** Chapter 5 – Learning (Class 11

Psychology)
1. Introduction
• Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
behavioural potential that occurs as a result of experience or practice.
• It is not due to maturation, fatigue, illness, or temporary states; it is
experience-based.
• Learning can be direct (through one’s own experience) or indirect
(through observing others).
• It includes changes in knowledge, attitudes, habits, skills, emotional
reactions, etc.
• All organisms—from humans to small animals—show learning to adapt
and survive.

2. Nature of Learning
2.1 Features of Learning
• Learning is a process → It unfolds gradually through practice and
feedback.
• Learning brings change → The change may be positive or negative.
• Learning is relatively permanent → Learned behaviour lasts longer than
temporary reactions.
• Learning is goal-directed → People learn to fulfil needs, achieve goals, or
solve problems.
• Learning occurs everywhere → Classroom, home, playground, society,
media, etc.
• Learning involves interaction with environment → Experiences form
associations and understanding.
3. Paradigms of Learning (Major Approaches)
1. Classical Conditioning – Learning by association between stimuli.
2. Instrumental/Operant Conditioning – Learning through consequences
(reward/punishment).
3. Observational Learning – Learning by watching others’ behaviour and
outcomes.
4. Cognitive Learning – Learning through thinking, reasoning, problem
solving.
5. Verbal Learning – Learning material in the form of words, numbers,
pairs, lists.
6. Skill Learning – Learning motor/psychomotor skills through practice.

4. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Classical conditioning = Learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes capable
of eliciting a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
4.1 Key Terms
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – Naturally produces a response without
learning
Example: Food.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Natural response to UCS
Example: Salivation on seeing food.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Previously neutral stimulus that acquires
ability to produce response
Example: Bell.
• Conditioned Response (CR) – Learned response to CS
Example: Salivation to bell sound.
4.2 Classical Conditioning Process
• Pairing CS + UCS repeatedly → CS becomes associated with UCS → CS
alone elicits CR.
 • Learning occurs through stimulus substitution (CS substitutes UCS).
4.3 S-S Learning (Stimulus–Stimulus)
• Classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli (CS and
UCS), not between stimulus and response.
4.4 Determinants of Classical Conditioning
1) Simultaneous Conditioning
• CS and UCS occur at the same time.
• Learning strength: Moderate, weaker than delayed conditioning.
2) Delayed Conditioning (Most effective)
• CS occurs first, UCS presented slightly later, with overlap.
• Best timing for strong learning.
3) Trace Conditioning
• CS presented and ends, then after a short gap UCS appears.
• Requires memory trace of CS → learning possible but weaker.
4) Backward Conditioning
• UCS presented before CS.
• Learning is very weak or does not occur.
5) Appetitive vs. Aversive Conditioning
• Appetitive → UCS is pleasant (food).
• Aversive → UCS is unpleasant (shock, loud noise).
• Aversive conditioning produces fast and strong learning.

5. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning (Skinner)

Operant conditioning = learning in which behaviour is strengthened or
weakened depending on its consequences.
5.1 Skinner’s Theory
• Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement (reward) and punishment.
 • Organisms operate on environment → consequences control future
behaviour.
• Key idea: “Reinforcement increases behaviour.”
5.2 Skinner Box
• Experimental apparatus containing:
o Lever/Key
o Food dispenser
o Light/Sound signals
• Used to study how animals learn responses (pressing lever) through
reinforcement.
5.3 Determinants of Operant Conditioning
1. Reinforcers
• Anything that increases the likelihood of behaviour.
Types of Reinforcement
1. Positive Reinforcement
o Reward is presented → behaviour increases.
Example: Child gets chocolate for doing homework.
2. Negative Reinforcement
o Unpleasant stimulus removed → behaviour increases.
Example: Seatbelt removes beeping sound.
Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers
• Primary → biological needs (food, water).
• Secondary → learned reinforcers (praise, money, grades).
2. Number of Reinforcement
• More reinforcement → stronger and faster learning.
3. Delayed Reinforcement
• Reinforcement given after time gap.
 • Weakens learning but can still work if child understands connection.
4. Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement patterns produce different learning strengths:
1. Continuous Reinforcement
o Reinforcement after every response.
o Fast learning but fast extinction.
2. Partial Reinforcement
o Reinforcement sometimes.
o Slow learning but high resistance to extinction.
Types of partial schedules:
• Fixed Ratio (FR) – After set number of responses.
• Variable Ratio (VR) – After unpredictable number (most powerful).
• Fixed Interval (FI) – After fixed time.
• Variable Interval (VI) – After unpredictable time.
5.4 Key Learning Processes
1. Resistance to Extinction
• Behaviour continues even after reinforcement stops.
2. Generalisation
• Same response occurs to similar stimuli.
3. Discrimination
• Response only to specific stimulus, not similar ones.
4. Spontaneous Recovery
• Reappearance of extinguished response after a rest period.

