient at most speeds.
Fixed pitch propellers are designed for efficiency at one particular airspeed and rpm
combination. Engine and propeller combinations can be designed for optimum
takeoff, climb, cruise or high-speed operations. Any change in these conditions results
in lower efficiency of both propeller and engine outputs.
A constant speed propeller however, keeps the blade
angle adjusted for maximum efficiency for most
conditions encountered in flight. During takeoff, when
maximum power and thrust are required, the
constant speed propeller is at a low blade angle or
pitch. At low blade angle the angle of attack is small
and efficient with respect to the relative airflow, which
results in a smaller mass of air per revolution.
Although the air mass is small, the number of
revolutions is high thus producing a high slipstream
velocity; whilst the aircraft speed is low the resultant
outcome is maximum thrust being developed.

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For climb after take-off, the power output is reduced by

decreasing manifold pressure and increasing blade angle to
lower rpm. Because of the increased airspeed after takeoff, the
adjustment of power settings maintains the most efficient angle
of attack to relative airflow. Although the rpm is now reduced the
airflow mass is high because of the increased blade angle. The
reduced manifold pressure decreases engine torque output with
Climb a reduction in fuel flow and engine load; the resultant
combination of power and load factors keep the engine and
propeller at their highest efficiencies.

At cruising altitudes, the power requirements are considerably

lower than for takeoff or climb, engine power is again reduced
by lowering manifold pressure and increasing blade angle to
reduce rpm. This new combination of lowered torque and rpm still
results in an efficient thrust output as the change to a higher
airspeed maintains the best angle of attack to relative airflow.

The load on the engine is the propeller torque. When the aircraft is stationary, with
the engine throttle wide open, the propeller torque and the static thrust generated (i.e.
the efficiency of the engine/propeller combination) depend on the propeller pitch. If
the pitch is zero or slightly negative, the static thrust will be zero and the propeller
torque will be very low so that the engine will over speed and lose power. If the pitch
is fine (low angle of attack), the propeller will generate near maximum static thrust
and sufficient torque to maintain high engine rpm, thus delivering ample power to the
propeller shaft. This is the ideal situation to get the aircraft rolling for takeoff and climb
out.
If the pitch is coarse (high angle of attack) then static thrust is low but propeller torque
is very high which will slow the engine; this is not desirable for attempting a take-off.

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9.2 FAMILIARISATION AND TERMINOLOGY

The propeller is designed to move the aircraft through the air. A propeller will consist
of two or more blades, fixed to a hub, which serves to attach the blades to the engine
crankshaft.
The blades are in the shape of an aerofoil much like the wing of an aircraft and, like
the wing, the blades produce a force (Lift) when they rotate. This force (called Thrust)
provides the propulsive element to move the aircraft through the air. The majority of
aircraft have propellers which are fitted at the front of the engine and PULL the aircraft
through the air (Tractor Propellers). Others have propellers fitted to the rear of the
engine which PUSH the aircraft through the air (Pusher Propellers).
Leading Edge
Either way, the basic designs of propellers are the same, and
will have the following:
• Leading Edge: the cutting edge that slices into the air.
Trailing Edge
As the leading edge cuts the air, the air flows over the
blade face and the cambered upper surface
Root
• Trailing edge: rear blade surface
Hub
• Root (Blade Shank): the section of the blade nearest
the hub.
• Blade Tip: the outer end of the blade farthest from the
hub.
• Hub: the mount point for the propeller at the crankshaft,
an attachment point for moveable blades.
Propeller blade cross-section:

Direction of rotation Tip

Thrust Face is the curved surface of the

l airfoil

Camber

Leading Edge
Trailing Edge
Chord

Blade Face is the surface of the propeller blade that

corresponds to the lower surface of an airfoil.

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9.3 THE MOTION OF THE PROPELLER

9.3.1 Rotational Velocity

Because the propeller moves in a circular path it is
affected by the same laws of physics as any other
object travelling in a circular path.
The circular path followed by the propeller is
referred to as the plane of rotation.
A point on the propeller blade closer to the hub will
move slower than a point at the outer edge. A will
have a greater rotational velocity than B. This
needs to be taken into account with blade size,
particularly the length of the blade. If the tip speed
approaches the speed of sound the propeller
efficiency is drastically reduced.
It is therefore apparent that at a constant RPM, the rotational velocity of a blade
element will increase as the radius ® increases towards the propeller tips.

