The Transport Layer
Chapter 6
Transport Service
• Upper Layer Services
• Transport Service Primitives
• Berkeley Sockets
• Example of Socket Programming:
Internet File Server
Services Provided to the Upper Layers
The network, transport, and application layers
Transport Service Primitives (1)
The primitives for a simple transport service
Transport Service Primitives (2)
Nesting of TPDUs, packets, and frames.
Berkeley Sockets (1)
A state diagram for a simple connection management scheme.
Transitions labeled in italics are caused by packet arrivals. The
solid lines show the client’s state sequence. The dashed lines
show the server’s state sequence.
Berkeley Sockets (2)
The socket primitives for TCP
Elements of Transport Protocols (1)
• Addressing
• Connection establishment
• Connection release
• Error control and flow control
• Multiplexing
• Crash recovery
Elements of Transport Protocols (2)
(a) Environment of the data link layer.
(b) Environment of the transport layer.
Addressing (1)
TSAPs, NSAPs, and transport connections
Addressing (2)
How a user process in host 1 establishes a connection
with a mail server in host 2 via a process server.
Connection Establishment (1)
Techniques for restricting packet lifetime
• Restricted network design.
• Putting a hop counter in each packet.
• Timestamping each packet.
Connection Establishment (2)
(a) TPDUs may not enter the forbidden region.
(b) The resynchronization problem.
Connection Establishment (3)
Three protocol scenarios for establishing a connection using a
three-way handshake. CR denotes CONNECTION REQUEST.
Normal operation.
Connection Establishment (4)
Three protocol scenarios for establishing a connection using a
three-way handshake. CR denotes CONNECTION REQUEST. Old
duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST appearing out of nowhere.
Connection Establishment (5)
Three protocol scenarios for establishing a connection using a
three-way handshake. CR denotes CONNECTION REQUEST.
Duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST and duplicate ACK
Connection Release (1)
Abrupt disconnection with loss of data
Connection Release (2)
The two-army problem
Connection Release (3)
Four protocol scenarios for releasing a connection.
(a) Normal case of three-way handshake
Connection Release (4)
Four protocol scenarios for releasing a connection.
(b) Final ACK lost.
Connection Release (5)
Four protocol scenarios for releasing a connection.
(c) Response lost
Connection Release (6)
Four protocol scenarios for releasing a connection.
(d) Response lost and subsequent DRs lost.
Error Control and Flow Control (1)
(a) Chained fixed-size buffers. (b) Chained variable-sized
buffers. (c) One large circular buffer per connection.
Error Control and Flow Control (2)
Dynamic buffer allocation. The arrows show the direction of
transmission. An ellipsis (...) indicates a lost TPDU
Multiplexing
(a) Multiplexing. (b) Inverse multiplexing.
Crash Recovery
Different combinations of client and server strategy
Congestion Control
• Desirable bandwidth allocation
• Regulating the sending rate
Desirable Bandwidth Allocation (1)
(a) Goodput and (b) delay as a function of offered load
Desirable Bandwidth Allocation (2)
Max-min bandwidth allocation for four flows
Desirable Bandwidth Allocation (3)
Changing bandwidth allocation over time
Regulating the Sending Rate (1)
A fast network feeding a low-capacity receiver
Regulating the Sending Rate (2)
A slow network feeding a high-capacity receiver
Regulating the Sending Rate (3)
Some congestion control protocols
User 2’s allocation
Regulating the Sending Rate (4)
User 1’s allocation
Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease (AIMD) control law.
The Internet Transport Protocols: UDP
• Introduction to UDP
• Remote Procedure Call
• Real-Time Transport
Introduction to UDP (1)
The UDP header.
Introduction to UDP (2)
The IPv4 pseudoheader included in the UDP checksum.
Remote Procedure Call
Steps in making a remote procedure call. The stubs are shaded.
Real-Time Transport (1)
(a) The position of RTP in the protocol stack. (b) Packet nesting.
