INTRODUCTION TODATABASE

SYSTEMS
 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
• From the earliest days of computers, storing and manipulating
data have been a major application focus.
• The first general-purpose DBMS was designed by Charles
Bachmanat in the early 1960s and was called the
Integrated Data Store.
• It formed the basis for the network data model
• In the late 1960s, IBM developed the Information
Management System (IMS) DBMS, used even today in many
major installations.
• IMS formed the basis for an alternative data representation
framework called the hierarchical data model

• In 1970, Edgar Codd, at IBM’s Laboratory, proposed a new

data representation framework called the relational data
model
• In the 1980s, the relational model became a
dominant DBMS paradigm, and database
systems continued to gain widespread use.
• The SQL query language for relational databases,
developed as part of IBM’s System R project,
is now the standard query language.
• SQL was standardized in the late 1980s, and the
current standard was adopted by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI)and
International Standards Organization (ISO)
• In the late 1980s and the 1990s, advances
have been made in many areas of database
systems.
• DBMS s have entered the Internet Age.
• While the first generation of Web sites stored
their data exclusively in operating systems
files, the use of a DBMS to store data that is
accessed through a Web browser is becoming
widespread.
• Queries are generated through Web
accessible forms and answers are formatted
using a markup language such as HTML, in
order to be easily displayed in a browser
• Commercially, database management systems
represent one of the largest and
most vigorous market segments.
 File systems Versus DBMS
• Definition
• File System: A collection of files managed by
the operating system for storing and retrieving
data.
• DBMS: A software system that provides an
efficient, reliable, and secure way to store,
retrieve, and manage data.
• 1. Data Redundancy & Inconsistency
• File System: Redundant data may be stored in
multiple files, leading to inconsistency when
updates are not synchronized.
• DBMS: Uses normalization and constraints to
minimize redundancy and maintain
consistency.
• 2. Data Independence
• File System: Data and application programs
are tightly coupled, making changes difficult.
• DBMS: Provides logical and physical data
independence, allowing changes without
affecting applications.
• 3. Data Integrity & Security
• File System: Integrity constraints (like unique
values or foreign keys) must be enforced by
the application, which is error-prone.
• DBMS: Provides built-in integrity constraints
and security mechanisms like authentication
and authorization.
• 4. Concurrency Control
• File System: Concurrency control is limited;
concurrent access can lead to data
inconsistencies.
• DBMS: Supports ACID (Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties
to ensure safe concurrent access.
• 5. Backup & Recovery
• File System: Backup and recovery mechanisms
are manual and limited.
• DBMS: Provides automatic recovery
mechanisms using logs, checkpoints, and
rollback operations.
• 6. Querying & Performance Optimization
• File System: Querying requires writing custom
programs to retrieve and manipulate data.
• DBMS: Provides powerful query languages like
SQL, along with indexing and optimization
techniques.
• 7. Scalability & Multi-User Support
• File System: Does not efficiently support multiple users
and large-scale applications.
• DBMS: Designed for multi-user environments with
efficient locking and transaction management.
• Conclusion
• File systems are suitable for simple data storage where
advanced features are not needed.
• A DBMS is essential for complex, large-scale
applications requiring consistency, integrity, security,
and efficient querying.
 Levels of Abstraction in a DBMS
• Levels
• The data in a DBMS is described at three levels
of abstraction
• the conceptual ,physical, and
external schemas of Abstraction in a DBMS
• A data definition language (DDL) is used to
define the external and conceptual schemas
• External Schema
• External schemas, which usually are also in terms of the
data model of the DBMS, allow data access to be
customized at the level of individual users .
• Any given database has exactly one conceptual schema and
one physical schema because it has just one set of stored
relations, but it may have several external schemas, each
tailored to a particular group of users.
• Each external schema consists of a collection of one or
more views
• A view is conceptually a relation, but the records in a view
are not stored in the DBMS
• Conceptual Schema
• The conceptual schema(sometimes called the logical
schema)describes the stored data in terms of the data
model of the DBMS.
• In a relational DBMS, the conceptual schema describes
all relations that are stored in the database.
• Ex:Universitydatabase
• The process of arriving at good conceptual schema is
called conceptual database design
• Physical Schema
• The physical schema specifies
additional storage details. Essentially, the
physical schema summarizes how the
relations described in the conceptual schema
are actually stored on secondary storage
devices such as disks and
• The process of arriving at a good physical
schema is called physical database design
 Data Independence

• A very important advantage of using a DBMS is

that it offers data independence
• That is, application programs are insulated from
changes in the way the data is structured and
stored.
• Data independence is achieved through use
of the three levels of data abstraction; in
particular, the conceptual schema and the
external schema provide distinct benefits in this
area
• Users can be shielded from changes in the
logical structure of the data. This property is
called logical data independence
• The conceptual schema hides details such as
how the data is actually laid out on disk, the
file structure, and the choice of indexes. This
property is referred to
as physical data independence
STRUCTURE OF A DBMS
• Query optimizer When a user issues a query,
the query is presented to a query optimizer
which uses information about how the data is
stored to produce an efficient execution plan
for evaluating the query
• Execution plan- it is a blueprint for evaluating
a query, and is usually represented as a tree of
relational operators
• Access methodslayer. The code that
implements relational operators sits on top of
the file and access methods layer.
• This layer includes a variety of software for
supporting the concept of a file
• This layer typically supports a heap file, or
file of unordered pages, as well as indexes.
• Buffer manager brings pages in from disk to
main memory as needed in response to read
requests
• Disk space manager it is the lowest layer of the
DBMS software which deals with management of
space on disk, where the data is stored.
• Higher layers allocate, deallocate, read, and
write pages this layer
• Transaction manager DBMS components associated
with concurrency control and recovery include
the transaction manager which ensures that
transactions request and executions are done properly

• Lock manager which keeps track of requests for locks

and grants locks on database objects when they
become available;

• Recovery manager which is responsible for

maintaining a log, and restoring the system to a
consistent state after a crash.
• The disk space manager, buffer manager,and
file and access method layers must interact
with these components.
• Parser:to refining the structure of your data to
adhere to a specific data storage format
• optimizer is a critical database management
system (DBMS) component that analyzes
Structured Query Language (SQL) queries and
determines efficient execution mechanisms.