9.3.2 Forward and Resultant Velocity

Apart from the movement around the plane of
rotation, a propeller moves forward with the
aircraft in the air, which when combined with
the rotational velocity results in an overall
resultant velocity.
This rotational velocity combined with the
forward velocity means that each section of
the blade follows a helical path (corkscrew)
through the air.
As the resultant velocity changes, the relative
airflow (RAF) on the blade section also
changes, and with it the angle of attack on the blade section. As with general
aerodynamics the angle of attack is that angle between the relative air flow and the
chord line of the aerofoil. In the diagram below the angle of attack is represented in
yellow.

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No forward motion Helix Angle

Plane of Rotation
Blade Angle Angle of Attack

Relative
Airflow
Rotational Rotational Rotational
Velocity Velocity Velocity

Relative Resultant velocity

Airflow of the propeller
blade

Velocity due to Velocity due to

forward motion forward motion

Helix Angle+ Angle of Attack = Blade Angle

The orange angle indicated on the diagram is termed the helix angle or the pitch
angle, or the angle of advance. Pitch can be described as the distance that a propeller
will advance through the air for each rotation or the amount of "bite" that the blade
has on the air.
A fine pitch propeller has a small blade angle. It
will move forward a small distance with each
revolution and take a 'small' bite of the air. It
requires relatively low power to rotate, allowing
Fine pitch
high propeller RPM, but achieves limited
airspeed.
A coarse pitch propeller has a large blade angle
and will advance a further distance through the air
with each rotation. During each revolution it will
take a large 'bite' of the air. It requires greater
power to rotate, limiting the propeller RPM that can
Coarse pitch
be developed, but achieving high airspeeds.

The Angle measured between the plane of

rotation and the chord of the blade is known as
the blade angle

Chord Line
Plane of
Blade
Rotation
Angle

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9.3.3 Blade Twist

Let us assume that the blade angle of a propeller was the same for its entire length,
and that the forward velocity of an aircraft was constant. The only variable therefore
would be the rotational speed of various sections of the blade. From the diagram
below, we can see that as the rotational velocity increases (towards the tip), the angle
of attack increases, while the helix angle decreases. This means that the angle of
attack along the entire length of the blade will be different at each point.
As with an aerofoil a propeller blade has an angle of attack at which it is most efficient
for a specific speed, or RPM and forward velocity. With a changing angle of attack the
most efficient angle will only be present at one point on each blade. Furthermore, the
increasing angle of attack toward the tip can result in the blade stalling!

Increasing rotational velocity

Increasing Angle
Increasing Angle of Attack -
of Attack stalling

Decreasing
Relative Air
helix angle
Constant Flow
forward
velocity Relative Air
Flow
Constant
forward
velocity
Constant
forward
velocity

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Designers of propeller blades therefore do not design a blade with a single blade
angle but rather twist the blade to
ensure a constant angle of attack,
and therefore maximum efficiency.
This is known as blade twist and
can clearly be seen in propeller
blades. When looking at a blade
from the tip toward the root it is
apparent that the angle of the blade
changes along the length of the
blade. This aids in maintaining the
desired angle of attack and
maximum efficiency for the blades
and the propeller as a whole.

Constant Angle of Attack

Changing Blade Angle

The twist of the blade is achieved by placing blade sections of different angles alongside
each other. Because of the twist the blade angle will vary throughout the blade length so
normally the standard blade angle is measured at the 75% blade station from the
hub centre.