6. Observational Learning (Bandura)

6.1 Key Concepts
 • Learners acquire behaviour by watching others.
1. Imitation
• Copying actions, gestures, expressions.
2. Modelling
• The process of observing and learning from a model (parent, teacher,
celebrity).
3. Social Learning
• Learning occurs in a social setting through examples, consequences, and
reinforcement.
Bandura's idea → “Learning occurs even without direct reinforcement.”

7. Cognitive Learning
7.1 Insight Learning (Kohler)
• Sudden realization of solution.
• Involves restructuring the problem.
• Learning is cognitive, not trial-and-error.
7.2 Latent Learning (Tolman)
• Learning occurs without reinforcement but is shown when needed.
• Hidden learning.
7.3 Cognitive Maps
• Mental representations of spatial/route information.
• Help organism navigate environment.

8. Verbal Learning
8.1 Methods Used in Studying Verbal Learning
1. Paired Associate Learning
• Learning paired items: e.g., word–word, word–number.
 • Used in vocabulary learning.
2. Serial Learning
• Learning items in a fixed order (days of week, poem lines).
• Involves anticipation method (serial anticipation method):
Learner recalls next item when first item is shown.
3. Free Recall
• Learning list of items without maintaining sequence.
• Items recalled in any order.
8.2 Determinants of Verbal Learning
Category Clustering
• Items grouped into categories.
• Improves memory by organising information meaningfully.

9. Skill Learning
9.1 Nature of Skills
• Goal-oriented motor or cognitive behaviour.
• Require practice.
• Can become automatic with repetition.
9.2 Phases of Skill Learning
1. Cognitive Phase
• Understanding what to do.
• Learner uses verbal instructions and mental representation.
2. Associative Phase
• Refinement, fewer errors, more coordination.
• Practice improves performance.
3. Autonomous Phase
• Skill becomes automatic.
 • Less attention needed → more consistency and speed.
Attention & Automaticity
• Early stages require high attention.
• Advanced stages become automatic.

10. Factors Facilitating Learning

1. Motivation
• Internal drive enhances learning.
• Intrinsic (interest) and extrinsic (reward).
2. Preparedness for Learning
• Readiness of learner → mental, physical, emotional.
• Influences speed and quality of learning.
3. Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement Effect
• Continuous → rapid learning, rapid extinction.
• Partial → slow learning, strong persistence.

11. Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities = Problems in acquiring basic academic skills despite
normal intelligence.
Symptoms (8 Key Points)
• Difficulty in reading, slow reading speed.
• Trouble in writing, spelling mistakes.
• Difficulty in mathematical operations.
• Problems in comprehension.
• Difficulty in following instructions.
• Poor coordination or motor skills in writing.
• Attention and concentration problems.
 • Dyslexia specifically – difficulty in reading accuracy, fluency, and word
recognition.

12. Key Terms / Summary

• Learning = Permanent change through experience.
• Classical conditioning = S-S association learning.
• Operant conditioning = B-C learning (behaviour–consequence).
• Reinforcement strengthens behaviour.
• Insight and latent learning emphasize cognitive processes.
• Observational learning = learning by watching models.
• Verbal learning deals with memorising words, lists, pairs.
• Skills develop through cognitive → associative → autonomous phases.

13. Box 5.1 – Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Learning by association between Learning through consequences of

stimuli. behaviour.

Involuntary responses. Voluntary responses.

Stimulus presented before response. Consequence follows response.

Passive learner. Active learner.

Pavlov. Skinner.

14. Box 5.2 – Learned Helplessness

• Discovered by Seligman.
• When repeated failures occur, learner believes “I cannot change the
outcome.”
• Leads to passivity, low motivation, depression-like behaviour.
• Seen in students who repeatedly fail and stop trying.