Real-Time Transport (2)
The RTP header
Real-Time Transport (3)
Smoothing the output stream by buffering packets
Real-Time Transport (3)
High jitter
Real-Time Transport (4)
Low jitter
The Internet Transport Protocols: TCP (1)
• Introduction to TCP
• The TCP service model
• The TCP protocol
• The TCP segment header
• TCP connection establishment
• TCP connection release
The Internet Transport Protocols: TCP (2)
• TCP connection management modeling
• TCP sliding window
• TCP timer management
• TCP congestion control
• TCP futures
The TCP Service Model (1)
Some assigned ports
The TCP Service Model (2)
(a) Four 512-byte segments sent as separate IP diagrams
(b) The 2048 bytes of data delivered to the application in a
single READ call
The TCP Segment Header
The TCP header.
TCP Connection Establishment
(a) TCP connection establishment in the normal case.
(b) Simultaneous connection establishment on both sides.
TCP Connection Management Modeling (1)
The states used in the TCP connection
management finite state machine.
TCP Connection Management Modeling (2)
TCP connection management
finite state machine.
The heavy solid line is the
normal path for a client. The
heavy dashed line is the
normal path for a server. The
light lines are unusual events.
Each transition is labeled by
the event causing it and the
action resulting from it,
separated by a slash.
TCP Sliding Window (1)
Window management in TCP
TCP Sliding Window (2)
Silly window syndrome
TCP Timer Management
a) Probability density of acknowledgment arrival times in data
link layer. (b) … for TCP
TCP Congestion Control (1)
Slow start from an initial congestion window of 1 segment
TCP Congestion Control (2)
Additive increase from an initial congestion
window of 1 segment.
TCP Congestion Control (3)
Slow start followed by additive increase in TCP Tahoe.
TCP Congestion Control (4)
Fast recovery and the sawtooth pattern of TCP Reno.
Performance Issues
• Performance problems in computer networks
• Network performance measurement
• System design for better performance
• Fast TPDU processing
• Protocols for high-speed networks
Performance Problems in Computer
Networks
The state of transmitting one megabit from San Diego to Boston.
(a) At t = 0. (b) After 500 μ sec.
(c) After 20 msec. (d) After 40 msec.
Network Performance Measurement (1)
Steps to performance improvement
1. Measure relevant network parameters,
performance.
2. Try to understand what is going on.
3. Change one parameter.
Network Performance Measurement (2)
Issues in measuring performance
• Sufficient sample size
• Representative samples
• Clock accuracy
• Measuring typical representative load
• Beware of caching
• Understand what you are measuring
• Extrapolate with care
Network Performance Measurement (3)
Response as a function of load.
System Design for Better Performance (1)
Rules of thumb
1. CPU speed more important than network speed
2. Reduce packet count to reduce software overhead
3. Minimize data touching
4. Minimize context switches
5. Minimize copying
6. You can buy more bandwidth but not lower delay
7. Avoiding congestion is better than recovering from it
8. Avoid timeouts
System Design for Better Performance (2)
Four context switches to handle one packet
with a user-space network manager.
Fast TPDU Processing (1)
The fast path from sender to receiver is shown with a heavy
line. The processing steps on this path are shaded.
Fast TPDU Processing (2)
(a) TCP header. (b) IP header. In both cases, the shaded fields
are taken from the prototype without change.
Protocols for High-Speed Networks (1)
A timing wheel
Protocols for High-Speed Networks (2)
Time to transfer and acknowledge a
1-megabit file over a 4000-km line
Delay Tolerant Networking
• DTN Architecture
• The Bundle Protocol
DTN Architecture (1)
Delay-tolerant networking architecture
DTN Architecture (2)
Use of a DTN in space.
The Bundle Protocol (1)
Delay-tolerant networking protocol stack.
The Bundle Protocol (2)
Bundle protocol message format.
End
Chapter 6