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9.3.4 Propeller Pitch (Advance per revolution)

We have already said that pitch can be described as the
Angle of Attack =0
distance that a propeller will advance through the air for each
rotation, or the amount of "bite" that the blade has on the air.
This forward distance for each propeller revolution can be
calculated and is termed the geometric pitch (p). The
geometric pitch is calculated for a specific blade section
moving along a line parallel to the chord (angle of attack is 0º).
Geometric pitch is thus not concerned with the thrust of the
blade section but is concerned only with the geometric
dimensions.
Propellers are usually designed so that all
blade stations have much the same geometric
pitch.
While the geometric pitch is the theoretical
distance the propeller would advance in one
revolution, the effective pitch is the actual
Geometric Pitch distance that the propeller advances in one
revolution. Because of the fluidity of air, the
geometric is never attained and effective pitch is
always less. The difference between geometric
and effective pitch is termed slippage.

Slippage
TR
Effective Pitch Torque

9.3.5 Forces on a Blade Element D

Due to the positive angle () at which each blade

Thrust
element is set and the direction of the resultant
relative air flow (RAF), the blade section produces lift
and drag in the same way as an aerofoil.
However, with a propeller the forces parallel and Relative Airflow
perpendicular to the RAF are not the most important.
The forces of interest are those that act along the axis
of rotation (thrust) and at right angles to the axis of rotation (torque).
The Propeller Torque force is the resistance to motion in the Plane of Rotation, and
just as Drag must be overcome to provide Lift on an Aerofoil, so Propeller Torque has
to be overcome to provide Thrust.

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9.3.6 Blade Angle

Blade Angle: usually measured in degrees, is the angle between the chord of the
blade and the plane of rotation. Pitch is not the same as blade angle, however pitch
is largely determined by blade angle and the terms are often used to describe the
same position. An increase or decrease in one is usually associated with an increase
or decrease in the other.

9.3.7 Helix Angle

Helix Angle: each propeller blade section follows a
corkscrew path through the air, called a helix, as a result
of the combined rotational and forward velocities.

9.3.8 Angle of Attack

The Angle of attack is the angle between the
aerofoil chord line and the relative airflow.
Note that the angle of attack (AoA) plus the
helix angle make up the blade angle. This
angle changes with varying flight conditions.
With no forward velocity, the angle of attack of
the propeller blade is the same as the blade
angle. As the forward velocity of the aircraft
increases, the AoA a of the propeller blade
decreases; if an aircraft with a fixed pitch
propeller is put into a dive; the airspeed
increases and the AoA (and therefore the
Thrust) decreases, eventually the thrust will decrease to zero. Conversely, as the
forward velocity of the aircraft decreases, the AoA increases. As AoA increases
Torque increases and therefore RPM would tend to decrease.
An increase in rpm will cause the angle of attack to increase; the most effective angle
of attack is 2 – 4 degrees.

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9.3.9 Geometric Pitch

Geometric pitch – is the distance a propeller should advance in one revolution;
effective pitch is the actual travel distance. All propellers suffer from slippage as they
advance through the air; this is one of the factors in the calculation of thrust
horsepower.

9.4 TAKE OFF EFFECTS

Most light aircraft engines are manufactured in the USA and they generally rotate in
a Clockwise direction (as viewed from the cockpit), as a result, during take-off the
aircraft will tend to yaw to the left as power and airspeed is increasing. This is due to
a combination of the following factors:
• Propeller torque reaction
• Slipstream effect
• Asymmetric blade effect
• Gyroscopic effect (tail dragger only).

9.4.1 Torque Reaction

In accordance with Newton’s 3rd law, torque is the reaction to the power from the
engine being applied to the propeller.
This is more apparent at high engine RPM and low airspeed, (little rudder effect).
The effect is that the aircraft wants to roll to the
Left. Whilst the aircraft is on the ground the
Undercarriage prevents this roll from
happening. The Left Roll effect is therefore
most prominent as the aircraft lifts off the
runway.

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9.4.2 Slipstream Effect

The swirling slipstream from the propeller
strikes the Vertical Stabiliser on the left-
hand side yawing the aircraft to the left.
It is most apparent as the power is
increased for take-off at low airspeed. It is
typically the first Left Turning tendency that
a Pilot will experience.

9.4.3 Symmetric Blade Effect

When the Fuselage of the aircraft is at a large angle of attack relative to the air it is
flying through, e.g. a Tail wheel aircraft starting its Take Off run or in flight at low
airspeed or when initiating a climb. As the aircraft moves forward the down going
blade of the rotating propeller covers a larger path than the up going blade for each
rotation. Therefore, the linear velocity of the down going blade is higher than the up
going blade, and its angle of attack greater.
THRUST
CENTRE LINE

DOWN GOING
BLADE
PRODUCES
MORE THRUST

This Asymmetric
Thrust would tend
to yaw the aircraft
to the left

9.4.4 Gyroscopic Effect

A spinning propeller exhibits the same properties as a spinning gyro namely
precession. As the tail is lifted on a tail dragger a force is applied to the propeller
(gyro). This force will move the aircraft at 90° to the applied force which results in a
yaw to the left.

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9.5 FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS

The pitch of these propellers is set by
the manufacturer and cannot be
changed. With this type of propeller best
efficiency is achieved only at a given
combination of airspeed and engine
rpm.
There are essentially two types of fixed
pitch propellers:
• Climb power propeller
• Cruise power propeller
Whether the aircraft has a climb or cruise type installed depends on its intended use;
distinguishing differences between the two are:
• A cruise propeller has a higher pitch, therefore more Torque. More torque
results in lower rpm and less horsepower capability, which decreases
performance during take off and climb, but increases efficiency during cruise
flight.
• A climb propeller has a lower pitch with less Torque. Less torque results in
higher rpm and more horsepower capability, which increases performance
during take off and climb, but decreases performance during cruise flight.
• Fixed pitch propellers are generally designed for maximum efficiency at cruising
speed as this is typically where they will most commonly operated.
• Aircraft manufacturers that produce aircraft with fixed pitch propellers will select
a particular propeller pitch which will be a compromise between best Take Off
and best Cruise performance.
The propeller being mounted on the crank shaft will turn at the same rpm as the
engine. As propeller diameters increase with larger engines, there is a corresponding
increase in the tip speed, if this speed approaches sonic velocities the propeller
efficiency is severely impaired. To overcome these problems a reduction gear is often
fitted between the engine and propeller thus reducing propeller rpm but allowing the
engine to reach its maximum power output potential.

9.5.1 Power changes

The throttle is the only means of power control on an engine
fitted with a fixed pitch propeller. The throttle changes the
manifold pressure, and this produces a change in power
with a proportional change in rpm. As manifold pressure and
rpm is both representative of power, on an engine fitted with
a fixed pitch propeller, an rpm gauge is the only power
instrument provided.

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9.6 WINDMILLING PROPELLER

If the engine fails in flight the pilot’s primary concern is to maintain airspeed, because
there is no longer thrust being produced by the propeller, the pilot’s action would be
to lower the nose of the aircraft to increase Airspeed. As Airspeed increases AofA on
the propeller blades decreases, if the AoA decreases to a negative value the airflow
across the propeller will now begin to drive the propeller (a bit like a fan) this is known
as Windmilling a propeller windmilling produces more drag than a stationary propeller.

9.7 CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLERS

On aircraft that are equipped with constant speed
propellers, engine power output is controlled by the
throttle and indicated by a manifold pressure gauge.
The propeller blade angle, on the other hand, is
controlled by a propeller control lever and the
resulting change in engine rpm, caused by a change
in blade angle, is indicated on the tachometer. By
providing the operator with a means of controlling
both engine power output and propeller angle, the most efficient combination of blade
angle and engine power output can be maintained for a variety of flight conditions.
The pilot is able to select the desired rpm of a
constant-speed propeller, using the pitch control (also
known as the propeller control or rpm control) the
propeller blades will then automatically change their
pitch angle (or blade angle) to absorb the power
available and maintain the selected rpm. For instance,
if you have selected a cruise rpm of 2,400 with the
pitch control and then move the throttle to increase
manifold pressure from 23 to 25 in. Hg, the propeller
blade pitch will increase to absorb the extra power by
taking a bigger bite of the air and providing increased
thrust. Conversely, if power is reduced, the propeller blade pitch will reduce to
maintain rpm. The constant-speed unit (CSU) operates automatically; usually the
blade movement to a new pitch angle is hydraulically operated by a governor sensitive
to rpm.
The RPM/MAP combination for a specific setting, to be used for the most efficient fuel
consumption will be specified by the aircraft Manufacturer.

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9.8 TWISTING MOMENTS

During flight considerable forces and stresses are placed on the engine, propeller and
pitch changing mechanisms. The most important of these forces are:

9.8.1 Centrifugal Twisting Moment

The Centrifugal force (CTM) acts on the mass of the blade and can be divided into
two components:
The x-component produces a tensile
stress at the blade root, while the y-
Centrifugal
Y
Twisting Moment component produces a torque moment
about the pitch-change axis.
Torque produced by the CTM y-
Pitch Change
Y component causes a centrifugal twisting
Axis
moment about the pitch-change axis that
tends to "fine", or decrease, the pitch.

Thus, the effort required by the pitch-change mechanism is larger to increase the
blade angle than it is to reduce the blade angle

9.8.2 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment

Pitch Change
Aerodynamic twisting moment (ATM) tries to twist a Axis
blade to a higher angle. This force is produced
because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the
midpoint of the chord line, whilst the centre of lift of
the blade is forward of the axis.
This Aerodynamic Twisting Moment will tend to
Increase the pitch angle of the blade and in so doing,
partially offsets the Centrifugal Twisting Moment. Aerodynamic
Twisting Moment
The force tries to increase the blade angle.
Aerodynamic twisting moment is used in some
designs to help feather the propeller.

9.9 CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER

With constant speed control the pitch is automatically
altered by a constant speed unit (CSU) or governor; this
unit is engine driven and fitted to the accessory drive
housing. After setting the desired engine/propeller speed
with the propeller control, the governor acts to keep the
propeller RPM at the same value.
If the governor detects the propeller speed increasing, it
increases the pitch to restore the selected RPM. If the
governor detects the propeller speed decreasing, it decreases the pitch to restore the
RPM back within limits.

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9.9.1 The Constant Speed Unit (CSU) or Governor

The Governor supplies and controls the flow of engine oil to and from the pitch control
mechanism in the propeller. It serves to maintain a selected propeller RPM setting by
applying or removing the pressure within the control mechanism, and in so doing
controls the pitch of the propeller.
The engine driven governor receives oil from the engine lubricating system and boosts
its pressure to that required to operate the pitch-changing mechanism. It consists
essentially of:
• A gear pump to increase the engine oil pressure to a higher value required for
propeller pitch change operation.
• A pilot valve actuated by flyweights and opposed by a speeder spring, which
controls the flow of oil through the governor.
The speeder spring provides RPM Control
Constant
a means by which the initial Speed Unit

load on the pilot valve is Speeder Spring

Flyweights
applied; the tension can be Propeller Blade

varied from the cockpit using

the RPM control lever. Pilot Valve

Propeller Pump
Pressure Relief
Valve
Blade Pitch Angle

Oil Oil
Supply Return
Line Line

CSU

RPM control

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9.9.2 Maintaining the RPM

Movement of the propeller lever sets the speeder spring pressure. The flyweights
position the pilot valve to direct oil to or from the propeller. This in turn positions the
propeller blades at a pitch angle that absorbs the engine power at the RPM selected.
When the moment of RPM balance occurs, the force of the flyweights equals the
speeder spring load. This positions the pilot valve in the constant RPM position, with
no oil flowing to or from the propeller. This balance represents the constant RPM.

Propeller Lever

Constant Blade Pitch

Angle
Speeder Spring Flyweights

Pilot Valve

Constant RPM No Piston

Movement

9.9.3 RPM Control

As the blade angle of a propeller is decreased, the torque required to turn the propeller
is reduced and for any given power setting the RPM of the engine will tend to increase.
Conversely, if the blade angle increases the torque required increases and the engine
and the propeller will tend to slow down. By changing the blade angle RPM will
change.

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1. The pilot in the

cockpit sets the RPM
using the pitch control
lever.
Min RPM Max RPM

2. This action sets the Downgoing Blade

tension onthe
speeder spring.

Pitch
Change
3. The speeder spring either
Mechanism
moves up or down
(depending on the setting),
and positions the pilot valve.

4. The positioning of
the pilot valve allows
oil to move to, or from,
the pitch change
mechanism.
Oil Oil
Supply Return
Line Line Upgoing Blade

The governor itself does not alter pitch; it merely controls the flow of oil
to the mechanism that alters propeller pitch.

The system permits the pilot to select or set a desired

Downgoing Blade
RPM. When maximum power at low air speed is
required for take-off, the pilot pushes the propeller
lever full forward. With full throttle this gives low pitch
and maximum RPM. Whilst satisfactory for getting off Piston
the ground, is not desirable for cruising at high air
speeds. For cruising, the pilot sets the manifold
pressure with the throttle then adjusts back on the
propeller control. This increases the pitch and the
engine speed settles to the desired RPM for cruise
conditions. The RPM automatically stays set until the Oil pressure

propeller lever is moved again. Actuating Link

In the propeller hub, oil pressure acting on a piston

Upgoing Blade
produces a force that is opposed by the natural
centrifugal twisting moment (CTM) of the blades. To
increase the pitch or blade angle we direct high
pressure oil to the propeller.
This moves the piston back. Motion of the piston is transmitted to the blades through
the actuating links moving the blades toward high pitch.

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When the opposing forces are equal, oil flow to the propeller stops and the piston will
stop. The piston will remain in this position, holding the pitch of the blade’s constant
until the governor or CSU, directs oil flow to or from the propeller.
When a constant RPM is set, if the airplane begins to climb or engine power is reduced
a temporary under speed results. Airspeed is reduced and, since the pitch of the
propeller blades is too high, the engine starts to slow down. However, the instant this
happens the flyweights will droop, causing the pilot valve to move down. Then oil flows
from the propeller and CTM interacts, reducing the pitch of the blades. This
automatically increases the speed of the engine to maintain the former RPM setting.

·
Constant
CSU senses the
Speed Unit
Underspeed
· , Oil
is directed to
Decrease blade
angle,
· Load
Speeder Spring Flyweights droop decreases RPM
·
increases

Pilot Valve
Moves down

Pressure
Relief Va lve

Oil Blade Pitch Angle

Return Decreases
Line

Single
Single acting
acting non
- feathering
non- featheringpropeller
propeller

If the aircraft is put into a descent or engine power is increased, this causes a
temporary over speed. The airspeed increases as the pitch of the propeller blades is
too low to absorb engine power, and the engine RPM begins to increase. The instant
this happens, the flyweights move out and raise the pilot valve which causes oil to
flow to the propeller, increasing the pitch of the blades. Engine speed then slows
down to maintain the original RPM setting.

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Constant ·
Speed Unit CSU senses the Overspeed
Oil is directed to Decrease
blade angle ·
Flyweights Load Increases
Speeder Spring Move Out RPM decreases
·
·

Pilot Valve
Moves Up

Propeller
Pump

Hydraulic Pressure
pushes Piston
Rearward

Oil
Supply Blade Pitch Angle
Increases
Line

Single acting non - feathering propeller

We have so far only discussed propellers for single engine aircraft. In these aircraft
oil pressure is used to move the propeller blades towards coarse pitch. As a result, if
CSU oil pressure is lost CTM forces acting on the propeller blades will drive the blades
to the fully fine position (high thrust). The pilot can now control thrust using the throttle
as if he was operating an engine with a fixed pitch propeller, which is the safest
configuration for continued operation.
In multi-engine aircraft this is not a desirable feature because a propeller windmilling
in fine pitch produces more drag than one windmilling in coarse pitch. This could
cause excessive asymmetric yaw.
Multi engine aircraft typically use single acting counterweight feathering
propellers. These propellers normally use oil pressure to move the blades towards
fine pitch, so in the event of CSU oil pressure failure, multi-engine aircraft propellers
are designed to fail to coarse pitch. In order to overcome CTM forces (which try to
move the blades towards fine pitch), multi-engine propellers are fitted with
COUNTERWEIGHTS. The
counterweights are fitted at 90° to the ht
eig
blade cord and centrifugal forces nterw
u
Co
acting on them overcome CTM forces
and move the blades towards coarse
pitch.
Single acting counterweighted ed at
terw eig 90°
ht fitt
feathering props have a feather Coun cord
blade
position which is used to position the 90° to

blades at 90° to the airflow. This is the

position of minimum drag and is used
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when an engine is shutdown in

flight. The feather position also
ensures that the propeller will
remain stationary and not windmill.
These types of propellers normally
have pitch locks to prevent the
propeller going to coarse pitch on
shut down. This also means that
the prop must be turning above a
certain RPM (normally about 1200
RPM) to enable it to be feathered.
In some instances, the engine may be required to be restarted after the propeller has
been Feathered. There is too much drag associated with trying to turn the propeller
with the blades feathered for the engine to be started easily so the propeller has to be
moved back into the governing range, this process is known as Unfeathering. Most
commonly this is achieved by using an Unfeathering Accumulator which, when the
Pitch Lever is moved out of the Feather detent opens an Unfeathering Valve which
then discharges the pressurised oil within the accumulator to the propeller where it
acts on the piston to move the blades towards Fine Pitch. As soon as the blades have
some Angle of Attack relative to the airflow they will begin to windmill the propeller
enabling the pilot to start the engine
Mechanical stops are installed in the propeller to limit blade travel in both the high and
low pitch directions. These stops are known as the fine and coarse pitch stops.

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Whenever manifold pressure is decreasing, engine power will reduce, and the blades
will adopt a finer and finer blade angle until they reach the fine pitch stop. Any further
reduction in MP will cause a drop in RPM, from this point the propeller behaves like a
fixed pitch propeller.
During a fast cruise descent, if the throttle is not moved, the RPM will increase as
propeller torque reduces, and the propeller moves progressively coarser. If it reaches
the coarse pitch stop and this condition is maintained, the engine will over speed from
the coarse pitch stop.
If RPM is higher or lower than the indicated power lever position, then the system is
operating outside its normal operating range and cannot keep the RPM constant.
There are some further considerations when discussing fine and coarse pitch stops.
When checking for a magneto drop the propeller is set to fine pitch and behaves as a
fixed pitch propeller, this enables an RPM drop to be observed. If left in the governing
range, the CSU would adjust blade angle and maintain constant RPM when a
magneto was turned off.

9.10 ON-SPEED, UNDER-SPEED AND OVER-SPEED

The terms on-speed, under-speed and over-speed with regard to the governor,
mean the following:
• ON-SPEED: If the pilot has set a RPM which is to be maintained, and the RPM
is in fact being maintained, the propeller RPM is said to be ON-SPEED.
• OVER-SPEED: If the pilot has set an RPM which is not being maintained and
the propeller has a higher than selected RPM, then the propeller is said to be
OVER-SPEEDING.
• UNDER-SPEED: If the pilot has set an RPM which is not being maintained, and
the propeller has a lower than selected RPM, then the propeller is said to be
UNDER-SPEEDING.

9.11 POWER OUTPUT

A constant speed propeller allows the engine to develop maximum rated power and
RPM during the ground roll and to develop full power throughout its normal RPM
range.
With a constant speed propeller, the pilot controls inlet manifold air pressure [MAP]
with the throttle lever and the engine RPM with the RPM control lever.
The pilot has several combinations of RPM/MAP to achieve a particular power setting.
Typical examples would be the recommended combinations for 65% power at sea
level:
• 2100 RPM + 26 inches Hg MAP
• 2200 + 25 inches
• 2300 + 24 inches
• 2400 + 23 inches.
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The pilot can use low RPM and high MAP or high RPM and low MAP to achieve
exactly the same power output. The low RPM/high MAP combination gives more
efficient cylinder charging and better combustion with less friction.

9.11.1 Setting Power

To achieve smooth power transitions and avoid over stressing an engine, the following
sequence for power changes with constant speed propellers is recommended:
a. Power increase: ensure mixture is full rich, RPM lever to increase followed by
throttle to increase
b. Power decrease: throttle decrease, followed by RPM decrease.
The saying: “REVS UP/THROTTLE BACK” is a useful reminder of these actions.
The above procedures are designed to avoid excessive manifold pressure during
power changes.
Propeller Inspection
A propeller pre-flight inspection should pay close
attention to the propeller blade surfaces. Because
of the proximity to the ground, the blades are prone
to impact damage from stones or debris on runway
surfaces. Stress fractures in the blades can often
originate from this sort of damage and, if left
undetected, result in blade fatigue and ultimate
failure. Given the normal stresses on an
operational propeller, blade failure will be
catastrophic.

9.12 OTHER PITCH MODES

9.12.1 Feather
A variable pitch propeller may have a feathering facility which turns
the blades to the minimum drag position (i.e. the blades are more
or less aligned fore and aft) and stops windmilling when the engine
is stopped. Such a feature is not usually fitted to a single engine
aeroplane.
If a damaged engine continues to turn, it may seize, or even catch
fire. For these reasons’ modern propellers on multi engine aircraft
have a feathering capability.
RAF The blades are turned so that the
collective effect of all the blade
Zero Lift 
sections produces zero torque and
therefore the propeller will stop turning.
Drag is reduced to a minimum and
Blade that has been Feathered
further possible damage to the engine
is prevented.
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9.13 REVERSE THRUST

Many aircraft are also equipped with propellers with a thrust reversing capability.
Reverse thrust is used to shorten
the after landing roll and so
achieve better short field
performance for transport aircraft
operating into unprepared or
semi-prepared airstrips.
Reverse thrust is obtained by
moving the propeller blades past
the fine pitch stop to a negative
blade angle. This produces thrust
in the opposite direction.

9.14 CSU FAILURE

As a propeller system increases in complexity the possibilities for malfunction
increase. A problem associated with constant speed propellers is governor failure or
loss of oil pressure to the propeller during flight. Aided by CTM the propeller blades
will default to a fine pitch setting. This greatly reduces the load on the power plant and
the engine will ultimately over speed, particularly during descent. The RPM of an over
speeding engine, sometimes referred to as a 'runaway prop’, will quickly exceed red-
line RPM. Unless immediate corrective action is taken the engine is likely to be
severely damaged. In either event the following is a guide for actions that should be
taken:
• Close the throttle
• Reduce the airspeed
• If unable to restore the propeller to constant speed conditions, attempt to feather
it if possible.
If the problem is confined to the CSU and not engine oil pressure related it is quite
likely that, with careful attention being paid to throttle usage and airspeed, safe flight
can be maintained until a suitable landing point is found.

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9.15 COUNTERWEIGHT PROPELLERS

Twin engine aircraft commonly have their Counterweights
propellers designed to fail to the coarse pitch
position. Counterweights are fitted to the
root of each blade. During operation these
weights act to increase blade angle. CSU oil
pressure is therefore used to decrease
blade angle against the counterweight force.
Should there be an oil pressure loss, the
action of the counterweights will move the
blades to a higher angle, and this has the
effect of reducing RPM and drag on the airframe.
In addition to the counterweights these propellers will usually have a feathering
feature. The counterweights are designed to assist in moving the blades towards
feather, thus avoiding handling difficulties as illustrated below.

The asymmetric thrust from the operable engine

causes a yawing tendency toward the inoperable
The induced airflow from the propeller slipstream on the engine, which is further made dangerous by the
failed engine is lost decreasing the total airflow. While on fact that the fuselage now blocks airflow over the
the side of the aircraft with the still operable engine thrust Yaw and Roll control surfaces, and the drag is increased.
is still being produced. This difference in produced lift
causes a rolling tendency toward the inoperable engine.

Relative Air Flow

Drag is furthe r increased by the windmilling

propeller, which has the same effect as a solid disc of
equal diameter. This creates a yawing tendency
toward the inoperable engine, and it is for this reason
that feathering the inoperable propeller as soon as
possible is im
portant, as this can be the greatest
source of drag. Slipstream

Flight Path

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